74-605: The Congo Reform Association ( CRA ) was a political and humanitarian activist group that sought to promote reform of the Congo Free State , a private territory in Central Africa under the absolute sovereignty of King Leopold II. Active from 1904 to 1913, the association formed in opposition to the institutionalised practices of Congo Free State's 'rubber policy', which encouraged the need to minimise expenditure and maximise profit with no political constraints – fostering
148-578: A humanitarian response based on humanitarian principles , particularly the principle of humanity. Nicholas de Torrente, former Executive Director of Médecins Sans Frontières USA writes: "The most important principles of humanitarian action are humanity, neutrality, independence and impartiality, which posits the conviction that all people have equal dignity by virtue of their being human based solely on need, without discrimination among recipients. Humanitarian organizations must refrain from taking part in hostilities or taking actions that advantage one side of
222-640: A decade after (see below for more information): By 1902, 90% of all the land that makes up Africa was under European control. Most of the Sahara was French, but after the quelling of the Mahdi rebellion and the ending of the Fashoda crisis , the Sudan remained firmly under joint British–Egyptian rulership, with Egypt being under British occupation before becoming a British protectorate in 1914. The Boer republics were conquered by
296-512: A humanitarian with paternalistic views towards Africans, Morel favoured indirect rule and the promotion of free trade and commerce to gradually develop African territories and peoples along the same lines as Europe. Morel believed the 'Leopoldian system' was the catalyst for the scale of atrocities in the Congo, and that the state's creation of what was in effect a slave-labour force to fuel Leopold's monopolistic enterprise demonstrated he had broken
370-639: A joint policy on the African continent. The conference opened on 15 November 1884 and closed on 26 February 1885. The number of plenipotentiaries varied per nation, but these 14 countries sent representatives to attend the Berlin Conference and sign the subsequent Berlin Act: Uniquely, the United States reserved the right to decline or to accept the conclusions of the conference. The General Act fixed
444-603: A limited understanding of how a crisis is unfolding. It has been argued that Big Data is constitutive of a social relation in which digital humanitarians claim both the formal humanitarian sector and victims of crises need the services and labor that can be provided by digital humanitarians. Examples of humanitarianism can include: Raising Funds for people in need Berlin Conference The Berlin Conference of 1884–1885 met on 15 November 1884 and, after an adjournment , concluded on 26 February 1885 with
518-443: A neat separation between donor and recipient is conventionally difficult to draw. The employment of 'local staff', the active call for help from people in need and the surge in local humanitarian organizations all suggest the intimate relation between donor and recipient. Today, humanitarianism is particularly used to describe the thinking and doctrines behind the emergency response to humanitarian crises . In such cases it argues for
592-640: A neutral state, both countries issued a joint démarche on 23 January 1908 demanding that the Belgian government annex control of the CFS and reform the territory in accordance with the articles of the Berlin Act . Morel and the CRA, aware of the geo-political constraints of any alternative, viewed the solution as the most practical for achieving their aims at reform, leading the movement to place public support and endorsement behind
666-454: A period of heightened colonial activity by European powers; one writer once made the point that the Berlin Conference of 1884–1885 was responsible for "the old carve-up of Africa". Other writers have also laid the blame in "the partition of Africa" on the doors of the Berlin Conference. But Wm. Roger Louis holds a contrary view , although he conceded that "the Berlin Act did have a relevance to
740-467: A philanthropic front. From 1878 to 1885, Stanley returned to the Congo not as a reporter but as Leopold's agent, with the secret mission to organise what would become known as the Congo Free State soon after the closure of the Berlin Conference in August 1885. French agents discovered Leopold's plans, and in response France sent its own explorers to Africa. In 1881, French naval officer Pierre de Brazza
814-530: A similar tour in the USA. Felix Lösing has maintained that neither evangelical philanthropy nor humanitarian sentiment but racist dynamics were the main reason for the success of the reform association. Activists in Britain and the United States warned that the atrocities in the CFS destabilised imperial rule on the whole African continent and undermined narratives of white supremacy on a global scale. CRA activism ensured that
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#1732852687661888-540: A system of coercion and terror unparalleled in contemporary colonial Africa . The group carried out a global publicity campaign across the Western world , using a range of strategies including displays of atrocity photographs; public seminars; mass rallies; celebrity endorsements; and extensive press coverage to lobby the Great Powers into pressuring reform in the Congo. The association partially achieved its aims in 1908 with
962-481: Is apparent throughout the protocols of the Berlin Conference but especially in the Principle of Effective Occupation. In line with Germany and Britain's opposing views, the powers finally agreed that it could be established by a European power establishing some kind of base on the coast from which it was free to expand into the interior. The Europeans did not believe that the rules of occupation demanded European hegemony on
1036-927: Is known as a humanitarian . While humanitarianism on a local and national level can be traced far back in history, scholars of international politics tend to identify the advent of global humanitarian impulses to the 19th century. The creation of the International Red Cross in 1863 is considered a key juncture in global humanitarianism. The scope of humanitarianism has expanded over time alongside shifting perceptions of who counts as "human" and whose lives are worth saving. Scholars have generally observed that humanitarianism has increased in scope over time, as individuals and groups have expanded their definition of human life to groups beyond their immediate environment. Humanitarian governance has become increasingly complex and institutionalized over time. Jean Pictet , in his commentary on The Fundamental Principles of
1110-646: The Belgian Solution as early as 1905. The annexation occurred in late 1908 bringing slow and incremental reform, but by 1913 free trade and the effective dismantling of the Leopoldian system , as well as the increasing importance of Belgium to the Entente , led to British recognition of the Belgian Congo . The CRA, acknowledging the gains made, publicly disbanded on 16 June 1913, with Morel declaring that "the native of
1184-592: The Catholic Church . It quickly made a treaty on 26 February 1884 with its old ally, Great Britain , to block off the Congo Society's access to the Atlantic. By the early 1880s, many factors including diplomatic successes, greater European local knowledge, and the demand for resources such as gold, timber, and rubber, triggered dramatically increased European involvement in the continent of Africa. Stanley's charting of
1258-563: The Congo Question remained of interest to the general public, fuelling a reciprocal relationship between British parliamentary debates and press coverage that extended globally. The international message of the movement birthed chapters or affiliates across Europe and North America . Outside of Britain, the most effective was the American Congo Reform Association, formed in the United States. Though Morel helped found
1332-559: The Congo River Basin (1874–1877) removed the last terra incognita from European maps of the continent, delineating the areas of British, Portuguese, French and Belgian control. These European nations raced to annex territory that might be claimed by rivals. France moved to take over Tunisia , one of the last of the Barbary states , using a claim of another piracy incident. French claims by Pierre de Brazza were quickly acted on by
1406-687: The Factory Act of 1844 were some of the most significant humanitarian bills passed in Parliament following the Industrial Revolution. In the middle of the 19th century, humanitarianism was central to the work of Florence Nightingale and Henry Dunant in emergency response and in the latter case led to the founding of the Red Cross . The Humanitarian League (1891–1919) was an English advocacy group, formed by Henry S. Salt , which sought to advance
1480-573: The Franco-Prussian War which, with the Berlin Conference of 1884, brought colonial imperialism to flower" and that "[t]he primary reality of imperialism in Africa today is economic," going on to expound on the extraction of wealth from the continent. Other historians focus on the legal implications in international law and argue that the conference was only one of many (mostly bilateral) agreements between prospective colonists, which took place after
1554-585: The International African Association the same year, invited Henry Morton Stanley to join him in researching and "civilising" the continent. In 1878, the International Congo Society was also formed, with more economic goals but still closely related to the former society. Leopold secretly bought off the foreign investors in the Congo Society, which was turned to imperialistic goals, with the "African Society" serving primarily as
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#17328526876611628-793: The Mahdist State and the Sultanate of Zanzibar and, having already defeated the Zulu Kingdom in South Africa in 1879, moved on to annex the independent Boer republics of Transvaal and the Orange Free State . Within a few years, Africa was at least nominally divided up south of the Sahara . By 1895, the only independent states were: The following states were annexed by the British Empire roughly
1702-703: The Red Cross , argues for the universal characteristics of humanitarianism: Humanitarianism was publicly seen in the social reforms of the late 1800s and early 1900s, following the economic turmoil of the Industrial Revolution in England. Many of the women in Great Britain who were involved with feminism during the 1900s also pushed humanitarianism. The atrocious hours and working conditions of children and unskilled laborers were made illegal by pressure on Parliament by humanitarians. The Factory Act of 1833 and
1776-583: The ACRA, they sought to distance themselves as an independent American movement due to widespread Anglophobic sentiments among sections of the American populace, particularly German and Irish Americans . Orchestrated effectively by Baptist missionaries and the academic Robert E. Park , it waged a similar publicity and lobbying campaign to the CRA's; public figures like Booker T. Washington and Mark Twain , who famously composed King Leopold's Soliloquy , did much to raise
1850-609: The Belgian government's annexation of the Congo Free State and continued to promote reform until disbanding in 1913. In the mid-1890s Edmund Dene Morel was working for Elder Dempster as a shipping clerk based in Antwerp , when he noticed discrepancies between public and private accounts given for the import and export figures relating to shipping from the Congo . Morel deduced from the steady export of firearms and cartridge , against
1924-562: The Berlin Conference as the formalisation of the Scramble for Africa but recently, scholars have questioned the legal and economic impact of the conference. Some have argued the conference central to imperialism. African-American historian W. E. B. Du Bois wrote in 1948 that alongside the Atlantic slave trade in Africans a great world movement of modern times is "the partitioning of Africa after
1998-602: The Berlin conference was viewed as geo-politically problematic by the Foreign Office , who instead dispatched their consul in the region to investigate the alleged malpractices of the regime. Roger Casement was the resident British consul in Boma when he was directed by the FO to investigate the allegations against the CFS. From June 1903, Casement travelled throughout the northern interior of
2072-565: The British government to act. Morel tailored the association's message to appeal to all sections of British society, ensuring it was a non-partisan and Christian issue that Britain must address, his public speeches were inclusive and unifying seeking only to promote reform in the CFS. Morel enlisted fellow journalists in Britain, the United States and sympathetic newspapers in Belgium as agents of
2146-654: The British in the Second Boer War from 1899 to 1902. Libya was conquered by Italy in 1911, and Morocco was divided between the French and Spanish in 1912. One of the chief stated justifications "was a desire to stamp out slavery once and for all". Before he died in 1873, Christian missionary, David Livingstone , called for a worldwide crusade to defeat the Arab-controlled slave trade in East Africa. The way to do it
2220-479: The CFS following Leopold's announcement that he had set up a commission of inquiry to address Casement's findings. With Morel in-charge they resolved to the creation of the CRA, a unifying movement for the competing agents of reform in the Congo. The weight of the Casement Report , a scathing indictment by a British consular official on the CFS, was crucial in engaging the public with the CRA's message of reform in
2294-435: The CRA and established regional branches with local activists throughout Britain to promote grassroots movements. The CRA's adoption of contemporary media technologies, like the magic lantern projector , were incorporated into public lectures and seminars , bringing Western audiences face-to-face with photographic proof of the atrocities of the CFS. Charles Laderman has argued that the association's most effective tool
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2368-567: The CRA. In December 1906 the ACRA gained momentum with the breaking of the Kowalsky Scandal . The exposé of foreign financial interference in the American political process united various factions across the USA behind the reform movement and demanded government action. It also exposed Leopold's extensive Press Bureau networks to the Belgian press, increasing the already mounting domestic pressure for Congo annexation in Belgium. The publication of
2442-571: The Congo is once more a free man", though both he and the movement were aware this was not in fact the case; tensions in Europe and a sharp decline in public support since the 'success' of the annexation, necessitated the declaration and disbandment of the association as the only rationale decision left. Humanitarianism Humanitarianism is an ideology centered on the value of human life, whereby humans practice benevolent treatment and provide assistance to other humans to reduce suffering and improve
2516-455: The Congo – though Casement himself had to abstain from direct involvement due to his government role. Morel led the CRA, achieving widespread public endorsements from church leaders, businessmen, peers and MPs; the movement was characterised as part of the British humanitarian tradition , an appeal that enticed many wealthy donors and powerful supporters to its cause, placing extraordinary pressure on
2590-548: The European powers expand in the face of rising American, Russian and Japanese interests; and form constructive dialogue to limit future hostilities. In Africa, colonialism was introduced across nearly all the continent. When African independence was regained after World War II, it was in the form of fragmented states. The Scramble for Africa sped up after the Conference since even within areas designated as their sphere of influence,
2664-615: The European powers had to take effective possession by the principle of effectivity. In central Africa in particular, expeditions were dispatched to coerce traditional rulers into signing treaties, using force if necessary, such as was the case for Msiri , King of Katanga , in 1891. Bedouin- and Berber-ruled states in the Sahara and the Sahel were overrun by the French in several wars by the beginning of World War I . The British moved up from South Africa and down from Egypt and conquered states such as
2738-540: The French military, which took control of what is now the Republic of the Congo in 1881 and Guinea in 1884. Italy became part of the Triple Alliance , an event that upset Bismarck's carefully laid plans and led Germany to join the European invasion of Africa. In 1882, realizing the geopolitical extent of Portuguese control on the coasts, but seeing penetration by France eastward across Central Africa toward Ethiopia,
2812-457: The Haiti earthquake" with "software and digital humanitarian platforms such as Standby Task Force, OpenStreetMap , and many others" being active during many disasters since then. In fact, the role of social media in digital humanitarian efforts is a considerable one. Ten days after the 2010 earthquake, the " Hope for Haiti Now " telethon event was launched in the United States, effectively taking over
2886-599: The Nile, and the Suez Canal , Britain saw its vital trade route through Egypt to India threatened. Because of the collapsed Egyptian financing and a subsequent mutiny in which hundreds of British subjects were murdered or injured, Britain intervened in the nominally Ottoman Khedivate of Egypt , which it controlled for decades. The European race for colonies made Germany start launching expeditions of its own, which frightened both British and French statesmen. Hoping to quickly soothe
2960-535: The activities of the Congo Free State authorities, establishing his own journal in early 1903 – the West African Mail . Morel's publications drew from the direct reports and experiences of the missionary community who had for years worked in the Congo , as well as travellers from the region and whistleblowers and former Congo Free States and concession company agents who supplied him with detailed reports and corroborating evidence of widespread atrocities . Morel
3034-475: The analogue age" with "a major shift coming". In 2015 he authored the book Digital Humanitarians: How Big Data Is Changing the Face of Humanitarian Response . Vincent Fevrier notes that " social media can benefit the humanitarian sector... by providing information to give better situational awareness to organisations for broad strategic planning and logistics" and that " crisis mapping really emerged in 2010 during
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3108-526: The articles of the Berlin Act in every regard. In Morel's own words, the "King's native policy was the inevitable sequel to his commercial policy". This unified the humanitarians with commercial and political elites in the common cause of reform. Others shared Morel's view; the Aborigine Protection Society , headed by Henry Fox Bourne , had denounced the CFS as early as 1890 with material collected from Congo missionaries. Sir Charles Dilke MP
3182-454: The brewing conflict, Belgian King Leopold II convinced France and Germany that common trade in Africa was in the best interests of all three countries. Under support from the British and the initiative of Portugal, Otto von Bismarck , the Chancellor of Germany , called on representatives of 13 nations in Europe as well as the United States to take part in the Berlin Conference in 1884 to work out
3256-475: The colonial partitioning of Africa, and draw attention to bilateral agreements concluded before and after the conference. According to a 2024 study, the conference only set the borders for the Congo region (those borders were later revised). The study finds that "most of Africa’s borders were not initially formed until after the 1884–85 Berlin Conference... most did not take their final form until over two decades later." The conference contributed to ushering in
3330-502: The conditions of humanity for moral , altruistic , and emotional reasons. One aspect involves voluntary emergency aid overlapping with human rights advocacy, actions taken by governments, development assistance , and domestic philanthropy . Other critical issues include correlation with religious beliefs, motivation of aid between altruism, market affinity, social control imperialism and neo-colonialism , gender and class relations, and humanitarian agencies . A practitioner
3404-528: The conditions they were in which prompted thousands of Russian bloggers to coordinate relief efforts online. The digital humanitarian efforts in Russia were crucial to responding to the fires in 2010 considering the Russian government was vastly unprepared to deal with such a large-scale disaster. Within digital humanitarianism, big data has featured strongly in efforts to improve digital humanitarian work and produces
3478-498: The conference, regardless of whether they were finalized and followed in practice. For example, Craven has questioned the legal and economic impact of the conference. However, the countries that ultimately participated in the Final Act ignored requirements set forth within it to establish their satellite governments, rights to the land, and trade for the benefit of their national, and domestic economies. Historians have long marked
3552-422: The conflict over another, the action serves the interests of political, religious, or other agendas. These fundamental principles serve two essential purposes. They embody humanitarian action’s single-minded purpose of alleviating suffering, unconditionally and without any ulterior motive. They also serve as background document to develop operational tools that help in obtaining both the consent of communities for
3626-656: The continent, essentially believed that as far as the extension of power in Africa was concerned, no colonial power should have any legal right to a territory unless the state exercised strong and effective political control and, if so, only for a limited period of time, essentially an occupational force only. However, Britain's view was that Germany was a latecomer to the continent and was assumptively unlikely to gain any possessions beyond those it already held, which were swiftly proving to be more valuable than British territories. That logic caused it to be generally assumed by Britain and France that Germany had an interest in embarrassing
3700-523: The course of the partition" of Africa. Of the fourteen countries being represented, seven of them – Austria-Hungary , Russia , Denmark , the Netherlands , Sweden-Norway , the Ottoman Empire , and the United States – came home without any formal possessions in Africa. Prior to the conference, European diplomats approached African rulers and the French leaders had already invaded some parts of Lagos in
3774-404: The disproportionate mass imports in rubber , ivory and other lucrative commodities, that no commercial transaction was taking place. He concluded that the use of force was the only explanation: the consistency of the exchange could only be supported by a state-led system of mass exploitation. Resigning from his role in 1901, Morel turned to journalism to investigate and raise awareness about
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#17328526876613848-578: The findings of Leopold's Commission of Inquiry, confirming those of the Casement Report, cemented Belgian formal opposition to the CFS and sparked legitimate discussions of government annexation. What became known as the Belgian Solution – the annexation of the CFS by the Belgian government – was viewed by both Britain and the US to be the optimal answer to the Congo Question . Despite Belgium's position as
3922-409: The following points: The first reference in an international act to the obligations attaching to spheres of influence is contained in the Berlin Act. The principle of effective occupation stated that a power could acquire rights over colonial lands only if it possessed them or had effective occupation: if it had treaties with local leaders, flew its flag there, and established an administration in
3996-435: The graphic nature of the report, with the removal of witnesses and perpetrators names undermining its legitimacy. Casement's disillusionment with the decisions of the FO prompted him to seek out Morel who, by 1904, was well established as the leading champion of Congo reform. The two agreed a more holistic approach was needed to effect genuine change in the Congo, with the British government having reduced diplomatic pressure on
4070-500: The ground. The Belgians originally wanted to include that effective occupation required provisions that "cause peace to be administered", but Britain and France were the powers that had that amendment struck out of the final document. That principle, along with others that were written at the conference, allowed the Europeans to conquer Africa but to do as little as possible to administer or control it. The principle did not apply so much to
4144-475: The hinterlands of Africa at the time of the conference. This gave rise to hinterland theory, which basically gave any colonial power with coastal territory the right to claim political influence over an indefinite amount of inland territory. Since Africa was irregularly shaped, that theory caused problems and was later rejected. The conference provided an opportunity to channel latent European hostilities towards one another outward; provide new areas for assisting
4218-481: The humanitarian cause. Various suggestions of distinct periods of humanitarianism exist, drawing either on geopolitical or socioeconomic factors that determine humanitarian action. The first approach is exemplified by Michael Barnett's proposition to distinguish ages of "imperial humanitarianism" (late 19th century to 1945), "neo-humanitarianism" (1945–1989), and "liberal humanitarianism" (post-1990). Norbert Götz, Georgina Brewis, and Steffen Werther are advocates of
4292-500: The mediasphere and reaching hundreds of millions of households and viewers. It focused on appealing to the viewing public's empathy for the survivors of the disaster, allowing ordinary citizens to help in a collective relief effort by contributing money donations to NGOs providing Humanitarian aid to earthquake survivors. The telethon attracted support through a variety of celebrity musical performances and staged calls for empathy, using digital social networks to disseminate its appeal to
4366-474: The moral responsibility of the viewer-consumers who are able to reinforce identification with a national identity of the American 'savior' through participation in this Humanitarian project. During the summer of 2010, when open fires raged across Russia, causing many to die from smog inhalation, the use of social media allowed digital humanitarians to map the areas in need of support. This is because Russians who were hoping to be evacuated were posting online about
4440-399: The other European powers on the continent and forcing them to give up their possessions if they could not muster a strong political presence. On the other side, Britain had large territorial holdings there and wanted to keep them while it minimised its responsibilities and administrative costs. In the end, the British view prevailed. The great powers' disinclination to rule their territories
4514-465: The presence and activities of humanitarian organizations, particularly in highly volatile contexts." In 2005, a question was raised as to whether Misplaced Pages can be seen as digital humanitarianism. Patrick Meier used the term 'digital humanitarianism' to describe crowdmapping for the 2010 Haiti earthquake . In 2011, Paul Conneally gave a TED talk on digital humanitarianism in which he states that humanitarianism's "origins are firmly rooted in
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#17328526876614588-421: The profile of the movement across the United States. However, Morel and British CRA officials still played a crucial role in the formative phase of the ACRA, transferring and reshaping many of their techniques and practices for American audiences. Lobbying and PR were practised by both the CRA and Leopold's CFS, the king setting up a private and covert Press Bureau in 1904 in reaction to the consistent efforts of
4662-598: The same manner as they had in the Western Hemisphere, by establishing a connection to local trade networks. In the early 1800s, the European demand for ivory , which was then often used in the production of luxury goods , led many European merchants into the interior markets of Africa. European spheres of power and influence were limited to coastal Africa at this time as Europeans had only established trading posts (protected by gunboats) up to this point. In 1876, King Leopold II of Belgium , who had founded and controlled
4736-434: The scope of the Berlin Act was limited to the lands that fronted on the African coast, European powers in numerous instances later claimed rights over interior lands without demonstrating the requirement of effective occupation, as articulated in Article 35 of the Final Act. At the Berlin Conference, the scope of the Principle of Effective Occupation was heavily contested between Germany and France. The Germans, who were new to
4810-449: The signature of a General Act regulating European colonization and trade in Africa during the New Imperialism period. The conference was organized by Otto von Bismarck , the first chancellor of Germany , at the request of Leopold II of Belgium . The General Act of Berlin can be seen as the formalisation of the Scramble for Africa that was already in full swing. Some scholars, however, warn against an overemphasis on its role in
4884-451: The socioeconomic and cultural approach, arguing that there have been ages of "ad hoc humanitarianism" (up to c. 1900 ), "organized humanitarianism" ( c. 1900 –1970), and "expressive humanitarianism" (since 1970). They suggest we might currently be entering "a novel kind of defensive humanitarianism with roots in the expressive age, with automated interfaces, and with thick 'firewalls' between donors and recipients." However,
4958-403: The systemic use of coercive techniques by state and company officials . Casement's dispatches were viewed as sensationalist and he was recalled by the FO to return to Britain and produce a report for the government. Published in 1904, The Casement Report confirmed the scale of atrocities taking place in the CFS, yet FO officials' interference and lobbying by agents of the CFS led to softening
5032-413: The territory aided by the missionaries based there. Their unregulated access to the Congo and its tributaries exposed him to the worst affected areas of the ' rubber tax ', and provided him with their testimonies – informing many of his inquiries. Throughout his journey Casement recorded oral testimony from victims of the CFS, seeing first-hand the mutilations and brutalities of the administration and later
5106-431: The territory to govern it with a police force to keep order. The colonial power could also make use of the colony economically. That principle became important not only as a basis for the European powers to acquire territorial sovereignty in Africa but also for delimiting their respective overseas possessions, as effective occupation served in some instances as a criterion for settling colonial boundary disputes. However, as
5180-473: Was a gifted public speaker and prolific writer, giving speeches and publishing articles in other newspapers – foreign and domestic – as well as circulating pamphlets and writing several meticulously researched books on the Congo and Leopold's system . Nathan Alexander has observed that Morel's impassioned campaigning stemmed largely from his belief that the Congo Free State was a corrupt example of modern standards of European colonialism . Alexander noted that as
5254-445: Was another high-profile figure in the British anti-Leopold movement, advocating in parliament in 1897 for the revival of the Berlin Conference to ensure all signatories were adhering to the Berlin Act. In 1903 the collective efforts of Morel and these other actors generated enough public agitation over the Congo Question to produce an impassioned debate in parliament, leading to a resolution forcing government action. However, reconvening
5328-404: Was dispatched to central Africa, travelled into the western Congo basin, and raised the French flag over the newly founded Brazzaville in what is now the Republic of Congo . Finally, Portugal , which had essentially abandoned a colonial empire in the area, long held through the mostly defunct proxy Kingdom of Kongo , also claimed the area, based on old treaties with Restoration-era Spain and
5402-539: Was the recruitment of missionaries with firsthand accounts of the regime, two of the most prominent were the Rev. John Harris and his wife Alice . In 1905 the pair returned to Britain where they accepted positions as officers in the CRA, and over the next two years delivered between them six hundred public engagements – bringing photos, props from the CFS, like the chicotte , and their own extensive documentation of what they witnessed to audiences around Britain, later conducting
5476-475: Was to "liberate Africa" by the introduction of "commerce, Christianity" and civilization. Crowe, Craven, and Katzenellenbogen are authors who have attempted to soften the language and therefore the intent of the conference. They warn against an overemphasis on its role in the colonial partitioning of Africa, extensively justifying it by ignoring the motivations and outcomes of the conference by only drawing attention to bilateral agreements concluded before and after
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