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36-454: 321, see text Clusia is the type genus of the plant family Clusiaceae . Comprising 300-400 species, it is native to the Neotropics . The genus is named by Carl Linnaeus in honor of the botanist Carolus Clusius . The closest relatives of Clusia are the neotropical genera Chrysochlamys , Tovomita , Dystovomita and Tovomitopsis . Together with Clusia , these genera form

72-472: A genal ridge that is usually weak below, and rarely reaches below the level of the lower one-fifth to one-fourth of the eye; on the rare occasions that it extends below this level, it will most likely not reach the base of the mandible and will be very weak. Additionally, in P. pacificus , the lobate humeral angle is not defined, and the lower lateral extension of the pronotal ridge will not be depressed. A specimen of P. pacificus may also be identified by

108-401: A native species to the area P. pacificus started a coevolution with avocado species. Although P. pacificus is not as abundant as some of the other insects known to pollinate avocados, it nevertheless contributes to avocado pollination and production. Not only does P. pacificus help pollinate avocados, thus helping to provide a calorie-dense plant-based food source for humans, but it also

144-404: A nominal family-group taxon is a nominal genus called the 'type genus'; the family-group name is based upon that of the type genus." Any family-group name must have a type genus (and any genus-group name must have a type species , but any species-group name may, but need not, have one or more type specimens). The type genus for a family-group name is also the genus that provided the stem to which

180-699: A number of Neotropical vegetation types, and may even be dominant, as is often seen in montane forests of the Greater Antilles . Most species are found in lowland or montane rainforests, but some occur in drier habitats such as the restingas of Brazil, Caribbean coastal scrub and dry inter-Andean valleys. A number of species are confined to rocky habitats, such as tepuis or granitic inselbergs . A few grow as scattered shrubs in páramo . Its species are shrubs , vines and small to medium-size trees up to 20 m tall, with evergreen foliage. Some species start life as epiphytes which grow long roots that descend to

216-532: A pheromone-containing fluid produced by the flowers. Seeds are dispersed by birds and perhaps, in some cases, by small mammals. Clusia plants provide excellent nesting sites for some insects. For instance, Clusia grandiflora , a common species in Guianese forests, is an attractive place for Polistes pacificus wasps to build their paper nests because arboreal ants, which often prey on these wasps, do not normally reside in this species of tree. The wood of Clusia

252-467: A place distinct from where they nest, it has been suggested that this behavior is evidence of altitudinal migration . The benefits to this type of seasonal migration could be that wasps in these cooler high elevation conditions have lower metabolic needs and costs. This behavior is similar to migrating behavior observed in temperate zone Polistes wasps during winter. Mating can occur either at leks away from nests or at newly founded nests, often late in

288-597: A specific plant, the Clusia grandiflora , which is most likely an adaptation due to the selective pressure of ant predation as Clusia is not an attractive host for arboreal ant nests. Communication is a critical for any species and can benefit both the sender and receiver of information. Some wasps have high visual acuity and use recognition of facial patterns to establish dominance hierarchies; however, P. pacificus differs from these species in that it does not use visual signals, and must rely on other modes of communication. It

324-422: A taxon above genus, up to and including order, is the legitimate name of the included genus on whose name the name of the relevant taxon is based. One taxon of each category must include the type genus. The names of the taxa which include the type genus must be formed by the addition of the appropriate suffix to the stem of the name of the type genus[…]." In 2019, it was proposed that all ranks above genus should use

360-563: A woody Neotropical genus of remarkable plasticity and diversity, pp. 95–116. Springer, Heidelberg. Bittrich, V and M. C. E. Amaral (1996)Flower Morphology and Pollination Biology of Some Clusia Species from the Gran Sabana (Venezuela) Kew Bulletin 51: 681-694. [REDACTED] Media related to Clusia at Wikimedia Commons Type genus According to the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature , "The name-bearing type of

396-430: Is a leathery valvate capsule which splits open to release several red or orange, fleshy-coated seeds . Pollination involves a range of different animals, and several types of rewards. Floral resin occurs in many, probably most species of Clusia . The resin is produced by the stamens (by sterile stamens, referred to as staminodes , in pistillate flowers) and is collected by bees that use it in nest construction. Nectar

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432-565: Is commonly hunted by humans who eat the wasp larvae. Although insect eating is often portrayed as an archaic trait, among the Yukpa-Yuko Indians of Venezuela and Colombia, insect food sources are still vitally important, as they supplement the Yukpa’s diet by providing animal proteins and fats. The Yukpa word for P. pacificus is “nonawu,” and the Indians can recognize the nests as being low to

468-444: Is darker and less brightly colored than most other Polistes species, and it is morphologically very similar to P. boharti. In fact, the two species are classified as the same under Richard's key. However, there are some distinguishing characteristics between the two: Firstly, the digitus structure of the genitalia of P. pacificus males has many dark, stout, distally curved or hooked setae . Secondly, female P. pacificus will have

504-1093: Is highly durable, and is sometimes used for roof construction. The latex and the floral resin have antiseptic properties and have been used to seal wounds. Dry latex is sometimes burned like incense in churches. A few species are grown as house plants, or, in tropical areas, as ornamental trees and shrubs. Examples are Clusia rosea , C. major and C. orthoneura . 321 species are currently accepted. Selected species include: Correia MCR, Ormond WT, Pinheiro MCB, Lima HA (1993) Estudos da biologia floral de Clusia criuva Camb. um caso de mimetismo. Bradea 24:209–219 Gustafsson, M. H. G. and V. Bittrich (2003) Evolution of morphological diversity and resin secretion in flowers of Clusia L. (Clusiaceae): insights from ITS sequence variation. Nordic Journal of Botany 22: 183-203. Gustafsson, M. H. G. (2012) A new xeromorphic species of Clusia (Clusiaceae) from dry valleys of northern Peru. Novon 20: 414-417 Gustafsson, M. H. G., V. Bittrich and K. Winter (2007) Diversity, phylogeny and classification of Clusia. In U. Lüttge (ed.) Ecological studies vol. 194. Clusia:

540-463: Is in the larval state, the majority of its diet comes from animal protein. In addition to the caterpillars which Polistes mostly preys on, the P. pacificus also visits flowers, thus picking up carbohydrates. Carbohydrates collected through flower nectar are a complement of its diet and thought to help maintain its own energy metabolism. P. pacificus has at least several known predators: arboreal ants and vertebrates, including humans. The larvae of

576-456: Is likely that P. polistes detects pheromones and other non-visual recognition cues to distinguish nestmates from nonnestmates and determine dominance. Adult female workers of P. pacificus have been observed to mouth and rub newly emerged female wasps , during which time the newly emerged wasps remain stationary. In several cases, the older worker used her gaster to rub the new wasp with discrete anterior to posterior strokes. In other cases,

612-463: Is most common in montane species, e.g. Clusia clusioides , and these flowers are visited by insects such as moths and wasps, and sometimes by bats or hummingbirds. In flowers lacking nectar or resin, pollination may be carried out by pollen-eating beetles, which visit also the rewardless pistillate flowers, as observed in Clusia criuva . Clusia blattophila is pollinated by male cockroaches attracted by

648-506: Is much darker in color than some other more recognizable Polistes wasps, and is one of the insects commonly eaten by several indigenous groups in Venezuela and Colombia. P. pacificus is part of a monophyletic clade that makes up the membership of Richards’ (1973, 1978) subgenera Epicnemius . P. pacificus is most closely related to its sister species , P. cinerascens . Although previous studies found Epicnemius to be paraphyletic ,

684-562: Is unclear why exactly the wasps partook in this behavior, it is possible that doing so may give each of the newly emerged wasps the colony specific odor, which could ensure them safety when returning to the nest after foraging. It has also been hypothesized that this behavior may express some order of dominance. P. pacificus , which gets some of its nutrition from flower nectar, is also a pollinator , and thus an important species for agriculture. In Mexico, P. pacificus has been observed to pollinate avocados , and it has been suggested that as

720-611: Is usually leathery, less commonly rigid or slightly succulent. Flower size varies from ca 5 mm wide (e.g. Clusia gundlachii ) to ca 150 mm in Clusia grandiflora . The 4-9 petals are white, cream, yellow, pink, red, blackish or green. Flowers are unisexual and plants are dioecious (pistillate and staminate flowers are borne on separate plants). Stamen number ranges from four to several hundred. Shape and size of stamens are extremely variable. Sterile stamens are often present, both in pistillate and staminate flowers. Stigmas are four to 16 in number and usually sessile . The fruit

756-476: The P. pacificus is what predators eat, as it is localized within the nest and immobile. The larvae makes a very valuable food source because it is rich in amino acids and fats. P. pacificus nest site selection and structure have evolved under selective pressures of weather and predation. In order to keep predators out, P. pacificus nests are built in specific places in which they are less susceptible to attack by arboreal ants or vertebrates. The placement of

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792-402: The colony cycle. During this period, wasps leave the low elevation habitats in which they normally nest and reproduce during the rainy season, and move to cooler areas at higher elevation. The aggregating wasps are sometimes found to be in small groups of individuals from different nests. Due to the fact that dry season aggregates of P. pacificus have been found in evergreen old growth forests,

828-599: The fire. Once in the fire, the adult insects evacuate as quickly as possible while the larvae die as they are toasted. The combs with the toasted larvae inside are then removed from the fire and brought home. The larvae can be considered celebratory food, and when a boy is newly born it is the father’s duty to collect a nest alone. In several tribes from the Amazon basin, P. pacificus along with other Polistes wasps were collected so that their stings could be used as instruments of pain during cultural rights of passage. For example,

864-407: The following morphological criteria: P. pacificus builds nests that are relatively small and made of paper. These nests are most likely to be found in areas of low second-growth vegetation, and are often sheltered by large leaves. The nests, which hang from a plant supported by one or more pedicels , are made up of a single comb of hexagonal cells and do not have an envelope. Polistes produce

900-475: The genus category as the nomenclatural type. This proposal was subsequently adopted for the rank of phylum. Polistes pacificus Polistes pacificus is a Neotropical species of social paper wasp belonging to the subfamily Polistinae and the family Vespidae . P. pacificus can be found distributed throughout most of Central and South America and parts of southern North America. First discovered by Johan Christian Fabricius in 1804, P. pacificus

936-421: The ground and eventually strangle and kill the host tree in a manner similar to strangler figs . Many Clusia species have Crassulacean acid metabolism , which can be considered an adaptation to the often dry (micro)habitats of the genus. The plants contain variously coloured latex in stems, leaves and fruit. The leaves are simple, entire and opposite, 5–70 cm long and 2–20 cm broad. Leaf texture

972-418: The ground in second-growth vegetation. Although both women and men may participate in identifying nests, collecting the nests is exclusively men’s work. When it comes time to harvest, the men wait until the sun is setting, then build a fire on the ground below where the nest is hanging. Using a hooked stick to detach the nest from its connection site, the nest is detached from the plant and immediately placed in

1008-496: The host plants as shelter. While some reports have been made that suggest that social paper wasps build nests where arboreal ants are also present, P. pacificus is only rarely associated with arboreal ants and frequently chooses nesting sites on plants that are unattractive to ants. Some of the most common plants for P. pacificus to build nests on are Clusia grandiflora and Vismia sessilifolia , but they have also been known to build nests that connect to long, thin thorns under

1044-407: The leaves on juvenile Astrocaryum sciophylum palm trees. P. pacificus is one of several social paper wasp species that migrate seasonally depending on the times of the wet and dry seasons. In areas with less pronounced dry seasons, P. pacificus is more likely to brood continuously. However, when P. pacificus live in regions with a defined dry season, the dry season is the non-nesting phase of

1080-917: The most recent and complete study done by Picket et al. reveals that it is likely monophyletic . The species included in this clade are P. cinerascens , P. pacificus , P. geminatus geminatus , P. occipitalis , P. testaceicolor . P. pacificus was originally discovered in 1804 by the famous Danish entomologist, Johan Christian Fabricius (1745-1808). However, because P. pacificus has wide color variation depending on its geographic region, over time it has been mistaken for several new species and given new names. These names included P. flavipictus Ducke , 1918 P. liliaceusculus de Saussure , 1854, P. liliaciosus de Saussure , 1855, P. modestus Smith , 1862, P. trinitatis Bequard , 1937. These names are relatively obsolete, but may appear in erroneous or outdated literature. P. pacificus has varied coloration patterns with markings that can be black, ferruginous and yellow. It

1116-446: The nest not only aims to reduce predation, but also to provide protection from extreme weather. Nests are most often built on the underside of large leaves, which protect against weather and limit predator’s views of the nest from above. The most preferable large leaves have spines along the central vein, which act as a pedicel and protect the nests from ant attacks. In the neotropics, P. pacificus nests are most closely associated with

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1152-443: The nesting season, but before the seasonal dormancy. Generally the inseminated females will pass the dormant season hibernating in a group of other females in a type of shelter, and at this time males most likely die off. The Polistes have high nutritional demands because they nurse their broods. P. pacificus is an animal of prey, but it is also a flower-visiting wasp that gets carbohydrates from flower nectar. When P. pacificus

1188-409: The older female has also been seen to mouth the young wasps with her mandibles, by opening and closing them over the new wasp’s head, thorax and gaster. While in contact with the younger wasp, the older worker kept her sting chamber open. The workers that were observed executing this behavior had few, small, only partially developed eggs in their ovaries, and had shriveled Dufour’s glands. Although it

1224-513: The tribe Clusieae , where the fruit is a fleshy capsule with arillate seeds. The distribution ranges from the Florida Keys and southern Mexico to southernmost Brazil, and from near sea level to at least 3500 m altitude in the northern Andes. The apomictic Clusia rosea is an invasive species in Hawaii and Sri Lanka, and possibly elsewhere. Species of Clusia are a characteristic component of

1260-590: The water-resistant paper used to make nests by gathering wood fiber and other plant matter and combining it with saliva. P. pacificus can be found from the southern United States to Uruguay and Argentina. P. pacificus can be found in Southern parts of Texas, various areas of Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela, Trinidad, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, parts of Brazil, Paraguay, Bolivia, and Uruguay. P. pacificus builds its nest on plants, using large leaves of

1296-555: Was added the ending -idae (for families). In botanical nomenclature , the phrase "type genus" is used, unofficially, as a term of convenience. In the ICN this phrase has no status. The code uses type specimens for ranks up to family, and types are optional for higher ranks. The Code does not refer to the genus containing that type as a "type genus". The 2008 Revision of the Bacteriological Code states, "The nomenclatural type […] of

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