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52-561: Cochise ( / k oʊ ˈ tʃ iː s / koh- CHEESS ; Apache : Shi-ka-She or A-da-tli-chi , lit.   ' having the quality/strength of an oak ' ; later K'uu-ch'ish or Cheis , lit.   ' oak ' ; c.  1805  – June 8, 1874) was the Mexican leader of the Chiricahui local group of the Chokonen and principal nantan of the Chokonen band of

104-626: A = [ɐ] , aa = [ɑː] . In Western Apache , there is a practice where orthographic vowels o and oo are written as u in certain contexts. These contexts do not include nasalized vowels, so nasal u never occurs in the orthography. This practice continues into the present (perhaps somewhat inconsistently). However, in Harry Hoijer and other American linguists' work all o -vowels are written as o . Similarly, Navajo does not use orthographic u , consistently writing this vowel as o . In Chiricahua and Mescalero , this vowel

156-457: A Chiricahua Apache . A key war leader during the Apache Wars , he led an uprising that began in 1861 and persisted until a peace treaty was negotiated in 1872. Cochise County is named after him. Cochise (or "Cheis") was one of the most noted Apache leaders (along with Geronimo and Mangas Coloradas ) to resist intrusions by Mexicans and Americans during the 19th century. He was described as

208-467: A New Mexico-bound force of California volunteers under General James Henry Carleton until carriage -mounted howitzer artillery fire was brought to bear on their positions in the rocks above. According to scout John C. Cremony and historian Dan L. Thrapp, the howitzer fire sent the Apaches into an immediate retreat. The Battle of Apache Pass was one of the rare pitched battles the Apaches fought against

260-588: A conference under a flag of truce. During what was to be a peaceful parley session, the Americans took Mangas Coloradas prisoner and later murdered him. This fanned the flames of enmity between the encroaching Americans and the Apache. Cochise believed that the Americans had violated the rules of war by capturing and killing Mangas Coloradas during a parley session. Cochise and the Apache continued their raids against U.S. and Mexican settlements and military positions throughout

312-537: A consonant inventory similar to the set of 33 consonants below (based mostly on Western Apache): The practical orthography corresponds to the pronunciation of the Southern Athabaskan languages fairly well (as opposed to the writing systems of English or Vietnamese). Below is a table pairing up the phonetic notation with the orthographic symbol: Some spelling conventions: Southern Athabaskan languages have four vowels of contrasting tongue dimensions (as written in

364-713: A dozen Mexican prisoners. Beginning with early Spanish colonization around 1600, the Apache suffered tension and strife with European settlers until the greater part of the area was acquired by the United States in 1850 following the Mexican War . For a time, the two peoples managed peaceful relations. In the late 1850s, Cochise may have supplied firewood for the Butterfield Overland Mail stagecoach station at Apache Pass . The tenuous peace did not last, as American encroachment into Apache territory continued. In 1861,

416-593: A general "practical" orthography): These vowels may also be short or long and oral (non-nasal) or nasal. Nasal vowels are indicated by an ogonek (or nasal hook) diacritic ˛ in Western Apache, Navajo, Mescalero, and Chiricahua; in Jicarilla, the nasal vowels are indicated by underlining the vowel, results in 16 different vowels: IPA equivalents for Western Apache oral vowels: i = [ɪ] , ii = [iː] , e = [ɛ] , ee = [ɛː] , o = [o] , oo = [ʊː] ,

468-546: A large man (for the time), with a muscular frame, classical features, and long, black hair, which he wore in traditional Apache style. He was about 6 feet (1.8 m) tall and weighed about 175 pounds (79 kg). In his own language, his name Cheis meant "having the quality or strength of oak." Cochise and the Chokonen- Chiricahua lived in the area that is now the northern region of Sonora , Mexico; New Mexico , and Arizona , which they had settled in sometime before

520-402: A long series of retaliatory skirmishes and raids on the white settlements and ranches. The First Battle of Dragoon Springs was one of these engagements. During the raids, many people were killed, but the Apache quite often had the upper hand. The United States was distracted by its own internal conflict of the looming Civil War, and had begun to pull military forces out of the area. Additionally,

572-509: A mid tone, which he indicates with a macron diacritic ¯ , as in ō , ǭ . In Chiricahua , a falling tone can occur on a syllabic n : n̂ . Here are some vowel contrasts involving nasalization, tone, and length from Chiricahua Apache : The Southern Athabascan branch was defined by Harry Hoijer primarily according to its merger of stem -initial consonants of the Proto-Athabascan series *k̯ and *c into *c (in addition to

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624-399: A trail of blood for 500 miles on the old stage line. I want him dead tomorrow morning. Do you understand? I want him dead. That night, Mangas was tortured, shot, and killed under the pretext of a supposed escape attempt. While tied on the ground, Mangas was provoked with red hot bayonets until he moved to simulate his attempt to "escape." The following day, some soldiers who were fascinated by

676-580: A war leader and a chief, joining forces with his friend and long-time companion (and possibly brother-in-law) Cuchillo Negro (Spanish: Black Knife). They began a series of retaliatory raids against the Mexicans, around the mining town and sieged Santa Rita, attacking the column of fleeing Mexicans and slaughtering a large number. Mangas Coloradas became the principal leader of the Coppermine Mimbreños and led them for about 25 years while Cuchillo Negro led

728-483: Is arbitrary and when other sound correspondences are considered the relationships between the languages appear to be more complex. Additionally, it has been pointed out by Martin Huld (1983) that since Plains Apache does not merge Proto-Athabascan *k̯/*c , Plains Apache cannot be considered an Apachean language as defined by Hoijer. Other differences and similarities among the Southern Athabaskan languages can be observed in

780-452: Is present-day southwestern New Mexico . He was the father-in-law of Chiricahua (Tsokanende) chief Cochise , Mimbreño chief Victorio , and Mescalero (Sehende) chief Kutu-hala or Kutbhalla (probably to be identified with Caballero ). He is regarded as one of the most important Native American leaders of the 19th century because of his fighting achievements against the Mexicans and Americans. The name Mangas Coloradas (red sleeves)

832-552: Is written as u in all contexts (including nasalized ų ). Other practices may be used in other Apachean languages. Southern Athabaskan languages are tonal languages. Hoijer and other linguists analyze Southern Athabaskan languages as having four tones (using Americanist transcription system): Rising and falling tones are less common in the language (often occurring over morpheme boundaries) and often occur on long vowels. Vowels can carry tone as well as syllabic n (Example: ń ). The practical orthography has tried to simplify

884-592: The Americanist transcription system by representing only high tone with an acute accent and leaving low tone unmarked: Then, niziz is written instead of the previous nìzìz . Additionally, rising tone on long vowels is indicated by an unmarked first vowel and an acute accent on the second. It is vice versa for falling tone: Nasal vowels carry tone as well, resulting in a two diacritics on vowels with high tone: ą́ (presenting problems for computerization). Recently, de Reuse (2006) has found that Western Apache also has

936-512: The Bascom affair was a catalyst for armed confrontation. An Apache raiding party had driven away a local rancher's cattle and kidnapped his 12-year-old stepson (Felix Ward, who later became known as Mickey Free ). Cochise and his band were mistakenly accused of the incident (which had been carried out by another band, Coyotero Apache). Army officer Lt. George Bascom invited Cochise to the Army's encampment in

988-594: The Mescalero Apache Reservation near Ruidoso, New Mexico, and in Oklahoma with the Fort Sill Apache Tribe of Chiricahua Warm Springs Apache. Whether a portrait of Cochise exists is unknown; a reported portrait is actually that of a 1903 Pueblo of Isleta man named Juan Rey Abeita. Cochise married Dos-teh-seh ( Dos-tes-ey , Doh-teh-seh  – "Something-at-the-campfire-already-cooked", b. 1838),

1040-453: The " Bascom affair ", ended with Cochise's brother and five other warriors being hanged by Bascom. Later that year, Mangas Coloradas and Cochise struck an alliance, agreeing to drive all Americans out of Apache territory. They were joined in their effort by middle-aged Delgadito and Nana , Victorio , Juh and Geronimo. Although the goal was never achieved, the White population in Apache territory

1092-409: The 1860s. Following various skirmishes, Cochise and his men were gradually driven into Arizona's Dragoon Mountains , but used the mountains for cover and as a base from which to continue attacks against white settlements. Cochise evaded capture and continued his raids against white settlements and travelers until 1872. In 1871, General Oliver O. Howard was ordered to find Cochise, and in 1872, Howard

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1144-512: The American government did not want to have peace with them. Mangas arrived under a flag of truce to meet with Brigadier General Joseph R. West , an officer of the California militia and a future Reconstruction senator from Louisiana . Armed soldiers took Mangas into custody. West gave an execution order to the sentries. Men, that old murderer has got away from every soldier command and has left

1196-543: The Apache Indians. However, the negotiations fell apart, because the arrival of U.S. troop reinforcements led Cochise to believe that the situation was spiraling out of his control. Both sides eventually killed all their remaining hostages. Cochise went on to carry out about 11 years of relentless warfare, reducing much of the Mexican/American settlements in southern Arizona to a burned-out wasteland. Dan Thrapp estimated

1248-513: The Apaches were highly adapted to living and fighting in the harsh terrain of the Southwest. Many years passed before the US Army, using tactics conceived by General George Crook and later adopted by General Nelson A. Miles , was able to effectively challenge the Apache warriors on their own lands. At Apache Pass in 1862, Cochise and Mangas Coloradas, with around 500 fighters, held their ground against

1300-427: The Army. Normally, the Apaches' tactics involved guerrilla -style warfare. Capt. Thomas Roberts was persuaded by this conflict that it would be best to find a route around Apache Pass, which he did. Gen. Carleton continued unhindered to New Mexico and subsequently took over as commander of the territory. In January 1863, Gen. Joseph R. West , under orders from Gen. Carleton, captured Mangas Coloradas by luring him into

1352-536: The Mexican government began a series of military operations to stop the raiding by the Chiricahua, but they were fought to a standstill by the Apache. Cochise's father was killed in the fighting. Cochise deepened his resolve, and the Chiricahua Apache pursued vengeance against the Mexicans. Mexican forces captured Cochise at one point in 1848 during an Apache raid on Fronteras , Sonora, but he was exchanged for nearly

1404-557: The Plains Apache group. The Southwestern group can be further divided into two subgroups (A) Western and (B) Eastern. The Western subgroup consists of Western Apache , Navajo , Mescalero , and Chiricahua . The Eastern subgroup consists of Jicarilla and Lipan . Hoijer's classification is based primarily on the differences of the pronunciation of the initial consonant of noun and verb stems. His earlier 1938 classification had only two branches with Plains Apache grouped together with

1456-530: The Tchihende Apache division and his long-time companion. During the 1820s and 1830s, the Apaches' main enemy were the Mexicans, who had won their independence from Spain in 1821. By 1835, Mexico had placed a bounty on Apache scalps . After Juan José Compa, the leader of the Coppermine Mimbreño Apaches, was killed for bounty money in 1837 in the massacre at Santa Rita del Cobre , Mangas became

1508-516: The Tsokanende or Chiricahua Apache. In early February 1861, U.S. Army Lieutenant George Nicholas Bascom , investigating the "Indian" kidnapping of a rancher's son, apparently without orders, lured an innocent Cochise, his family and several warriors into a trap at Apache Pass , southeastern Arizona . Cochise managed to escape, but his family and warriors remained in custody. Negotiations were unsuccessful and fighting erupted. This incident, known as

1560-597: The Warm Springs Mimbreños. In 1846, when the United States went to war with Mexico , the Apache Nation promised U.S. soldiers safe passage through Apache lands. Once the U.S. occupied New Mexico in 1846, Mangas Coloradas signed a peace treaty, respecting them as conquerors of the hated Mexican enemy. An uneasy peace between the Apache and the United States lasted until an influx of gold miners into New Mexico's Pinos Altos Mountains led to open conflict. In 1851

1612-520: The arrival of the European explorers and colonists. As Spain and later Mexico attempted to gain dominion over the Chiricahua lands, the indigenous groups became increasingly resistant. Cycles of warfare developed, which the Apache mostly won. Eventually, the Spanish tried a different approach; they tried to make the Apache dependent (thereby placating them), giving them older firearms and liquor rations issued by

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1664-468: The belief that the warrior was responsible for the incident. Cochise maintained his innocence and offered to look into the matter with other Apache groups, but the officer tried to arrest him. Cochise escaped by drawing a knife and slashing his way out of the tent, but was shot at as he fled. Bascom captured some of Cochise's relatives, who apparently were taken by surprise as Cochise escaped. Cochise eventually also took hostages to use in negotiations to free

1716-650: The chief: if it was true, Geronimo , who spent a great deal of time with Mangas Coloradas during the 1850s and 1860s, would have likely mentioned it to his biographer. In December 1860, 30 miners launched a surprise attack on an encampment of Bedonkohes on the west bank of the Mimbres River . Historian Edwin R. Sweeney reported, the miners "... killed four Indians, wounded others, and captured thirteen women and children." Shortly after that, Mangas began raids against U.S. citizens and their property. Mangas Coloradas' daughter Dos-Teh-Seh married Cochise, principal chief of

1768-401: The colonial government (this was called the "Galvez Peace Policy"). After Mexico gained independence from Spain and took control of this territory, it ended the practice, perhaps lacking the resources (and/or possibly the will) to continue it. The various Chiricahua bands resumed raiding in the 1830s to acquire what they wanted after the Mexicans stopped selling these goods to them. As a result,

1820-520: The daughter of Mangas Coloradas, who was the leader of the Warm Springs and Mimbreño local groups of the Chihenne band. Their children were Taza (1842–1876) and Naiche (1856–1919). Apache language Self-designations for Western Apache and Navajo are N'dee biyat'i, and Diné bizaad or Naabeehó bizaad , respectively. There are several well-known historical people whose first language

1872-453: The discussions continued until the Apaches no longer felt disappointed and betrayed by the newcomers. According to John C. Cremony's book, Life Among the Apaches , in 1861, near the Pinos Altos mining camp, Mangas Coloradas was attacked by a group of white miners who tied him to a tree and severely flogged him. Yet historian Edwin R. Sweeney finds issue with this claim in his biography of

1924-589: The example below, when the Western languages have noun or verb stems that start with t , the related forms in the Eastern languages will start with a k : He later revised his proposal in 1971 when he found that Plains Apache did not participate in the *k̯/*c merger, to consider Plains Apache to be equidistant from the other languages, now called Southwestern Apachean. Thus, some stems that originally started with *k̯ in Proto-Athabascan start with ch in Plains Apache, but

1976-560: The following modified and abbreviated Swadesh list : Mangas Coloradas Mangas Coloradas or Mangus-Colorado (La-choy Ko-kun-noste, alias "Red Sleeves"), or Dasoda-hae (c. 1793 – January 18, 1863) was an Apache tribal chief and a member of the Mimbreño (Tchihende) division of the Central Apaches, whose homeland stretched west from the Rio Grande to include most of what

2028-548: The languages despite the number of child speakers continuing to diminish. Navajo is one of the most vigorous North American languages, but has still faced decline, with use among first-graders decreasing from 90% in 1968 to 30% in 1998. The Southern Athabaskan languages spoken in Mexico are regulated by the Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas (INALI) and have the official status of national languages of Mexico. To revitalize

2080-587: The languages, the institute created a community based Language Planning Council with native speakers to establish and develop grammar rules and the normalization of the writing system, an official alphabet has been validated since then while other grammar topics are still in development. All Southern Athabaskan languages are somewhat similar in their phonology . The following description will concentrate on Western Apache . One can expect minor variations for other related languages (such as Navajo , Jicarilla , Chiricahua ). Southern Athabaskan languages generally have

2132-546: The other Eastern languages (i.e. with Jicarilla and Lipan). Mescalero and Chiricahua are considered different languages even though they are mutually intelligible. Western Apache (especially the Dilzhe'e variety ) and Navajo are closer to each other than either is to Mescalero/Chiricahua. Lipan Apache and Plains Apache are nearly extinct, and Chiricahua is severely endangered. Mescalero, Jicarilla, and Western Apache are considered endangered as well, with some children still learning

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2184-429: The other languages start with ts . Morris Opler (1975) has suggested that Hoijer's original formulation that Jicarilla and Lipan in an Eastern branch was more in agreement with the cultural similarities between both and their differences from the other Western Apachean groups. Other linguists, particularly Michael Krauss (1973), have noted that a classification based only on the initial consonants of noun and verb stems

2236-615: The settlement at Santa Rita del Cobre of the U.S. delegation (with John Russell Bartlett ) in the Mexican-American Border Commission and the reopening of the Santa Rita del Cobre copper mines increased tensions as well. Mangas Coloradas, like Cuchillo Negro, Delgadito , Ponce, Coleto Amarillo, and the most important Tchihende and Ndendahe chiefs, had to face new problems. In June 1851 Mangas Coloradas, Delgadito, Ponce, and Coleto Amarillo met Bartlett in Santa Rita del Cobre;

2288-675: The size of the Apache (Mangas was 6 feet, 6 inches tall), cut off his head, boiled it, and sent the skull to Orson Squire Fowler , a phrenologist in New York City. Analysis of the skull and two sketches of it appear in Fowler's book. Daklugie, one of informants in Eve Ball 's book, said the skull went to the Smithsonian Institution . However, the Smithsonian reported that it never received

2340-466: The skull. Mangas's descendants and sources based on their testimony may have confused the Smithsonian with Fowler's Phrenological Cabinet in New York, where the skull was on display, leading to the misattribution. Another possible fate of the skull was that it was returned to the Apaches by the Smithsonian in a 1990 transfer but was not individually labeled. The mutilation of Mangas's body especially enraged

2392-468: The total death toll of settlers and Mexican/American travelers as 5,000, but most historians believe it was more likely a few hundred. The mistaken arrest of Cochise by Lt. Bascom is still remembered by the Chiricahua's descendants today, who describe the incident as "Cut the Tent". Cochise joined his father-in-law Mangas Coloradas (Red Sleeves, Kan-da-zis Tlishishen ), the powerful Chihenne-Chiricahua chief, in

2444-488: The widespread merger of *č and *čʷ into *č also found in many Northern Athabascan languages). Hoijer (1938) divided the Apachean sub-family into an Eastern branch consisting of Jicarilla, Lipan, and Plains Apache and a Western branch consisting of Navajo, Western Apache (San Carlos), Chiricahua, and Mescalero based on the merger of Proto-Apachean *t and *k to k in the Eastern branch. Thus, as can be seen in

2496-599: Was Geronimo . After the peace treaty, Cochise retired to the short-lived Chiricahua Reservation (1872–1876), with his friend Jeffords as agent. He died of natural causes (probably abdominal cancer) in 1874, and was buried in the rocks above one of his favorite camps in Arizona's Dragoon Mountains, now called the Cochise Stronghold. Only his people and Tom Jeffords knew the exact location of his resting place, which they never disclosed. Many of Cochise's descendants reside at

2548-509: Was Southern Athabaskan. Geronimo (Goyaałé) who spoke Chiricahua was a famous raider and war leader. Manuelito spoke Navajo and is famous for his leadership during and after the Long Walk of the Navajo . The seven Southern Athabaskan languages can be divided into two groups according to the classification of Harry Hoijer : (I) Plains and (II) Southwestern. Plains Apache is the only member of

2600-448: Was accompanied by his aide 1st Lt Joseph A. Sladen and Captain Samuel S. Sumner to Arizona to negotiate a peace treaty with Cochise. Tom Jeffords , the Apache leader's only white friend, was also present. A treaty was negotiated on October 12, 1872. Based on statements by Sumner and descriptions by Sladen, modern historians such as Robert M. Utley believe that Cochise's Spanish interpreter

2652-712: Was given to him by Mexicans. Named A Bedonkohe ( Bi-dan-ku – 'In Front of the End People', Bi-da-a-naka-enda – 'Standing in front of the enemy') by birth, he married into the Copper Mines local group of the Tchihende and became the principal chief of the whole Tchihende Apache division. His influence also included the neighboring Mimbreño local group of the Warm Springs Tchihende, directly led by chief Cuchillo Negro (in Apache language, Baishan ), second chief of

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2704-474: Was greatly reduced for a few years during the Civil War , after federal troops had been withdrawn to the east. In the summer of 1862, after recovering from a bullet wound in the chest, Mangas Coloradas met with an intermediary to call for peace. In January 1863, he decided to meet with U.S. military leaders at Fort McLane ( Apache Tejo ) in southwestern New Mexico. He was promised provisions in return for peace, but

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