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81-505: Coppicing / ˈ k ɒ p ɪ s ɪ ŋ / is the traditional method in woodland management of cutting down a tree to a stump , which in many species encourages new shoots to grow from the stump or roots, thus ultimately regrowing the tree. A forest or grove that has been subject to coppicing is called a copse / k ɒ p s / or coppice , in which young tree stems are repeatedly cut down to near ground level. The resulting living stumps are called stools . New growth emerges, and after

162-590: A Grand Fir plantation in Scotland has a growth rate of 34 cubic meters per hectare per year, and Monterey Pine plantations in southern Australia can yield up to 40 cubic meters per hectare per year. In 2000, while plantations accounted for 5% of global forest, it is estimated that they supplied about 35% of the world's roundwood. Silviculture is the practice of controlling the growth, composition/structure, as well as quality of forests to meet values and needs, specifically timber production. The name comes from

243-532: A protection forest against an avalanche) is not the sole management objective of the woodland. In the 16th and 17th centuries, the technology of charcoal iron production became widely established in England, continuing in some areas until the late 19th century Along with the growing need for oak bark for tanning , this required large amounts of coppice wood. With this coppice management, wood could be provided for those growing industries in principle indefinitely. This

324-466: A construction material was gradually replaced by newer materials. Coppicing died out first in the north of Britain and steadily contracted toward the south-east until by the 1960s active commercial coppice was heavily concentrated in Kent and Sussex. The shoots (or suckers ) may be used either in their young state for interweaving in wattle fencing (as is the practice with coppiced willows and hazel ), or

405-456: A crucial role in forest management by utilizing climate modeling to project future climate scenarios . These models help scientists understand potential changes in temperature, precipitation patterns, and extreme weather events, enabling them to assess the impact of these changes on forest ecosystems. By predicting climate trends, researchers can develop more effective strategies for forest management and conservation. The term forestation

486-431: A high-forest structure. Coppice and pollard growth is a response of the tree to damage, and can occur naturally. Trees may be browsed or broken by large herbivorous animals , such as cattle or elephants , felled by beavers or blown over by the wind . Some trees, such as linden , may produce a line of coppice shoots from a fallen trunk, and sometimes these develop into a line of mature trees. For some trees, such as

567-702: A highly intensive regime with silvicultural interventions. Forest Management is generally increased in intensity to achieve either economic criteria (increased timber yields, non-timber forest products , ecosystem services ) or ecological criteria (species recovery, fostering of rare species, carbon sequestration). Most of the forests in Europe have management plans; on the other hand, management plans exist for less than 25 percent of forests in Africa and less than 20 percent in South America. The area of forest under management plans

648-454: A landscape-scale industry is something that remains of special importance in southern England. Many of the English language terms referenced in this article are particularly relevant to historic and contemporary practice in that area. Typically a coppiced woodland is harvested in sections or coups on a rotation. In this way, a crop is available each year somewhere in the woodland. Coppicing has

729-568: A living wholly or partly by working coppices in the area today, at places such as at the Weald and Downland Living Museum . Coppices provided wood for many purposes, especially charcoal before coal was economically significant in metal smelting . A minority of these woods are still operated for coppice today, often by conservation organisations , producing material for hurdle -making, thatching spars, local charcoal-burning or other crafts. The only remaining large-scale commercial coppice crop in England

810-576: A lower effect in greenhouse gas emissions for energy production than alternatives. Woodland management Many tools like remote sensing, GIS and photogrammetry modelling have been developed to improve forest inventory and management planning. Scientific research plays a crucial role in helping forest management. For example, climate modeling , biodiversity research, carbon sequestration research, GIS applications, and long-term monitoring help assess and improve forest management, ensuring its effectiveness and success. The forest

891-557: A market price. Timber is the main one, with prices that range from a few hundred dollars per thousand board feet (MBF) to several thousand dollars for a veneer log. Others include grazing and fodder, specialty crops such as mushrooms or berries, usage fees for recreation or hunting, and biomass for bioenergy production. Forests also provide some non-market values which have no current market price. Examples of non-market goods would be improving water quality, air quality, aesthetics, and carbon sequestration . The working of this system

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972-501: A number of years, the coppiced trees are harvested, and the cycle begins anew. Pollarding is a similar process carried out at a higher level on the tree in order to prevent grazing animals from eating new shoots. Daisugi (台杉, where sugi refers to Japanese cedar ), is a similar Japanese technique. Many silviculture practices involve cutting and regrowth; coppicing has been of significance in many parts of lowland temperate Europe. The widespread and long-term practice of coppicing as

1053-1141: A result of the progression of environmental awareness, management of forests for multiple use is becoming more common. Forests provide a variety of ecosystem services : cleaning the air, accumulating carbon, filtering water, and reducing flooding and erosion. Forests are the most biodiverse land-based ecosystem, and provide habitat for a vast array of animals, birds, plants and other life. They can provide food and material and also opportunities for recreation and education. Research has found that forest plantations “may result in reduced diversity and abundance of pollinators compared with natural forests that have greater structural and plant species diversity.” Foresters develop and implement forest management plans relying on mapped resources, inventories showing an area's topographical features as well as its distribution of trees (by species) and other plant covers. Plans also include landowner objectives, roads, culverts , proximity to human habitation, water features and hydrological conditions, and soil information. Forest management plans typically include recommended silvicultural treatments and

1134-517: A set of disadvantages, for example biodiversity loss . Lastly, there is also the problem that stored carbon is released at some point. The effects of reforestation will be farther in the future than those of proforestation (the conservation of intact forests). Instead of planting entirely new areas, it might be better to reconnect forested areas and restore the edges of forest. This protects their mature core and makes them more resilient and longer-lasting. It takes much longer − several decades − for

1215-404: A sufficient period, and actions are taken to restore the original plant communities. Management to reduce deer populations has a three-method approach: (1) large areas of contiguous old forest with closed canopies are set aside, (2) predator populations are increased, and (3) hunting of the overabundant herbivore is increased. Encouragement of tree recovery by promoting seed sources of native trees

1296-480: A timetable for their implementation. Application of digital maps in Geographic Information systems (GIS) that extracts and integrates different information about forest terrains, soil type and tree covers, etc. using, e.g. laser scanning enhances forest management plans in modern systems. Forest management plans include recommendations to achieve the landowner's objectives and desired future conditions for

1377-549: A tri-annual cut can happen. This seems to maximize the production volume from the stand. Such frequent growth means the soils can be easily depleted and so fertilizers are often required. The stock also becomes exhausted after some years and so will be replaced with new plants. The method of harvesting of energy wood can be mechanized by adaptation of specialized agricultural machinery. Species and cultivars vary in when they should be cut, regeneration times and other factors. However, full life cycle analysis has shown that poplars have

1458-630: Is sweet chestnut which is grown in parts of Sussex and Kent . Much of this was established as plantations in the 19th century for hop-pole production (hop-poles are used to support the hop plant while growing hops ) and is nowadays cut on a 12 to 18-year cycle for splitting and binding into cleft chestnut paling fence , or on a 20- to 35-year cycle for cleft post-and-rail fencing, or for sawing into small lengths to be finger-jointed for architectural use. Other material goes to make farm fencing and to be chipped for modern wood-fired heating systems. In northwest England , coppice-with-standards has been

1539-475: Is a land use management system that integrates trees with crops or pasture . It combines agricultural and forestry technologies. As a polyculture system, an agroforestry system can produce timber and wood products, fruits , nuts , other edible plant products, edible mushrooms , medicinal plants , ornamental plants , animals and animal products , and other products from both domesticated and wild species. Browsing (herbivory) Browsing

1620-461: Is a danger of permanent depletion of the supply. Animals in captivity may be fed browse as a replacement for their wild food sources; in the case of pandas, the browse may consist of bunches of banana leaves, bamboo shoots, slender pine, spruce, fir and willow branches, straw and native grasses. If the population of browsers grows too high, all of the browse that they can reach may be devoured. The resulting level below which few or no leaves are found

1701-479: Is a habitat of relatively low biodiversity —it does not support the open-woodland species, but neither does it support many of the characteristic species of high forest , because it lacks many high-forest features such as substantial dead-wood, clearings and stems of varied ages. Suitable conservation management of these abandoned coppices may be to restart coppice management, or in some cases it may be more appropriate to use singling and selective clearance to establish

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1782-563: Is a major factor that determines climax forest composition, global climate change may result in changing restoration aims. Additionally, the potential impacts of climate change on restoration goals must be taken into account, as changes in temperature and precipitation patterns may alter the composition and distribution of climax forests. Forest restoration is a specialized form of reforestation , but it differs from conventional tree plantations in that its primary goals are biodiversity recovery and environmental protection . Afforestation

1863-463: Is a natural system that can supply different products and services. Forests supply water, mitigate climate change , provide habitats for wildlife including many pollinators which are essential for sustainable food production, provide timber and fuelwood, serve as a source of non-wood forest products including food and medicine, and contribute to rural livelihoods. Forests include market and non-market products. Marketable products include goods that have

1944-622: Is a type of herbivory in which a herbivore (or, more narrowly defined, a folivore ) feeds on leaves, soft shoots , or fruits of high-growing, generally woody plants such as shrubs . This is contrasted with grazing , usually associated with animals feeding on grass or other lower vegetations. Alternatively, grazers are animals eating mainly grass, and browsers are animals eating mainly non-grasses, which include both woody and herbaceous dicots . In either case, an example of this dichotomy are goats (which are primarily browsers) and sheep (which are primarily grazers). The plant material eaten

2025-465: Is about 20 years of current global carbon emissions. This level of sequestration would represent about 25% of the atmosphere's current carbon pool. However, there has been debate about whether afforestation is beneficial for the sustainable use of natural resources, with some researchers pointing out that tree planting is not the only way to enhance climate mitigation and CO 2 capture. Non-forest areas, such as grasslands and savannas , also benefit

2106-535: Is always another recently cut coup nearby, and the populations therefore move around, following the coppice management. However, most British coppices have not been managed in this way for many decades. The coppice stems have grown tall (the coppice is said to be overstood ), forming a heavily shaded woodland of many closely spaced stems with little ground vegetation. The open-woodland animals survive in small numbers along woodland rides or not at all, and many of these once-common species have become rare. Overstood coppice

2187-493: Is an important aspect of managing recovery from overbrowsing. Refugia in the form of windthrow mounds, rocky outcrops, or horizontal logs elevated above the forest floor can provide plants with substrate protected from browsing by cervids. These refugia can contain a proportion of the plant community that would exist without browsing pressure, and may differ significantly from the flora found in nearby browsed areas. If management efforts were to reduce cervid populations in

2268-470: Is increasing in all regions – globally, it has increased by 233 million ha since 2000, reaching 2.05 billion ha in 2020. Long-term monitoring studies are conducted to track forest dynamics over extended periods. These studies involve monitoring factors such as tree growth, mortality rates, and species composition. By observing forest changes over time, scientists can assess the health of forests and their responses to environmental shifts. Long-term monitoring

2349-505: Is influenced by the natural environment: climate, topography, soil, etc., and also by human activity. The actions of humans in forests constitute forest management. In developed societies, this management tends to be elaborated and planned in order to achieve the objectives that are considered desirable. Some forests have been and are managed to obtain traditional forest products such as firewood, fiber for paper, and timber, with little thinking for other products and services. Nevertheless, as

2430-594: Is invaluable for informing sustainable forest management practices. Scientific research employs remote sensing technologies and geographic information systems (GIS) to monitor changes in forest cover, deforestation rates, and forest health over time. These tools provide valuable data for forest assessments and support evidence-based decision making in forest management and conservation. By remotely monitoring forest changes, scientists can respond more effectively to threats and challenges facing forests. Researchers conduct biodiversity assessments to gain insights into

2511-497: Is known as browse and is in nature taken directly from the plant, though owners of livestock such as goats and deer may cut twigs or branches for feeding to their stock. In temperate regions, owners take browse before leaf fall, then dry and store it as a winter feed supplement. In time of drought, herdsmen may cut branches from beyond the reach of their stock, as forage at ground level. In the tropical regions, where population pressure leads owners to resort to this more often, there

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2592-469: Is known as the browse line . If over-browsing continues for too long, the ability of the ecosystem's trees to reproduce may be impaired, as young plants cannot survive long enough to grow too tall for browsers to reach. Overbrowsing occurs when overpopulated or densely-concentrated herbivores exert extreme pressure on plants, reducing the carrying capacity and altering the ecological functions of their habitat. Examples of overbrowsing herbivores around

2673-403: Is protected for biodiversity and landscape protection. Forests allocated for soil, water, and other ecosystem services encompass around 72 million hectares (32% of European forest area). Over 90% of the world's forests regenerate organically, and more than half are covered by forest management plans or equivalents. Forest management varies in intensity from a leave alone, natural situation to

2754-426: Is sometimes used as an umbrella term to include afforestation and reforestation . Both of those are processes for establishing and nurturing forests on lands that either previously had forest cover or were subjected to deforestation or degradation. Tree breeding is the application of genetic, reproductive biology and economics principles to the genetic improvement and management of forest trees. In contrast to

2835-410: Is the establishment of a forest or stand of trees in an area where there was no recent tree cover. There are three types of afforestation: natural regeneration , agroforestry and tree plantations . Afforestation has many benefits. In the context of climate change , afforestation can be helpful for climate change mitigation through the route of carbon sequestration . Afforestation can also improve

2916-401: Is the systematic collection of data and forest information for assessment or analysis. An estimate of the value and possible uses of timber is an important part of the broader information required to sustain ecosystems . When taking forest inventory the following are important things to measure and note: species, diameter at breast height (DBH), height, site quality , age, and defects. From

2997-401: Is to establish tree plantations , also called plantation forests. They cover about 131 million ha worldwide, which is 3% of the global forest area and 45% of the total area of planted forests. Globally, planted forests increased from 4.1% to 7.0% of the total forest area between 1990 and 2015. Plantation forests made up 280 million ha ( hectare ) in 2015, an increase of about 40 million ha in

3078-460: The carbon sequestration benefits of reforestation to become similar to those from mature trees in tropical forests . Therefore, reducing deforestation is usually more beneficial for climate change mitigation than is reforestation. Forest restoration is defined as "actions to re-instate ecological processes, which accelerate recovery of forest structure, ecological functioning and biodiversity levels towards those typical of climax forest ", i.e.

3159-459: The common beech ( Fagus sylvatica ), coppicing is more or less easy depending on the altitude: it is much more efficient for trees in the montane zone . Coppicing of willow , alder and poplar for energy wood has proven commercially successful. The Willow Biomass Project in the United States is an example of this. In this case the coppicing is done in a way that an annual or more likely

3240-579: The invading species . In other cases, populations of herbivores exceed historic levels due to reduced hunting or predation pressure. For example, carnivores declined in North America throughout the 19th century and hunting regulations became stricter, contributing to increased cervid populations across North America. Also, landscape changes due to human development, such as in agriculture and forestry, can produce fragmented forest patches between which deer travel, browsing in early successional habitat at

3321-452: The Latin silvi- ('forest') and culture ('growing'). The study of forests and woods is termed silvology . Silviculture also focuses on making sure that the treatment(s) of forest stands are used to conserve and improve their productivity. Bamboo forestry (also known as bamboo farming, cultivation, agriculture or agroforestry) is a cultivation and raw material industry that provides

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3402-459: The U.S. Fiber corporation Resource Fiber is contracting farmers in the United States for bamboo cultivation. Or in 2009, United Nations Industrial Development Organization published guidelines for cultivation of bamboo in semi-arid climates in Ethiopia and Kenya. Because bamboo can grow on otherwise marginal land , bamboo can be profitably cultivated in many degraded lands. Moreover, because of

3483-531: The apex of a singular stem. This means that a deer may eat all the reproductive and photosynthetic tissues at once, reducing the plant's height, photosynthetic capabilities, and reproductive output. This is one example of how overbrowsing can lead to the loss of reproductive individuals in a population, and a lack of recruitment of young plants. Plants also differ in their palatability to herbivores. At high densities of herbivores, plants that are highly selected as browse may be missing small and large individuals from

3564-1241: The availability of leaves for photosynthesis and flowers for pollination. Overbrowsing can lead to a decrease in seed production, hinder the recruitment of new individuals and alter the genetic diversity of plant population. Overbrowsing can change near-ground forest structure, plant species composition , vegetation density, and leaf litter , with consequences for other forest-dwelling animals. Many species of ground-dwelling invertebrates rely on near-ground vegetation cover and leaf litter layers for habitat; these invertebrates may be lost from areas with intense browsing. Further, preferential selection of certain plant species by herbivores can impact invertebrates closely associated with those plants. Migratory forest-dwelling songbirds depend on dense understory vegetation for nesting and foraging habitat; reductions in understory plant biomass caused by deer can lead to declines in forest songbird populations. Finally, loss of understory plant diversity associated with ungulate overbrowsing can impact small mammals that rely on this vegetation for cover and food. Overbrowsing can lead plant communities towards equilibrium states which are only reversible if herbivore numbers are greatly reduced for

3645-571: The biosphere and humanity, and they need a different management strategy - they are not supposed to be forests. Afforestation critics argue that ecosystems without trees are not necessarily degraded, and many of them can store carbon as they are; for example, savannas and tundra store carbon underground. Carbon sequestration estimates in these areas often do not include the total amount of carbon reductions in soils and slowing tree growth over time. Afforestation can also negatively affect biodiversity by increasing fragmentation and edge effects on

3726-587: The boundaries between afforestation and reforestation projects can be blurred as it may not be so clear what was there before, at what point in time. An essential aspect of successful afforestation efforts lies in the careful selection of tree species that are well-suited to the local climate and soil conditions. By choosing appropriate species, afforested areas can better withstand the impacts of climate change. Earth offers enough room to plant an additional 0.9 billion ha of tree canopy cover. Planting and protecting them would sequester 205 billion tons of carbon which

3807-561: The case of timber species, volumic wood production and stem straightness. Forest genetic resources are the basis for genetic alteration. Selected individuals grown in seed orchards are a good source for seeds to develop adequate planting material. Wood production on a tree plantation is generally higher than that of natural forests. While forests managed for wood production commonly yield between 1 and 3 cubic meters per hectare per year, plantations of fast-growing species commonly yield between 20 and 30 cubic meters or more per hectare annually;

3888-508: The competing stems grow out from the stool in the early stages of the cycle, then up toward the sky as the canopy closes. The curve may allow the identification of coppice timber in archaeological sites. Timber in the Sweet Track in Somerset (built in the winter of 3807 and 3806 BCE ) has been identified as coppiced Tilia species. Originally, the silvicultural system now called coppicing

3969-509: The data collected one can calculate the number of trees per acre, the basal area , the volume of trees in an area, and the value of the timber. Inventories can be done for other reasons than just calculating the value. A forest can be cruised to visually assess timber and determine potential fire hazards and the risk of fire. The results of this type of inventory can be used in preventive actions and also awareness. Wildlife surveys can be undertaken in conjunction with timber inventory to determine

4050-750: The differential palatability of plants to the overabundant herbivore, as well as the variable ability of plants to tolerate high levels of browsing. The heights of plants preferred by herbivores can give indications of the local and regional herbivore density. Compositional and structural changes in forest vegetation can have cascading effects on the entire ecosystem , including impacts on soil quality and stability, micro- and macro- invertebrates , small mammals, songbirds, and perhaps even large predators. There are several causes of overabundant herbivores and subsequent overbrowsing. Herbivores are introduced to landscapes in which native plants have not evolved to withstand browsing, and predators have not adapted to hunt

4131-413: The diversity and distribution of plant and animal species in various forest ecosystems. These studies are essential for identifying areas of high conservation value and understanding the ecological importance of different habitats. By studying biodiversity patterns, scientists can recommend targeted approaches to forest management that protect and promote the richness of forest life. Research explores

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4212-643: The ecosystem; for example, machinery used in a timber harvest can compact the soil, stress the root system, reduce tree growth, lengthen the time needed for a stand to mature to harvestability. Machinery can also damage the understory , disturbing wildlife habitat and prevent regeneration. Energy forestry is a form of forestry in which a fast-growing species of tree or woody shrub is grown specifically to provide biomass or biofuel for heating or power generation. The two forms of energy forestry are short rotation coppice and short rotation forestry : Agroforestry (also known as agro-sylviculture or forest farming)

4293-479: The effect of providing a rich variety of habitats, as the woodland always has a range of different-aged coppice growing in it, which is beneficial for biodiversity . The cycle length depends upon the species cut, the local custom, and the use of the product. Birch can be coppiced for faggots on a three- or four-year cycle, whereas oak can be coppiced over a fifty-year cycle for poles or firewood . Trees being coppiced do not die of old age as coppicing maintains

4374-434: The end-stage of natural forest succession . Climax forests are relatively stable ecosystems that have developed the maximum biomass, structural complexity and species diversity that are possible within the limits imposed by climate and soil and without continued disturbance from humans (more explanation here) . Climax forest is therefore the target ecosystem, which defines the ultimate aim of forest restoration. Since climate

4455-459: The environmental implications, of those management practices. The more biodiverse the hardwood-forest ecosystem, the more challenges and opportunities its managers face. Managers aim for sustainable forest management to keep their cash crop renewing itself, using silvicultural practices that include growing, selling, controlling insects and most diseases, providing manure, applying herbicide treatments, and thinning. But management can also harm

4536-496: The habitat outside the planted area. Industrial plantations are actively managed for the commercial production of forest products. Industrial plantations are usually large-scale. Individual blocks are usually even-aged and often consist of just one or two species. These species can be exotic or indigenous. The plants used for the plantation are often genetically altered for desired traits such as growth and resistance to pests and diseases in general and specific traits, for example in

4617-499: The larger bamboos, particularly species in the genus Phyllostachys , are known as "timber bamboos". Bamboo is typically harvested as a source material for construction, food, crafts and other manufactured goods. Hardwood timber production is the process of managing stands of deciduous trees to maximize woody output. The production process is not linear because other factors must be considered, including marketable and non-marketable goods, financial benefits, management practices, and

4698-461: The local climate through increased rainfall and by being a barrier against high winds. The additional trees can also prevent or reduce topsoil erosion (from water and wind), floods and landslides. Finally, additional trees can be a habitat for wildlife, and provide employment and wood products. In comparison, reforestation means re-establishing forest that have either been cut down or lost due to natural causes, such as fire, storm, etc. Nowadays,

4779-769: The lower-cost but slower and less reliable distribution of tree seeds . Trees contribute to their environment over long periods of time by improving air quality, climate amelioration, conserving water, preserving soil, and supporting wildlife. During the process of photosynthesis, trees take in carbon dioxide and produce oxygen . Reforestation is the practice of restoring previously existing forests and woodlands that have been destroyed or damaged. The prior forest destruction might have happened through deforestation , clearcutting or wildfires . Three important purposes of reforestation programs are for harvesting of wood , for climate change mitigation , and for ecosystem and habitat restoration purposes. One method of reforestation

4860-518: The martial art Canne de combat (also known as Bâton français ). Some Eucalyptus species are coppiced in a number of countries, including Australia, North America, Uganda, and Sudan. The Sal tree is coppiced in India, and the Moringa oleifera tree is coppiced in many countries, including India. Sometimes former coppice is converted to high-forest woodland by the practice of singling. All but one of

4941-414: The new shoots may be allowed to grow into large poles, as was often the custom with trees such as oaks or ashes . This creates long, straight poles which do not have the bends and forks of naturally grown trees. Coppicing may be practised to encourage specific growth patterns, as with cinnamon trees which are grown for their bark. Another, more complicated system is called compound coppice . Here some of

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5022-498: The norm, the standards often of oak with relatively little simple coppice. After World War II , a great deal was planted up with conifers or became neglected. Coppice-working almost died out, though a few men continued in the woods. Coppice management favours a range of wildlife, often of species adapted to open woodland. After cutting, the increased light allows existing woodland-floor vegetation such as bluebell , anemone and primrose to grow vigorously. Often brambles grow around

5103-449: The number and type of wildlife within a forest. The abundance and diversity of birds, mammals, amphibians and other wildlife are affected by strategies and types of forest management. Forests are important because they provide these species with food, space and water. Forest management is also important as it helps in conservation and utilization of the forest resources. Approximately 50 million hectares (or 24%) of European forest land

5184-457: The periphery. Agricultural fields and young silvicultural stands provide deer with high quality food leading to overabundance and increased browsing pressure on forest understory plants. Overbrowsing impacts plants at individual, population, and community levels. The negative effects of browsing are greater among intolerant species, such as members of the genus Trillium , which have all photosynthetic tissues and reproductive organs at

5265-550: The population. At the community level, intense browsing by deer in forests leads to reductions in the abundance of palatable understory herbaceous shrubs, and increases in graminoid and bryophyte abundance which are released from competition for light. The intensity of browsing pressure often varies depending on the palatability of plant species to herbivores. Some plant species may be heavily browsed due to their high palatability, while others may be avoided or less affected. Browsing can affect plant reproduction by reducing

5346-468: The previous ten years. Of the planted forests worldwide, 18% of that area consists of exotic or introduced species while the rest consist of species native to the country where they are planted. There are limitations and challenges with reforestation projects, especially if they are in the form of tree plantations. Firstly, there can be competition with other land uses and displacement risk. Secondly, tree plantations are often monocultures which comes with

5427-436: The property subject to ecological, financial, logistical (e.g. access to resources), and other constraints. On some properties, plans focus on producing quality wood products for processing or sale. Hence, tree species, quantity, and form, all central to the value of harvested products quality and quantity, tend to be important components of silvicultural plans. Good management plans include consideration of future conditions of

5508-498: The rapid growth, bamboo is an effective climate change mitigation and carbon sequestration crop, absorbing between 100 and 400 tonnes of carbon per hectare (40–160 tonnes per acre). In 1997, an international intergovernmental organization was established to promote the development of bamboo cultivation, the International Bamboo and Rattan Organisation . Bamboo is harvested from both cultivated and wild stands, and some of

5589-458: The raw materials for the broader bamboo industry, worth over 72 billion dollars globally in 2019. Historically a dominant raw material in South and South East Asia, the global bamboo industry has significantly grown in recent decades in part because of the high sustainability of bamboo as compared to other biomass cultivation strategies, such as traditional timber forestry . For example, as of 2016,

5670-557: The regrowing stems are cut, leaving the remaining one to grow as if it were a maiden (uncut) tree. The boundaries of coppice coups were sometimes marked by cutting certain trees as pollards or stubs. In southern Britain , coppice was traditionally hazel , hornbeam , field maple , ash , sweet chestnut , occasionally sallow , elm , small-leafed lime and rarely oak or beech , grown among pedunculate or sessile oak, ash or beech standards. In wet areas alder and willows were used. A small, and growing, number of people make

5751-532: The resulting forest product from any one area. The woodland provides the small material from the coppice as well as a range of larger timber for such uses as house building , bridge repair , cart-making and so on. In the 18th century coppicing in Britain began a long decline. This was brought about by the erosion of its traditional markets. Firewood was no longer needed for domestic or industrial uses as coal and coke became easily obtained and transported, and wood as

5832-423: The selective breeding of livestock, arable crops, and horticultural flowers over the last few centuries, the breeding of trees, with the exception of fruit trees, is a relatively recent occurrence. Tree planting is the process of transplanting tree seedlings , generally for forestry , land reclamation , or landscaping purposes. It differs from the transplantation of larger trees in arboriculture and from

5913-415: The specific impacts of climate change on forest ecosystems , including extreme heat and drought events. Understanding these effects is vital for developing adaptive strategies to mitigate climate change impacts on forests. By recognizing the vulnerabilities of forests to changing climatic conditions, scientists can implement conservation methods that enhance their resilience. Scientific research plays

5994-608: The stand after any recommended harvests treatments, including future treatments (particularly in intermediate stand treatments), and plans for natural or artificial regeneration after final harvests. The objectives of landowners and leaseholders influence plans for harvest and subsequent site treatment. In Britain, plans featuring "good forestry practice" must always consider the needs of other stakeholders such as nearby communities or rural residents living within or adjacent to woodland areas. Foresters consider tree felling and environmental legislation when developing plans. Plans instruct

6075-526: The standards would be left, some harvested. Some of the coppice would be allowed to grow into new standards and some regenerated coppice would be there. Thus there would be three age classes. Coppiced hardwoods were used extensively in carriage and shipbuilding , and they are still sometimes grown for making wooden buildings and furniture. Withies for wicker -work are grown in coppices of various willow species, principally osier . In France, sweet chestnut trees are coppiced for use as canes and bâtons for

6156-464: The stools, encouraging insects, or various small mammals that can use the brambles as protection from larger predators. Woodpiles (if left in the coppice) encourage insects such as beetles to come into an area. The open area is then colonised by many animals such as nightingale , European nightjar and fritillary butterflies . As the coup grows, the canopy closes and it becomes unsuitable for these animals again—but in an actively managed coppice there

6237-438: The sustainable harvesting and replacement of trees. They indicate whether road building or other forest engineering operations are required. Agriculture and forest leaders are also trying to understand how the climate change legislation will affect what they do. The information gathered will provide the data that will determine the role of agriculture and forestry in a new climate change regulatory system. Forest inventory

6318-417: The tree at a juvenile stage, allowing them to reach immense ages. The age of a stool may be estimated from its diameter; some are so large—as much as 5.5 metres (18 ft) across—that they are thought to have been continually coppiced for centuries. Evidence suggests that coppicing has been continuously practised since pre-history. Coppiced stems are characteristically curved at the base. This curve occurs as

6399-518: The world include koalas in Southern Australia, introduced mammals in New Zealand, and cervids in forests of North America and Europe. Moose exclosures (fenced-off areas) are used to determine the ecological impacts of cervids , allowing scientists to compare flora, fauna, and soil in areas inside and outside of exclosures. Changes in plant communities in response to herbivory reflect

6480-849: Was practiced solely for small wood production. In German this is called Niederwald , which translates as low forest. Later on in Mediaeval times, farmers encouraged pigs to feed from acorns, and so some trees were allowed to grow bigger. This different silvicultural system is called in English coppice with standards . In German this is called Mittelwald (middle forest). As modern forestry ( Hochwald in German, which translates as High forest ) seeks to harvest timber mechanically, and pigs are generally no longer fed from acorns, both systems have declined. However, there are cultural and wildlife benefits from these two silvicultural systems, so both can be found where timber production or some other main forestry purpose (such as

6561-433: Was regulated by a statute of 1544 of Henry VIII , which required woods to be enclosed after cutting (to prevent browsing by animals) and 12 standels ( standards or mature uncut trees) to be left in each acre, to be grown into timber. Coppice with standards (scattered individual stems allowed to grow on through several coppice cycles) has been commonly used throughout most of Europe as a means of giving greater flexibility in

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