The British Columbia Social Credit Party was a conservative political party in British Columbia , Canada . It was the governing party of British Columbia for all but three years between the 1952 provincial election and the 1991 election . For four decades, the party dominated the British Columbian political scene, with the only break occurring between the 1972 and 1975 elections when the British Columbia New Democratic Party governed. Party members were known as Socreds .
180-554: The Columbia River Treaty is a 1961 agreement between Canada and the United States on the development and operation of dams in the upper Columbia River basin for power and flood control benefits in both countries. Four dams were constructed under this treaty: three in the Canadian province of British Columbia ( Duncan Dam , Mica Dam , Keenleyside Dam ) and one in the U.S. state of Montana ( Libby Dam ). The treaty provided for
360-477: A conflict of interest scandal in 1991, and was succeeded as party leader and premier by Deputy Premier Rita Johnston , who became the first female head of government at the provincial or federal level in Canada. Johnston then defeated McCarthy in the subsequent leadership election and continued as premier. Johnston had been close to Vander Zalm for several years, leading many to believe her selection as leader had been
540-451: A high nominal per capita income globally and its advanced economy ranks among the largest in the world by nominal GDP , relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources and well-developed international trade networks . Recognized as a middle power , Canada's strong support for multilateralism and internationalism has been closely related to its foreign relations policies of peacekeeping and aid for developing countries . Canada
720-467: A parliamentary system within the context of a constitutional monarchy —the monarchy of Canada being the foundation of the executive, legislative , and judicial branches. The reigning monarch is also monarch of 14 other sovereign Commonwealth countries and Canada's 10 provinces . The monarch appoints a representative, the governor general , on the advice of the prime minister , to carry out most of their ceremonial royal duties. The monarchy
900-511: A technological fix as part of the dam project that enabled control of the temperature of water released from the dam. The local environmental impact of the Libby Dam was to flood 40,000 acres (around 162 square kilometers), altering downstream and upstream ecosystems. This was the greatest direct environmental effect of the treaty in the United States. While the Libby Dam and Lake Koocanusa were
1080-487: A "first-added" storage benefit that ignores U.S. dams built after 1961 (e.g. Libby and Dworshak), limits sales of surplus power to California, and excludes modern fish related constraints at U.S. dams. Without the first two of these limits, the Canadian Entitlement would be slightly less than half of current values. The Canadian Entitlement is marketed by Powerex . The Canadian Entitlement varies from year to year, but
1260-646: A 10-metre (33 ft) cross bearing the words, "long live the King of France", and took possession of the territory New France in the name of King Francis I . The early 16th century saw European mariners with navigational techniques pioneered by the Basque and Portuguese establish seasonal whaling and fishing outposts along the Atlantic coast. In general, early settlements during the Age of Discovery appear to have been short-lived due to
1440-625: A combination of the harsh climate, problems with navigating trade routes and competing outputs in Scandinavia. In 1583, Sir Humphrey Gilbert , by the royal prerogative of Queen Elizabeth I , founded St John's, Newfoundland , as the first North American English seasonal camp . In 1600, the French established their first seasonal trading post at Tadoussac along the Saint Lawrence. French explorer Samuel de Champlain arrived in 1603 and established
1620-591: A confidence vote in order to force a snap general election in 1953 . At this election, Social Credit won an outright majority. Although the party was ostensibly the British Columbia wing of the Canadian social credit movement , Bennett jettisoned the old ideology, remembering that the Alberta Socreds had tried and failed to implement it soon after winning their first term in government. Instead, he converted it into
1800-500: A consortium of 37 public and four private utilities in the United States agreed to pay C$ 274.8 million to purchase the Canadian Entitlement for a period of 30 years from the scheduled completion date of each of the Canadian projects. British Columbia used the funds, along with the U.S. payment of C$ 69.6 million for U.S. flood control benefits, to construct the Canadian dams. In recent years, the treaty has garnered significant attention, not because of what it contains, but because of what it
1980-554: A constitutional amending formula and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms . The Charter guarantees basic rights and freedoms that usually cannot be overridden by any government; a notwithstanding clause allows Parliament and the provincial legislatures to override certain sections of the Charter for a period of five years. Canada's judiciary interprets laws and has the power to strike down acts of Parliament that violate
SECTION 10
#17328374014922160-483: A distant third. This left only one Socred in the legislature-- Cliff Serwa from Okanagan West, which contained much of the Bennetts' former territory. Social Credit went into the 1996 provincial election in an extremely precarious position. It had been unable to get its leader into the legislature at any point during the previous session. Even worse, Serwa had announced his retirement, leaving it without any incumbents for
2340-506: A distinguishing element of Canada's political culture. Peace, order, and good government , alongside an Implied Bill of Rights , are founding principles of Canadian federalism . At the federal level, Canada has been dominated by two relatively centrist parties practising "brokerage politics": the centre-left leaning Liberal Party of Canada and the centre-right leaning Conservative Party of Canada (or its predecessors ). The historically predominant Liberals position themselves at
2520-572: A long term basis. However, due to the exclusion of local hearings for the treaty and the outcome of the Arrow Dam many residents felt powerless in the provinces decision to flood the area. In response, the Columbia Basin Trust was established, in part, to address the long term socio-economic impacts in British Columbia that resulted from this flooding. J.W Wilson who took part in the settlement agreement for BC Hydro noticed that while they looked at
2700-461: A million tons of aluminum for the U.S. By 1974, treaty power had increased this production threefold, hurting BC's own aluminum production, effectively exporting thousands of jobs in this industry. Further negative impacts include the flooding of approximately 600 km of fertile and productive valley bottoms to fill the Arrow Lakes , Duncan , Kinbasket and Koocanusa reservoirs. No assessment of
2880-590: A mistake. Even BC NDP opposition leader Mike Harcourt admitted later that he preferred Johnston over McCarthy, as McCarthy would likely have been a much tougher opponent in an election. Facing a statutory general election in 1991 , Johnston was unable to make up any ground. She also had little time to reunite the party following the bruising leadership contest with McCarthy. Social Credit was roundly defeated, losing almost half of its vote from 1986. Johnston herself lost her own seat to BC NDP challenger Penny Priddy . Furthermore, many moderate Socred supporters defected to
3060-446: A populist conservative party. It became a political vehicle to unite opponents of the CCF in hopes of shutting it out of power. The BC Social Credit Party drifted away from both social credit theories and from the federal Social Credit Party as many supporters of the federal Liberals and Conservatives joined it. While Bennett made sporadic appearances for the federal Socreds, their relationship
3240-431: A temperate climate, with a mild and rainy winter. On the east and west coasts, average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s °C (70s °F), while between the coasts, the average summer high temperature ranges from 25 to 30 °C (77 to 86 °F), with temperatures in some interior locations occasionally exceeding 40 °C (104 °F). Much of Northern Canada is covered by ice and permafrost . The future of
3420-618: Is BC Hydro and Power Authority, and the U.S. Entity is the Administrator of the Bonneville Power Administration and the Northwestern Division Engineer for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. The treaty also established a Permanent Engineering Board, consisting of equal members from Canada and the U.S., that reports to both governments annually on Treaty issues, any deviations from the operating plans, and assists
3600-637: Is a dramatic change from the snowmelt-driven summer peak flows of the river prior to its development. Canada Canada is a country in North America . Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean , making it the world's second-largest country by total area , with the world's longest coastline . Its border with
3780-461: Is also problematic after dams are built. Pre-dam currents on the Columbia efficiently carried fry to the ocean, but the introduction of dams and reservoirs changed the flow of the river, forcing the young fish to exert much more energy to swim through slack waters. In addition, many fish are killed by the dam turbines as they try to swim further downstream. It is unclear exactly how many fish are killed in
SECTION 20
#17328374014923960-554: Is divided into 15 terrestrial and five marine ecozones . These ecozones encompass over 80,000 classified species of Canadian wildlife , with an equal number yet to be formally recognized or discovered. Although Canada has a low percentage of endemic species compared to other countries , due to human activities, invasive species , and environmental issues in the country , there are currently more than 800 species at risk of being lost . About 65 percent of Canada's resident species are considered "Secure". Over half of Canada's landscape
4140-437: Is estimated that the habitat of 8,000 deer, 600 elk, 1,500 moose, 2,000 black bears, and 70,000 ducks and geese was flooded due to the creation of the reservoirs. The introduction of a dam affects every living thing in the surrounding area, both up and downstream. Upstream change is obvious as water levels rise and submerge nesting grounds and migration routes for water fowl. As water levels in storage reservoirs change throughout
4320-499: Is generally in the range of 4,400 GWh per year and about 1,250 MW of capacity. The treaty required the U.S. to pay a total of $ 64.4 million (C$ 69.6 million) for the flood control benefits due to the operation of 8.45 Maf of Canadian storage. The payment was based on an allocation that: The treaty has no end date, but it includes an option for either country to terminate most treaty provisions anytime after 60 years (i.e. 16 September 2024), given at least 10 years advance notice. If
4500-487: Is improved. There is no one solution to improving the salmon and trout populations on the Columbia as it is the cumulative effects of the dams, slack-water reservoirs, loss of habitat, pollution and overfishing that are killing the fish. From 1965 to 1969, 27,312 acres were logged along the Columbia River to remove timber from the new flood plain. The slashing of vegetation along the shoreline weakened soil stability and made
4680-507: Is influenced by a complex combination of these effects, making it difficult to predict or understand exactly how the animal populations will react. Salmon and Steelhead trout travel from the ocean upriver to various spawning grounds. The construction of multiple dams on the Columbia threatened this fishery as the fish struggled to complete the migration upstream. All dams on the Columbia River downstream of Chief Joseph have fish ladders installed, from Wells to Bonneville Dam. Migration downriver
4860-1019: Is intact and relatively free of human development. The boreal forest of Canada is considered to be the largest intact forest on Earth, with approximately 3,000,000 km (1,200,000 sq mi) undisturbed by roads, cities or industry. Since the end of the last glacial period , Canada has consisted of eight distinct forest regions . Approximately 12.1 percent of the nation's landmass and freshwater are conservation areas , including 11.4 percent designated as protected areas . Approximately 13.8 percent of its territorial waters are conserved, including 8.9 percent designated as protected areas. Canada's first National Park , Banff National Park established in 1885 spans 6,641 square kilometres (2,564 sq mi). Canada's oldest provincial park, Algonquin Provincial Park , established in 1893, covers an area of 7,653.45 square kilometres (2,955.01 sq mi). Lake Superior National Marine Conservation Area
5040-443: Is lacking. A reflection of the times in which it was negotiated, the treaty's emphasis is on hydroelectricity and flood control. The "Assured Operating Plans" that determine the Canadian Entitlement amounts and establish a base operation for Canadian Treaty storage, include little direct treatment of other interests that have grown in importance over the years, such as fish protection, irrigation and other environmental concerns. However,
5220-493: Is named) dismissed these claims and other confusion about the treaty benefits and costs in his 1974 paper "Ten Year Later, The Results of the Columbia River Treaty." He explained that the original estimate of the cost of the Canadian dams was about C$ 411 million in 1963 dollars. Actual cost in 1973 dollars was about C$ 548 million, and this included $ 50 million in regional improvement beyond replacement of like for like. This
5400-552: Is now Canada for thousands of years. Beginning in the 16th century, British and French expeditions explored and later settled along the Atlantic coast. As a consequence of various armed conflicts , France ceded nearly all of its colonies in North America in 1763. In 1867, with the union of three British North American colonies through Confederation , Canada was formed as a federal dominion of four provinces. This began an accretion of provinces and territories resulting in
5580-454: Is part of multiple international organizations and forums . While a variety of theories have been postulated for the etymological origins of Canada , the name is now accepted as coming from the St. Lawrence Iroquoian word kanata , meaning "village" or "settlement". In 1535, Indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to
Columbia River Treaty - Misplaced Pages Continue
5760-634: Is solely a federal responsibility and is uniform throughout Canada. Law enforcement, including criminal courts, is officially a provincial responsibility, conducted by provincial and municipal police forces. In most rural and some urban areas, policing responsibilities are contracted to the federal Royal Canadian Mounted Police . Canadian Aboriginal law provides certain constitutionally recognized rights to land and traditional practices for Indigenous groups in Canada. Various treaties and case laws were established to mediate relations between Europeans and many Indigenous peoples. The role of Aboriginal law and
5940-399: Is the second-largest country . By land area alone, Canada ranks fourth , due to having the world's largest area of fresh water lakes . Stretching from the Atlantic Ocean in the east, along the Arctic Ocean to the north, and to the Pacific Ocean in the west, the country encompasses 9,984,670 km (3,855,100 sq mi) of territory. Canada also has vast maritime terrain, with
6120-512: Is the source of sovereignty and authority in Canada. However, while the governor general or monarch may exercise their power without ministerial advice in rare crisis situations , the use of the executive powers (or royal prerogative ) is otherwise directed by the Cabinet , a committee of ministers of the Crown responsible to the elected House of Commons and chosen and headed by the prime minister,
6300-545: Is the world's largest freshwater protected area, spanning roughly 10,000 square kilometres (3,900 sq mi). Canada's largest national wildlife region is the Scott Islands Marine National Wildlife Area which spans 11,570.65 square kilometres (4,467.45 sq mi). Canada is described as a " full democracy ", with a tradition of liberalism , and an egalitarian , moderate political ideology. An emphasis on social justice has been
6480-644: The Canada Elections Act limits this to four years with a "fixed" election date in October; general elections still must be called by the governor general and can be triggered by either the advice of the prime minister or a lost confidence vote in the House. The 105 members of the Senate, whose seats are apportioned on a regional basis, serve until age 75. Canadian federalism divides government responsibilities between
6660-672: The Dominion Lands Act to regulate settlement and established the North-West Mounted Police to assert authority over the territory. This period of westward expansion and nation building resulted in the displacement of many Indigenous peoples of the Canadian Prairies to " Indian reserves ", clearing the way for ethnic European block settlements . This caused the collapse of the Plains Bison in western Canada and
6840-400: The 1941 election . In the 1945 election , these factions formed an alliance to field 16 candidates, who won a total of 6,627 votes (1.42% of the provincial total). This alliance broke down before the 1949 election , and three separate groups nominated candidates: Collectively, they nominated 28 candidates, who won a total of 14,326 votes, 2.05% of the popular vote in that election. For
7020-615: The 1952 provincial election , the coalition government between the British Columbia Liberal Party and British Columbia Conservative Party reformed the electoral system from first past the post to the alternative vote . The coalition was nervous about the growing popularity of the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF), the forerunner of the NDP. With the expectation that Conservative voters would list
7200-762: The 2009 general election . In the 2013 election , Woolsey was the only Socred candidate, again in Vancouver-Hastings, receiving 355 votes. Since British Columbia election law mandates de-registration of parties that run fewer than two candidates in two consecutive elections, the party was deregistered by Election BC on June 7, 2013. However, it had existed in name only since at least 2001. In addition to nominating few or no candidates at all in recent years, its Website had been updated only sporadically since 2005, and hadn't been updated at all since February 2012. Most of its constituency associations had been de-registered in 2008. The Social Credit Party nominated two candidates in
7380-610: The 2017 provincial election . Neither were elected, and they only tallied 896 votes between them. It did not field any candidates in the 2020 British Columbia general election and was deregistered in 2023. Eric Buckley left Social Credit in October 2000 to join the British Columbia Party . The party has not had an official leader since then. In the 1937 election, the British Columbia Social Credit League endorsed candidates, but none were elected. In
Columbia River Treaty - Misplaced Pages Continue
7560-487: The 2020 election , and was again deregistered as a party on February 1, 2023. Former Canadian prime minister Kim Campbell started her political career in the BC Social Credit Party. Prior to 1952, the social credit movement in British Columbia was divided between various factions. The Social Credit League of British Columbia nominated candidates for the first time in the 1937 election , but did not do so in
7740-746: The Battle of the Scheldt in 1944. Canada provided asylum for the Dutch monarchy while that country was occupied and is credited by the Netherlands for major contributions to its liberation from Nazi Germany . The Canadian economy boomed during the war as its industries manufactured military materiel for Canada, Britain, China , and the Soviet Union . Despite another Conscription Crisis in Quebec in 1944, Canada finished
7920-629: The Brilliant Expansion Project are examples of these developments. Another project made possible in part by the CRT was the Pacific DC Intertie , which was constructed in the U.S. and to this day remains a key part of the western power grid, facilitating easy trading of power between all parts of western Canada and the western U.S. However, for the province of BC, the impacts of the CRT were not entirely positive. By 1974, only ten years after
8100-532: The British Columbia Liberal Party , continuing a trend that dated back to Vander Zalm's tenure. The BC Liberals vaulted from no seats in the legislature to the Official Opposition. The combined effect was to decimate the Socreds, who plunged from a strong majority government to third place with only seven seats–including only five surviving members from Johnston's cabinet. More party infighting occurred as McCarthy
8280-556: The British Columbia Reform Party , leaving Social Credit without official status in the legislature. McCarthy resigned as leader shortly thereafter, and Larry Gillanders was elected to succeed her. After that, Abbotsford MLA Harry de Jong resigned (and briefly contemplated taking up the leadership of the Family Coalition Party ). The BC Liberals took the riding in the ensuing by-election, with Social Credit in
8460-551: The COVID-19 pandemic in Canada began on January 27, 2020, with widespread social and economic disruption. In 2021, the possible graves of hundreds of Indigenous people were discovered near the former sites of Canadian Indian residential schools . Administered by various Christian churches and funded by the Canadian government from 1828 to 1997, these boarding schools attempted to assimilate Indigenous children into Euro-Canadian culture . By total area (including its waters), Canada
8640-628: The Canada Act 1982 , the patriation of Canada's constitution from the United Kingdom, concurrent with the creation of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms . Canada had established complete sovereignty as an independent country under its own monarchy . In 1999, Nunavut became Canada's third territory after a series of negotiations with the federal government. At the same time, Quebec underwent profound social and economic changes through
8820-783: The Canadian Shield , the interior plains , the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands , the Appalachian region , the Western Cordillera , Hudson Bay Lowlands , and the Arctic Archipelago . Boreal forests prevail throughout the country, ice is prominent in northern Arctic regions and through the Rocky Mountains , and the relatively flat Canadian Prairies in the southwest facilitate productive agriculture. The Great Lakes feed
9000-574: The Columbia Basin Project . Dam construction on the American side of the border thus began prior to the entry into force of the Columbia River Treaty. There were various plans put forward in the early 20th century for major dams on the Columbia, many focused on irrigation, but development did not begin in earnest until the 1930s. During the Great Depression , the U.S. Federal Government provided
9180-557: The Columbia Basin Trust constructed the 185 MW Arrow Lakes Hydro project in parallel with the Keenleyside Dam near Castlegar , 35 years after the storage dam was originally completed. The Duncan Dam remains a storage project, and has no power generation facilities. The Canadian and U.S. Entities defined by the treaty, and appointed by the national governments, manage most of the treaty required activities. The Canadian Entity
SECTION 50
#17328374014929360-470: The Liberals , a trend that would come back to haunt the party later. This process was exacerbated by Vander Zalm's eccentricity, and the constant scandals that plagued his government. Also, Vander Zalm allowed his principal secretary, David Poole, to amass a substantial amount of power, despite his being unelected. Longtime cabinet minister Grace McCarthy resigned in protest. Vander Zalm was forced to resign in
9540-731: The Meech Lake Accord failed in 1990. This led to the formation of the Bloc Québécois in Quebec and the invigoration of the Reform Party of Canada in the West. A second referendum followed in 1995, in which sovereignty was rejected by a slimmer margin of 50.6 to 49.4 percent. In 1997, the Supreme Court ruled unilateral secession by a province would be unconstitutional, and the Clarity Act
9720-668: The Oka Crisis of 1990, the first of a number of violent confrontations between provincial governments and Indigenous groups. Canada joined the Gulf War in 1990 and was active in several peacekeeping missions in the 1990s, including operations in the Balkans during and after the Yugoslav Wars , and in Somalia , resulting in an incident that has been described as " the darkest era in the history of
9900-597: The Ontario Progressive Conservative Party . It never became a major political apparatus like the Big Blue Machine in Ontario did, as Bennett decided to retire in 1986. All Socred governments attempted to curb the power of trade unions and also limited social welfare spending. Bennett retired in 1986 and was succeeded by Bill Vander Zalm . Under his watch, social conservatives took control of
10080-602: The Parliament of Canada and the commissioners represent the King in his federal Council , rather than the monarch directly. The powers flowing from the Constitution Act, 1867 , are divided between the federal government and the provincial governments to exercise exclusively and any changes to that arrangement require a constitutional amendment , while changes to the roles and powers of the territories may be performed unilaterally by
10260-425: The Quiet Revolution of the 1960s, giving birth to a secular nationalist movement. The radical Front de libération du Québec (FLQ) ignited the October Crisis with a series of bombings and kidnappings in 1970, and the sovereigntist Parti Québécois was elected in 1976, organizing an unsuccessful referendum on sovereignty-association in 1980. Attempts to accommodate Quebec nationalism constitutionally through
10440-584: The St. Lawrence River (in the southeast) where the lowlands host much of Canada's economic output. Canada has over 2,000,000 lakes—563 of which are larger than 100 km (39 sq mi)—containing much of the world's fresh water . There are also fresh-water glaciers in the Canadian Rockies , the Coast Mountains , and the Arctic Cordillera . Canada is geologically active , having many earthquakes and potentially active volcanoes . Average winter and summer high temperatures across Canada vary from region to region. Winters can be harsh in many parts of
10620-425: The Unity Party , but soon left due to dissatisfaction with the way the party was run. In the 2001 provincial election , what remained of the party ran only two candidates. Grant Mitton achieved a respectable showing in Peace River South , placing second with 1,726 votes (17.4%). The other candidate, party president Carrol Barbara Woolsey, in Vancouver-Hastings , placed 5th of 6 candidates with 222 votes (1.15% of
10800-400: The Westminster tradition . The country's head of government is the prime minister , who holds office by virtue of their ability to command the confidence of the elected House of Commons and is appointed by the governor general , representing the monarch of Canada , the ceremonial head of state . The country is a Commonwealth realm and is officially bilingual (English and French) in
10980-400: The displacement of Indigenous populations , and a process of increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom. This increased sovereignty was highlighted by the Statute of Westminster, 1931 , and culminating in the Canada Act 1982 , which severed the vestiges of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom . Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy in
SECTION 60
#173283740149211160-441: The head of government . To ensure the stability of government, the governor general will usually appoint as prime minister the individual who is the current leader of the political party that can obtain the confidence of a majority of members in the House. The Prime Minister's Office (PMO) is one of the most powerful institutions in government, initiating most legislation for parliamentary approval and selecting for appointment by
11340-412: The 1713 Treaty of Utrecht and Canada and most of New France came under British rule in 1763 after the Seven Years' War. The Royal Proclamation of 1763 established First Nation treaty rights, created the Province of Quebec out of New France, and annexed Cape Breton Island to Nova Scotia. St John's Island (now Prince Edward Island ) became a separate colony in 1769. To avert conflict in Quebec ,
11520-423: The Alberta Social Credit Party still dominated their BC sister. However, much to the BC Socreds' own surprise, the party received 200,000 more votes than in the previous election and garnered enough vote transfers to become the largest party in the legislature. It took 19 seats, one more than the CCF, while the Liberals and Conservatives were practically wiped out. The Socreds persuaded an independent Labour Member of
11700-444: The Bonneville Power Act, creating the Bonneville Power Administration . This was a new federal institution meant to build transmission lines and sell the power generated by Bonneville, Grand Coulee and future Columbia Dams. While these projects substantially increased the ability to control floods and generate power, the system was unable to provide full protection or maximize the amount of power generated. American planners realized that
11880-425: The British Columbia and Canadian governments, and allowed for the sale of the Canadian Entitlement to downstream U.S. power authorities ( BPA ). Instruments of ratification were exchanged and the treaty was implemented on 16 September 1964. Starting in the 1930s, the United States constructed dams on the lower Columbia River for power generation, flood control, channel navigation and irrigation in Washington as part of
12060-405: The British Parliament passed the Quebec Act 1774, expanding Quebec's territory to the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley . More importantly, the Quebec Act afforded Quebec special autonomy and rights of self-administration at a time when the Thirteen Colonies were increasingly agitating against British rule. It re-established the French language, Catholic faith, and French civil law there, staving off
12240-466: The Canadian military ". Canada sent troops to Afghanistan in 2001 , resulting in the largest amount of Canadian deaths for any single military mission since the Korean War in the early 1950s. In 2011, Canadian forces participated in the NATO-led intervention into the Libyan Civil War and also became involved in battling the Islamic State insurgency in Iraq in the mid-2010s. The country celebrated its sesquicentennial in 2017, three years before
12420-500: The Columbia River Treaty because it provided a unique opportunity for hydroelectric development that otherwise would not have been possible (due to the financial situation of the province during that period). It was the hope that these developments would promote industrial growth within the province and help expand the economy. Under the terms of the agreement, Canada was required to provide 19.12 km (15.5 million acre-feet [Maf]) of usable reservoir storage behind three large dams. This
12600-437: The Columbia and Peace rivers and privately owned utility BC Electric was unwilling to pay for hydroelectric development on these rivers. Therefore, the BC Energy Board recommended that hydroelectric development be undertaken as a public venture. On 1 August 1961 Bill 5 was proposed to the BC legislature calling for provincial control over BC Electric and creation of the Peace River Power Development Company. Later that month, Bill 5
12780-453: The Columbia. Lake Koocanusa, Libby Dam's reservoir, extends some distance into Canada. Because this project involved a transboundary reservoir, it was slow to move from planning to construction. By 1966, when construction began, the environmental movement had begun to have some political currency. Environmental impact assessments found that this dam would be deleterious to a variety of large game animals, including big-horned sheep and elk. While
12960-423: The Crown the governor general, lieutenant governors , senators, federal court judges, and heads of Crown corporations and government agencies. The leader of the party with the second-most seats usually becomes the leader of the Official Opposition and is part of an adversarial parliamentary system intended to keep the government in check. The Parliament of Canada passes all federal statute laws. It comprises
13140-583: The Duncan Dam which ruined kilometers of spawning grounds key to Kokanee, Bull Trout and Rainbow Trout survival. Since Rainbow and Bull Trout feed on Kokanee, it was essential Kokanee stock remained strong. As a result, BC Hydro funded the construction of Meadow Creek Spawning Channel in 1967, which is 3.3 km (2.1 miles) long, and at the time was longest human-made spawning ground and first made for fresh water sport fish. The channel supports 250,000 spawning Kokanee every year, resulting in 10 to 15 million fry, with
13320-482: The Entities in resolving any disputes. As payment for the U.S. benefits realized by the Canadian storage operation, the treaty required the U.S. to: The Canadian Entitlement is calculated five years in advance for each operating year using an agreed treaty calculation method, and the amount varies mainly as a function of forecasted power loads, thermal generating resources and operating procedures. The method gives Canada
13500-732: The First Nations to education, government and legal rights. Because Britain still maintained control of Canada's foreign affairs under the British North America Act, 1867, its declaration of war in 1914 automatically brought Canada into the First World War . Volunteers sent to the Western Front later became part of the Canadian Corps , which played a substantial role in the Battle of Vimy Ridge and other major engagements of
13680-571: The Forest Service, highways and water resources were secretly tapped for funds. It has become obvious, in retrospect, that the 30-year sale of the Canadian Entitlement was underestimated at the time of the treaty signing. W. A. C. Bennett 's administration has often been criticized for being short-sighted in initial negotiations, but it was difficult to accurately value these agreements at the time. In 1960, Columbia River power produced half
13860-566: The Legislative Assembly (MLA) to support them, allowing them to form a minority government . As not even the Socreds expected to win the election, they now found themselves with the task of electing a leader who would become the province's new Premier. Party president Lyle Wicks called a leadership convention at which only elected MLAs could vote. The 19 newly elected Social Credit MLAs chose former BC Conservative MLA W. A. C. Bennett , one of only three Socreds with previous experience in
14040-638: The Libby Dam opened the possibilities of downstream irrigation, scientists determined that it would also destroy valuable wetland ecosystems and alter the river hydrology throughout the area of its extent, in the reservoir and far downstream. Under pressure from environmental activist groups, the Army Corps of Engineers developed a mitigation plan that represents a major departure from the previous treaty dams. This plan addressed concerns about fish by building hatcheries, acquired land to serve as grazing areas for animals whose normal ranges were submerged, and implemented
14220-645: The Liberals as their second choice and vice versa, the two parties believed they'd garner enough votes between them to stay in power. Meanwhile, the Social Credit League went into the election under the interim leadership of the Reverend Ernest George Hansell , Member of the federal Parliament for the Alberta riding of Macleod since 1935. Hansell was hand-picked by Alberta premier Ernest Manning , as
14400-561: The Liberals. The collapse of the British Columbia Socreds within only one term of losing power was especially remarkable considering their Alberta counterparts managed to maintain at least a nominal presence in the legislature for a decade after their defeat in 1971. In 2001, at the behest of former leader Vander Zalm–now leader of Reform BC–the Social Credit Party merged with other minor provincial right-wing parties to form
14580-627: The Métis' grievances ignited the Red River Rebellion and the creation of the province of Manitoba in July 1870. British Columbia and Vancouver Island (which had been united in 1866) joined the confederation in 1871 on the promise of a transcontinental railway extending to Victoria in the province within 10 years, while Prince Edward Island joined in 1873. In 1898, during the Klondike Gold Rush in
14760-532: The Norse built a small short-lived encampment that was occupied sporadically for perhaps 20 years at L'Anse aux Meadows on the northern tip of Newfoundland . No further European exploration occurred until 1497, when seafarer John Cabot explored and claimed Canada's Atlantic coast in the name of Henry VII of England . In 1534, French explorer Jacques Cartier explored the Gulf of Saint Lawrence where, on July 24, he planted
14940-700: The Northwest Territories, Parliament created the Yukon Territory. Alberta and Saskatchewan became provinces in 1905. Between 1871 and 1896, almost one quarter of the Canadian population emigrated south to the US. To open the West and encourage European immigration, the Government of Canada sponsored the construction of three transcontinental railways (including the Canadian Pacific Railway ), passed
15120-660: The Northwestern States. Indirect benefits to the province have included the creation of employment opportunities for several thousand people in the construction and operation of dams as well as lower power rates for customers in both BC and the Northwestern U.S. Furthermore, many later developments in BC were made possible by the CRT because of water regulation provided by upstream storage. The Kootenay Canal Plant (1975), Revelstoke Dam (1984), 185 MW Arrow Lakes Generating Station and
15300-480: The Parliament of Canada. British Columbia Social Credit Party Although founded as part of the Canadian social credit movement , promoting social credit policies of monetary reform , the BC Social Credit Party later discarded the ideology and became a political vehicle for fiscal conservatives and later social conservatives in British Columbia. The party collapsed within one term of its 1991 defeat. It
15480-488: The Peace River to fuel northern expansion and development, while using the Columbia River to provide power to growing industries throughout the province. The ongoing negotiations of the Columbia River Treaty provided a unique opportunity for Bennett to fulfil his Two Rivers Policy by working around British Columbia's monetary issues. During the 1950s, the government of British Columbia lacked the funds necessary to develop both
15660-621: The Saint Lawrence River. Following the British conquest of New France , this area was known as the British Province of Quebec from 1763 to 1791. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada . These two colonies were collectively named the Canadas until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867 , Canada
15840-661: The Sinixt were labeled as officially extinct by the Canadian government in 1953 despite many Sinixt people still being alive. It is questionable the timing of labeling these people extinct, with the quick follow up of signing the Columbia River Treat a few years after. With that in mind Indian Affairs of Canada had to power to possibly influence the signing of the dams in particular the Libby and Wardner Dam and potential cost of replacement as well as "rehabilitating Indians". However, due to
16020-682: The United Kingdom. The delay underscored Canada's independence. The first Canadian Army units arrived in Britain in December 1939. In all, over a million Canadians served in the armed forces during the Second World War . Canadian troops played important roles in many key battles of the war, including the failed 1942 Dieppe Raid , the Allied invasion of Italy , the Normandy landings , the Battle of Normandy , and
16200-538: The United States is the world's longest international land border. The country is characterized by a wide range of both meteorologic and geological regions. With a population of just over 41 million people, it has widely varying population densities, with the majority residing in urban areas and large areas of the country being sparsely populated. Canada's capital is Ottawa and its three largest metropolitan areas are Toronto , Montreal , and Vancouver . Indigenous peoples have continuously inhabited what
16380-617: The United States in 1846 ended the Oregon boundary dispute , extending the border westward along the 49th parallel . This paved the way for British colonies on Vancouver Island (1849) and in British Columbia (1858) . The Anglo-Russian Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1825) established the border along the Pacific coast, but, even after the US Alaska Purchase of 1867, disputes continued about
16560-466: The abortive Rebellions of 1837 . The Durham Report subsequently recommended responsible government and the assimilation of French Canadians into English culture. The Act of Union 1840 merged the Canadas into a united Province of Canada and responsible government was established for all provinces of British North America east of Lake Superior by 1855. The signing of the Oregon Treaty by Britain and
16740-482: The border. BC Premier W. A. C. Bennett was a major player in negotiating the treaty and, according to U.S. Senator Clarence Dill , was a tough bargainer. The U.S. paid C$ 275 million, which accrued to C$ 458 million after interest. But Bennett's successor Dave Barrett was skeptical about the deal; he observed that the three dams and associated power lines ultimately cost three times that figure, in addition to other costs. Dr. Hugh L. Keenleyside (for whom Keenleyside dam
16920-656: The centre of the political scale. Five parties had representatives elected to the Parliament in the 2021 election —the Liberals, who formed a minority government; the Conservatives, who became the Official Opposition ; the New Democratic Party (occupying the left ); the Bloc Québécois ; and the Green Party . Far-right and far-left politics have never been a prominent force in Canadian society. Canada has
17100-420: The compensation process. These communities came with BC Hydro electricity, running water, telephone services, a school, a church, a park and stores. Finally, building the dam did provide work for many families, and supplied electricity to remote communities that were once out of reach of BC's transmission grid, and dependent on gas and diesel generators. Despite receiving physical reimbursement, Wilson argues that
17280-548: The constitution. The Supreme Court of Canada is the highest court, final arbiter, and has been led since 2017 by Richard Wagner , the Chief Justice of Canada . The governor general appoints the court's nine members on the advice of the prime minister and minister of justice . The federal Cabinet also appoints justices to superior courts in the provincial and territorial jurisdictions. Common law prevails everywhere except Quebec, where civil law predominates. Criminal law
17460-491: The construction of the Duncan Dam 39 properties were bought and 30 people moved, subsequently at Mica Dam 25 properties including trap lines and other economic resourceful lands were bought. Since Arrow Lake had the largest number of people needing to be relocated it generated the most controversy and varying of opinions. People who worked on the dam felt a sense of pride and purpose for being able to provide for their families on
17640-509: The continent during the North American fur trade . These early European interactions with First Nations would change from friendship and peace treaties to the dispossession of Indigenous lands through treaties . From the late 18th century, European Canadians forced Indigenous peoples to assimilate into a western Canadian society. Settler colonialism reached a climax in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. A period of redress began with
17820-410: The cost to BC to build the three dams exceeded the revenue initially received from the sale of downstream power and flood control benefits. The province also had to pay for improved highway, bridges, railway relocation, as well as welfare increases for the people affected by installation of the dams. Because of this deficit, it is alleged that school and hospital construction suffered, and services such as
18000-499: The country and consists of written text and unwritten conventions. The Constitution Act, 1867 (known as the British North America Act, 1867 prior to 1982), affirmed governance based on parliamentary precedent and divided powers between the federal and provincial governments. The Statute of Westminster, 1931 , granted full autonomy, and the Constitution Act, 1982 , ended all legislative ties to Britain, as well as adding
18180-421: The country, particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces, which experience a continental climate , where daily average temperatures are near −15 °C (5 °F ), but can drop below −40 °C (−40 °F) with severe wind chills . In non-coastal regions, snow can cover the ground for almost six months of the year, while in parts of the north snow can persist year-round. Coastal British Columbia has
18360-486: The dams were built, the river flows changed and in some areas the previous maximum and minimum water levels were altered by several tens of meters. High spring–summer flows were reduced, and fall–winter flows were increased to satisfy United States power demands. After the damming, the water during high floods began to cover much of the valley's arable land—and when it was drawn down to produce power it carried away fertile soil, leaving agricultural land useless. Additionally, it
18540-541: The development of infrastructure throughout the province during the 1950s and 1960s. Bennett was the Canadian force behind the Columbia River Treaty and as a believer in the development of public power, he created and promoted a "Two Rivers Policy". This policy outlined the hydroelectric development of two major rivers within the province of British Columbia: the Peace River and the Columbia River . Bennett wanted to develop
18720-487: The development of the Columbia River Basin , was to accomplish with the Columbia River Treaty (CRT) what would not have been possible through either British Columbia (BC) or the U.S. operating individually. It was expected that either additional costs would have been avoided or additional benefits gained by the cooperation between BC/Canada and the U.S. However, many felt that such expectations were left unrealized by
18900-499: The early 1930s saw an economic downturn, leading to hardship across the country. In response to the downturn, the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) in Saskatchewan introduced many elements of a welfare state (as pioneered by Tommy Douglas ) in the 1940s and 1950s. On the advice of Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King , war with Germany was declared effective September 10, 1939, by King George VI , seven days after
19080-497: The effects of the actual treaty. Soon after the treaty came into effect, it became apparent that greater combined returns had not necessarily been achieved than had each country continued operating independently. Others dispute that idea. Over the lifespan of the treaty, both positive and negative impacts have been felt by the province of British Columbia. For BC, the positive impacts of the treaty have included both direct and indirect economic and social benefits. Direct benefits came in
19260-502: The election, accusing him of being out of touch with "the young people of this province." This led to questions about whether the party had become tired and complacent after 20 years in power. Nonetheless, it came as a shock when Social Credit was heavily defeated by the British Columbia New Democratic Party (BC NDP) under Dave Barrett , falling to only 10 seats. W. A. C. Bennett's son, Bill Bennett , took over
19440-624: The emergence of a new Canadian identity , marked by the adoption of the maple leaf flag in 1965, the implementation of official bilingualism (English and French) in 1969, and the institution of official multiculturalism in 1971. Socially democratic programs were also instituted, such as Medicare , the Canada Pension Plan , and Canada Student Loans ; though, provincial governments, particularly Quebec and Alberta, opposed many of these as incursions into their jurisdictions. Finally, another series of constitutional conferences resulted in
19620-581: The emotional loss of peoples homes and familiar landscape could not be compensated, and increased the physical and psychological stress of relocating their homes and communities. The emotional loss was especially difficult for the First Nations people living around these areas. The Sinixt people who occupied the Columbia River Valley for thousands of years, lost sacred burial grounds, an extremely devastating experience for their community. Furthermore,
19800-666: The end of the 30-year sale of the Canadian Entitlement to the U.S. in March 2003, the U.S. delivery of the Entitlement power to BC has been a benefit far greater than the C$ 5 million per year estimate by the Canadian government in 1964. The BC government reported in Dec. 2012 that the average annual revenue from the Canadian Entitlement power, which is marketed by POWEREX for the Province, over the previous ten years
19980-459: The entity responsible for Canadian dams outlined in the treaty and annual operations of the treaty. Bennett directed the negotiations for a Canadian Entitlement sales agreement which provided the funds to develop both the Columbia and the Peace rivers simultaneously. Since it was illegal for Canada to export power during the 1950s and 1960s, the funds provided by the Columbia River Treaty entitlement were
20160-663: The exact demarcation of the Alaska–Yukon and Alaska–BC border. Following three constitutional conferences, the British North America Act, 1867 officially proclaimed Canadian Confederation on July 1, 1867, initially with four provinces: Ontario , Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. Canada assumed control of Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory to form the Northwest Territories , where
20340-416: The federal government and the 10 provinces. Provincial legislatures are unicameral and operate in parliamentary fashion similar to the House of Commons. Canada's three territories also have legislatures, but these are not sovereign, have fewer constitutional responsibilities than the provinces, and differ structurally from their provincial counterparts. The Constitution of Canada is the supreme law of
20520-488: The federal jurisdiction. It is very highly ranked in international measurements of government transparency, quality of life, economic competitiveness, innovation, education and human rights. It is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration . Canada's long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its history , economy , and culture . A developed country , Canada has
20700-534: The first permanent year-round European settlements at Port Royal (in 1605) and Quebec City (in 1608). Among the colonists of New France, Canadiens extensively settled the Saint Lawrence River valley and Acadians settled the present-day Maritimes , while fur traders and Catholic missionaries explored the Great Lakes , Hudson Bay , and the Mississippi watershed to Louisiana . The Beaver Wars broke out in
20880-493: The first time since 1952. Gillanders took part in the leaders' debate, but pulled out of the campaign just before the vote and urged all non-socialist parties to present a united front against the BC NDP. The Social Credit Party was completely shut out of the legislature, garnering only 0.6 percent of the vote. At this point, the party was largely considered a dead force in BC politics, with most of its remaining members joining Reform or
21060-455: The form of better flood protection, increased power generation at both new and existing facilities, assured winter flows (for power) and the Canadian Entitlement power currently owed to BC by the U.S. (valued at approximately $ 300 million annually). At the beginning of the treaty, the province received lump sum payments from the U.S. for the sale of the Canadian Entitlement for 30 years and for the provision of 60 years of assured flood protection to
21240-493: The formation of a reconciliation commission by the Government of Canada in 2008. This included acknowledgment of cultural genocide , settlement agreements , and betterment of racial discrimination issues, such as addressing the plight of missing and murdered Indigenous women . It is believed that the first documented European to explore the east coast of Canada was Norse explorer Leif Erikson . In approximately 1000 AD,
21420-441: The full potential of the river could only be harnessed through transboundary cooperation to create additional storage capacity above the existing lower Columbia complex. With the storage provided in Canada, water releases could be timed to meet power demand, rather than relying on the snowmelt-determined natural flow rates of the river. British Columbia Premier W. A. C. Bennett and his Social Credit Government were responsible for
21600-541: The fur trade, conflicts with the colonial authorities and settlers, and the loss of Indigenous lands to settlers and the subsequent collapse of several nations' self-sufficiency. Although not without conflict, European Canadians ' early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful. First Nations and Métis peoples played a critical part in the development of European colonies in Canada , particularly for their role in assisting European coureurs des bois and voyageurs in their explorations of
21780-480: The government's hydroelectric dam construction program. It also formed BC Ferries in 1958, and established the Bank of British Columbia , which was 25% owned by the provincial government. The Social Credit Party would win five more terms in government, each time with fairly large majorities. However, this streak ended in 1972 amid a gaffe-prone campaign. For instance, Gagliardi suggested that Bennett would stand down after
21960-586: The growth of an independence movement in contrast to the Thirteen Colonies. The Proclamation and the Quebec Act in turn angered many residents of the Thirteen Colonies, further fuelling anti-British sentiment in the years prior to the American Revolution . After the successful American War of Independence, the 1783 Treaty of Paris recognized the independence of the newly formed United States and set
22140-505: The impetus for construction, as part of the New Deal make-work program. Construction on the Bonneville and Grand Coulee dams began during this period, but government involvement in Columbia dam construction has continued through to the present. The long range plans for American development of the Columbia for hydroelectricity came together in the late 1930s. In 1937, the U.S. Congress passed
22320-509: The introduction of European cattle farms and wheat fields dominating the land. The Indigenous peoples saw widespread famine and disease due to the loss of the bison and their traditional hunting lands. The federal government did provide emergency relief, on condition of the Indigenous peoples moving to the reserves. During this time, Canada introduced the Indian Act extending its control over
22500-665: The land submerged by the Libby Dam reservoir and Canada does not pay the U.S. for the resulting power and flood control benefits downstream on the Kootenay River. With the exception of the Mica Dam, which was designed and constructed with a powerhouse, the Canadian Treaty projects were initially built for the sole purpose of regulating water flow. In 2002, however, a joint venture between the Columbia Power Corporation and
22680-534: The land susceptible to wind erosion, creating sandstorms. Conversely, in wet periods, the cleared areas turned into vast mud flats. In the late 1940s, the BC Fish and Wildlife Branch began studying the impacts the dams were having on the area's animal inhabitants. Their findings resulted in a small sum being designated for further research and harm mitigation. Their work, in collaboration with local conservation groups, became focused on preserving Kokanee stock jeopardized by
22860-458: The leadership of the party in 1973. The younger Bennett modernized the party and abandoned populism. Instead, the party became a coalition of federal Liberals , Christian conservatives from the province's Bible Belt, and fiscal conservatives from the corporate sector with the latter firmly in control. Bill Bennett led the Socreds back to power at the 1975 election , mainly by dominating the province outside of Vancouver. The younger Bennett, for
23040-407: The legislature, to lead the new government over Philip Gaglardi . Bennett had joined the Socreds only in December, doing so with the tacit support of the federal Conservative caucus . The federal Conservatives were displeased that their provincial counterparts had sat out the previous two elections so as not to embarrass their Liberal partners. Nine months into the new term, Bennett deliberately lost
23220-438: The local communities, and the environmental effects associated with the construction and operation of large dams. In 1944, the Canadian and U.S. governments agreed to begin studying the potential for joint development of dams in the Columbia River basin. Planning efforts were slow until the 1948 Columbia River flood caused extensive damage from Trail, British Columbia , to near Astoria, Oregon , completely destroying Vanport ,
23400-761: The main front in the War of 1812 between the United States and the United Kingdom . Peace came in 1815; no boundaries were changed. Immigration resumed at a higher level, with over 960,000 arrivals from Britain between 1815 and 1850. New arrivals included refugees escaping the Great Irish Famine as well as Gaelic -speaking Scots displaced by the Highland Clearances . Infectious diseases killed between 25 and 33 percent of Europeans who immigrated to Canada before 1891. The desire for responsible government resulted in
23580-471: The mean egg to fry survival rate at around 45%. BC Hydro has also provided some funding to Creston Valley Wildlife Management Area to help alleviate damage done by Duncan Dam to surrounding habitats. The area is a seasonal home to many unique bird species, such as Tundra Swans, Greater White-Fronted Geese and many birds of prey. Such species are sensitive to changes in the river as they rely on it for food and their nesting grounds are typically found quite close to
23760-659: The mid-17th century over control of the North American fur trade. The English established additional settlements in Newfoundland in 1610 along with settlements in the Thirteen Colonies to the south. A series of four wars erupted in colonial North America between 1689 and 1763; the later wars of the period constituted the North American theatre of the Seven Years' War . Mainland Nova Scotia came under British rule with
23940-514: The monarch, the House of Commons, and the Senate . While Canada inherited the British concept of parliamentary supremacy , this was later, with the enactment of the Constitution Act, 1982, all but completely superseded by the American notion of the supremacy of the law . Each of the 338 members of Parliament in the House of Commons is elected by simple plurality in an electoral district or riding. The Constitution Act, 1982 , requires that no more than five years pass between elections, although
24120-466: The most part, eschewed the megaprojects of the elder Bennett (with the exception of Expo 86 and the Coquihalla Highway ), and embraced a fiscally conservative program. As a result, the party built up a small political engine that managed to win two more terms in 1979 and 1983 general elections , in spite of Bennett's controversial "Restraint" program. This was nicknamed the "Baby Blue Machine", and consisted of political advisors primarily imported from
24300-532: The most visible results of the treaty in the U.S., there were long-ranging environmental implications of the new management regime. The increased storage capacity in the Upper Columbia dams afforded river managers a much greater degree of control over the river's hydrograph. Peak flows could now be more dramatically reduced, and low flows bolstered by controlled releases from storage. Peak power demands tend to occur in midwinter and midsummer, so river managers calibrate releases to coincide with periods of high demand. This
24480-582: The name of the national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day . The first inhabitants of North America are generally hypothesized to have migrated from Siberia by way of the Bering land bridge and arrived at least 14,000 years ago. The Paleo-Indian archeological sites at Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are two of the oldest sites of human habitation in Canada. The characteristics of Indigenous societies included permanent settlements, agriculture, complex societal hierarchies, and trading networks. Some of these cultures had collapsed by
24660-482: The only affordable way for British Columbia to develop both rivers, thus the treaty became integral to Bennett's vision of power in British Columbia. With the cash received from the sale of the additional power generation of the Canadian Entitlement (approximately C$ 274.8 million in September 1964 for the first 30 years) the BC government proceeded to develop power facilities on both the Columbia and Peace Rivers, fulfilling Bennett's 'Two River Policy'. In short, BC pursued
24840-421: The party; Vander Zalm himself was a member of the social conservative wing. Vander Zalm easily led the Socreds to a fourth consecutive term in government in the election later that year . Although it was not apparent at the time, the downfall of the party began almost as soon as Vander Zalm took the premiership. Many moderate Socreds were dissatisfied at the party's social conservative turn. They began drifting to
25020-404: The permafrost is uncertain because the Arctic has been warming at three times the global average as a result of climate change in Canada . Canada's annual average temperature over land has risen by 1.7 °C (3.1 °F), with changes ranging from 1.1 to 2.3 °C (2.0 to 4.1 °F) in various regions, since 1948. The rate of warming has been higher across the North and in the Prairies. In
25200-451: The physical value of the resident's houses they were unable to include the losses that went along with living self-sufficiently, which was a lifestyle that would not be possible in a city or urban area. The kind of wealth that went unnoticed consisted of agriculture, livestock, tourism and lumber. Paying minimal taxes also enabled a self-sufficient lifestyle with little cost. In addition, from an outsiders perspective it seemed as though BC Hydro
25380-488: The provinces collect more revenue than the federal government, equalization payments are made by the federal government to ensure reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces. The major difference between a Canadian province and a territory is that provinces receive their sovereignty from the Crown and power and authority from the Constitution Act, 1867 , whereas territorial governments have powers delegated to them by
25560-448: The push to assimilate First Nations people into a cash-based economy, and no reserves being physically affected by the dams, Indian Affairs had minimal participation and influence. Once again, like BC Hydro, Indian Affairs disregarded hunting, fishing, gathering and sacred grounds as having either material, emotional or spiritual significance to First Nations people. The objective of the International Joint Commission (IJC), with regard to
25740-411: The review. There was initial controversy over the Columbia River Treaty when British Columbia refused to give consent to ratify it on the grounds that while the province would be committed to building the three major dams within its borders, it would have no assurance of a purchaser for the Canadian Entitlement which was surplus to the province's needs at the time. The final ratification came in 1964 when
25920-736: The rights they support were reaffirmed by section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982 . These rights may include provision of services, such as healthcare through the Indian Health Transfer Policy , and exemption from taxation. Canada is a federation composed of 10 federated states , called provinces, and three federal territories . These may be grouped into four main regions : Western Canada , Central Canada , Atlantic Canada , and Northern Canada ( Eastern Canada refers to Central Canada and Atlantic Canada together). Provinces and territories have responsibility for social programs such as healthcare , education , and social programs , as well as administration of justice (but not criminal law). Although
26100-401: The second-largest city in Oregon. The increased interest in flood protection and the growing need for power development initiated 11 years of discussion and alternative proposals for construction of dams in Canada. In 1959, the governments issued a report that recommended principles for negotiating an agreement and apportioning the costs and benefits. Formal negotiations began in February 1960 and
26280-428: The sharing with Canada of half of the downstream U.S. power and flood benefits, and allows the operation of Treaty storage for other benefits. The long-term impacts of the treaty have been mixed: while the dams have provided enormous economic benefits to British Columbia and the U.S. Pacific Northwest through hydroelectric generation and flood control, there are longstanding concerns regarding social and economic impacts to
26460-431: The signing of the treaty, professors, politicians and experts across BC were divided on how beneficial it was to the province. Many said that the terms of the treaty would never have been accepted in their present day. The negative impacts of the CRT have affected both the economy and the environment of BC. Treaty revenue from U.S. was used to pay in part for the construction of the Duncan , Keenleyside and Mica dams, but
26640-585: The southeast. Canada is also home to the world's northernmost settlement, Canadian Forces Station Alert , on the northern tip of Ellesmere Island —latitude 82.5°N—which lies 817 kilometres (508 mi) from the North Pole. In latitude, Canada's most northerly point of land is Cape Columbia in Nunavut at 83°6′41″N, with its southern extreme at Middle Island in Lake Erie at 41°40′53″N. In longitude, Canada's land extends from Cape Spear , Newfoundland, at 52°37'W, to Mount St. Elias , Yukon Territory, at 141°W. Canada can be divided into seven physiographic regions:
26820-422: The southern regions of Canada, air pollution from both Canada and the United States—caused by metal smelting, burning coal to power utilities, and vehicle emissions—has resulted in acid rain , which has severely impacted waterways, forest growth, and agricultural productivity. Canada is one of the largest greenhouse gas emitters globally , with emissions increased by 16.5 percent between 1990 and 2022. Canada
27000-438: The terms of peace, ceding British North American territories south of the Great Lakes and east of the Mississippi River to the new country. The American war of independence also caused a large out-migration of Loyalists , the settlers who had fought against American independence. Many moved to Canada, particularly Atlantic Canada, where their arrival changed the demographic distribution of the existing territories. New Brunswick
27180-413: The three Canadian Treaty projects are required to operate for flood protection and increased power generation at-site and downstream in both Canada and the United States, although the allocation of water storage operations among the three projects is at Canadian discretion. The downstream power and flood control benefits in the United States created by the operation of Canada's Treaty reservoirs are shared by
27360-446: The time European explorers arrived in the late 15th and early 16th centuries and have only been discovered through archeological investigations. Indigenous peoples in present-day Canada include the First Nations , Inuit , and Métis , the last being of mixed descent who originated in the mid-17th century when First Nations people married European settlers and subsequently developed their own identity. The Indigenous population at
27540-446: The time of the first European settlements is estimated to have been between 200,000 and two million, with a figure of 500,000 accepted by Canada's Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples . As a consequence of European colonization, the Indigenous population declined by forty to eighty percent. The decline is attributed to several causes, including the transfer of European diseases , to which they had no natural immunity, conflicts over
27720-480: The total). The party hadn't had a full-time leader since 2000; Mitton was the de facto leader during the campaign. Mitton left to become leader of the British Columbia Party , leaving Woolsey as de facto party leader. In the 2005 election , only two Socreds filed: Woolsey, who won 254 votes (1.28% of the total) in Vancouver-Hastings, and Anthony Yao, who won 225 votes (0.95% of the total) in Port Coquitlam-Burke Mountain . The party did not field any candidates in
27900-418: The treaty is terminated, several provisions continue including Called Upon flood control, operation and coordination of Libby, and Kootenay River diversion rights. The Canadian and U.S. governments are reviewing the treaty before the 2014 opportunity for notice for earliest termination. Options generally fall into three categories: The BC and US governments launched websites to inform and engage citizens about
28080-446: The treaty permits the Entities to incorporate a broad range of interests into the "Detailed Operating Plans" that are agreed to immediately prior to the operating year, and which modify the "Assured Operating Plans" to produce results more advantageous to both countries. For more than 20 years, the "Detailed Operating Plans" have included a growing number of fish-friendly operations designed to address environmental concerns on both sides of
28260-537: The treaty was signed 17 January 1961 by Prime Minister Diefenbaker and President Eisenhower . The treaty was not implemented until over three years later because of difficulties in creating arrangements for funding the construction of the Canadian dams and marketing the electrical power owed to Canada which was surplus to Canadian needs during the early treaty years. A Treaty Protocol and a Canada-BC agreement were signed in January 1964 that limited and clarified many treaty provisions, defined rights and obligations between
28440-510: The turbines, but old estimates range between 8 and 12% per dam. If a fish hatches high upstream they will have to swim through multiple dams, leading to possible cumulative losses of over 50 to 80% of the migrating fry. Efforts to make turbines safer for fish to pass through have significantly reduced fish loses to near pre-dam levels. While hatcheries appear to be quite successful for some species of fish, their efforts to increase fish populations will not be effective until up and downstream migration
28620-426: The two countries in accordance with Treaty provisions. The treaty also allowed the U.S. to build the Libby Dam on the Kootenai River in Montana which provides a further 6.14 km (4.98 Maf) of active storage in the Koocanusa reservoir. Although the name sounds like it might be of aboriginal origins, it is actually a concatenation of the first three letters from Koo tenai / Koo tenay, Can ada and USA , and
28800-434: The value of flooded forest land was ever made; land which could have produced valuable timber for the BC economy. The Columbia River has the greatest annual drainage as compared to all other rivers along the Pacific coast. Before the introduction of dams on the river, the changes in water level rose and fell predictably with the seasons and a nine-meter displacement existed between the spring snowmelt highs and fall lows. After
28980-410: The village of Stadacona . Cartier later used the word Canada to refer not only to that particular village but to the entire area subject to Donnacona (the chief at Stadacona); by 1545, European books and maps had begun referring to this small region along the Saint Lawrence River as Canada . From the 16th to the early 18th century, Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along
29160-423: The war with a large army and strong economy. The financial crisis of the Great Depression led the Dominion of Newfoundland to relinquish responsible government in 1934 and become a Crown colony ruled by a British governor. After two referendums , Newfoundlanders voted to join Canada in 1949 as a province. Canada's post-war economic growth, combined with the policies of successive Liberal governments, led to
29340-428: The war. The Conscription Crisis of 1917 erupted when the Unionist Cabinet's proposal to augment the military's dwindling number of active members with conscription was met with vehement objections from French-speaking Quebecers. In 1919, Canada joined the League of Nations independently of Britain, and the Statute of Westminster, 1931 , affirmed Canada's independence. The Great Depression in Canada during
29520-446: The water. BC Hydro, in partnership with the Province of BC and Fisheries and Oceans Canada, has also been contributing to the Columbia Basin Fish and Wildlife Compensation Program since 1988. Unlike the Columbia's Canadian reach, the U.S. portion of the river had already been heavily developed by the time the treaty entered into force. Because the U.S. role in the agreement was largely to supply power-generating capacity, and that capacity
29700-410: The world's longest coastline of 243,042 kilometres (151,019 mi). In addition to sharing the world's largest land border with the United States —spanning 8,891 km (5,525 mi) —Canada shares a land border with Greenland (and hence the Kingdom of Denmark ) to the northeast, on Hans Island , and a maritime boundary with France 's overseas collectivity of Saint Pierre and Miquelon to
29880-449: The year, aquatic habitat and food source availability become unreliable. Plankton, a main staple of salmon and trout's diet, is especially sensitive to changes in water level. Nutrient-rich sediment, that would previously have flowed downstream, becomes trapped in the reservoirs above dams, resulting in changes in water properties and temperatures on either side of the barrier. A difference in water temperature of 9 degrees Celsius (48 °F)
30060-421: Was C$ 202 million per year. Those revenues go into the Province's Consolidated Revenue Fund. Various attitudes were generated from local residents who would be affected directly or indirectly by the construction of the Columbia River Treaty dams. BC Hydro had to relocate and compensate for people's loss of land and homes. In Arrow Lake , 3,144 properties had to be bought and 1,350 people had to be relocated. With
30240-528: Was a 33% increase over ten years, and he noted that during that time the average cost of dams and reservoirs in Canada increased by 80%. The value of the U.S. power and flood control payments in 1973 dollars, which had increased with interest, was C$ 479 million; leaving a deficit of C$ 69 million. For this cost, BC was then able to add a power house at Mica, and later at Kootenay Canal, Revelstoke and Keenleyside, and construct transmission lines, to delivery power to major load centers far cheaper than alternatives. Since
30420-427: Was adopted as the legal name for the new country at the London Conference and the word dominion was conferred as the country's title. By the 1950s, the term Dominion of Canada was no longer used by the United Kingdom, which considered Canada a "realm of the Commonwealth". The Canada Act 1982 , which brought the Constitution of Canada fully under Canadian control, referred only to Canada . Later that year,
30600-413: Was already in place, it was not obligated to construct any new dams. While in the Upper Columbia, treaty dams meant the filling of large reservoirs, submerging large tracts of land, on the Lower Columbia no new dams had to be built. The local effects of dam construction were limited to those of the Libby Dam in Montana. The U.S. was authorized to build this optional dam on the Kootenay River, a tributary of
30780-506: Was being fair with the resident's settlement prices for their land and homes. However, many people thought that the settlement prices from BC Hydro were unfair, but were intimidated and felt powerless to challenge them in court, so they accepted the prices begrudgingly. The residents questioned what benefits the dam would have for them if they were just going to be relocated, and lose money in the long run. However, BC Hydro built new communities for those living from Nakusp to Edgewood, as part of
30960-403: Was elected to replace Johnston. McCarthy didn't get a chance to get into the legislature until February 1994, when she ran in a by-election for Matsqui , a longtime Socred stronghold. She lost to Liberal Mike de Jong by fewer than 100 votes. After McCarthy's by-election loss, Social Credit collapsed with dramatic speed. Four of the seven Social Credit MLAs elected in 1991 left the party to join
31140-507: Was in turn split from Nova Scotia as part of a reorganization of Loyalist settlements in the Maritimes, which led to the incorporation of Saint John, New Brunswick , as Canada's first city. To accommodate the influx of English-speaking Loyalists in Central Canada, the Constitutional Act of 1791 divided the province of Canada into French-speaking Lower Canada (later Quebec ) and English-speaking Upper Canada (later Ontario ), granting each its own elected legislative assembly. The Canadas were
31320-422: Was not represented in the Legislative Assembly of British Columbia after 1996, and only existed in a nominal fashion after 2001. In 2013, the party was deregistered for failing to nominate more than two candidates in two consecutive provincial elections. The party re-registered in June 2016 to participate in the 2017 election , but only nominated the minimum of two candidates. It did not nominate any candidates in
31500-452: Was once measured between the Columbia and its tributary the Snake River. When silt settles to the bottom of the river or reservoir it covers rocks, ruins spawning grounds and eliminates all hiding place for smaller fish to escape from predators. Alteration in water quality, such as acidity or gas saturation, may not be visually dramatic, but can be deadly to certain types of aquatic life. The Columbia River, with its series of dams and reservoirs,
31680-430: Was passed by Parliament, outlining the terms of a negotiated departure from Confederation. In addition to the issues of Quebec sovereignty, a number of crises shook Canadian society in the late 1980s and early 1990s. These included the explosion of Air India Flight 182 in 1985, the largest mass murder in Canadian history; the École Polytechnique massacre in 1989, a university shooting targeting female students; and
31860-463: Was passed into law paving the way for the creation of BC Hydro in 1963, completing Bennett's vision of "public power". BC Hydro thereafter consisted of BC Electric, the Peace River Power Development Company and the BC Power Commission. The creation of a government-owned power entity allowed Bennett to finance the dams and powerhouses on the Columbia at lower interest rates, thus reducing the cost. The BC-Canada Agreement of 8 July 1963 designated BC Hydro as
32040-399: Was tenuous at best. Finally, in 1971, the BC Socreds formally severed their ties to the federal Socreds in order to make it easier for staunch Tories and Liberals to support it at the provincial level. Despite being a free market party, the Bennett government formed BC Hydro in 1961 by nationalizing the province's largest private hydroelectric concern to make sure that it could not oppose
32220-414: Was the winning entry in a contest to name the reservoir. Water behind the Libby dam floods back 42 mi (68 km) into Canada, while the water released from the dam returns to Canada just upstream of Kootenay Lake. Libby Dam began operation in March 1972 and is operated for power, flood control and other benefits at-site and downstream in both Canada and the United States. The U.S. did not pay Canada for
32400-451: Was to be accomplished with 1.73 km (1.4 Maf) provided by Duncan Dam (1967), 8.76 km (7.1 Maf) provided by Arrow Dam (1968) (subsequently renamed the Hugh Keenleyside Dam ), and 8.63 km (7.0 Maf) provided by Mica Dam (1973). The latter dam, however, was built higher than required by the treaty, and thus provides a total of 14.80 km (12 Maf) including 6.17 km (5.0 Maf) of Non Treaty Storage space. Unless otherwise agreed,
#491508