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43-530: Albinus was born in Hadrumetum , Africa Province ( Sousse , Tunisia ) to an aristocratic Roman family. The unreliable Historia Augusta claims his parents' names were Aurelia Messallina and Ceionius Postumus, along with other relatives mentioned in Vita Albini none of these names are considered likely to be accurate by modern historians. The text also claims that Clodius received the cognomen Albinus because of

86-453: A Roman colony , its formal name was emended to Colonia Concordia Ulpia Trajana Augusta Frugifera Hadrumetina to honor its imperial sponsor. It was renamed Honoriopolis after the emperor Honorius in the early 5th century, then Hunericopolis after the Vandal king Huneric and Justinianopolis after the first few years of occupation from emperor Justinian I. Hadrumetum controlled

129-529: A commonly accepted mistranslation of Cassius Dio's original language. Graham also analyses the possible forces available to Albinus and states that the numbers on each side could have been roughly equal. Following the murder of Emperor Pertinax by the Praetorian Guards on 28 March 193 after a reign of only 3 months, a struggle began for the succession to the throne of the Roman Empire , resulting in

172-593: A large part of the British garrison with him. He defeated Severus' legate Virius Lupus , and was able to lay claim to the military resources of Gaul, but although he made Lugdunum the headquarters of his forces, he was unable to win the allegiance of the Rhine legions. On 19 February 197 Albinus met Severus' army at the Battle of Lugdunum . After a hard-fought battle, with 150,000 troops on both sides according to Cassius Dio , Albinus

215-643: A messenger of Severus, after which he put himself at the head of his army, which is said to have consisted of 150,000 men. In autumn 196, Albinus received word that Severus had appointed his elder son Caracalla as his successor with the title of Caesar and convinced the Senate to declare Albinus himself an official enemy of Rome. Now with nothing to lose, Albinus mobilized his legions in Britannia, proclaimed himself emperor ( Imperator Caesar Decimus Clodius Septimius Albinus Augustus ) and crossed from Britain to Gaul , bringing

258-402: A month, Severus headed out to face Pescennius Niger. Commanders loyal to Severus promptly attacked and diminished Niger's forces. Other provinces and cities in the eastern areas of the empire then began to defect to Severus. Severus travelled to Perinthus where he gave command of the campaign against Niger to Publius Cornelius Anullinus whose legions defeated and destroyed Niger's forces at

301-510: A tyrant, and maintaining that it would be useful to the Roman Empire to restore to the Senate its ancient dignity and power. The Senate was very pleased with these sentiments, but not so the Emperor, who sent Junius Severus to relieve Albinus of his command. Despite this, Albinus kept his command until after the murders of Commodus and his successor Pertinax in 193. After Pertinax was assassinated ,

344-401: Is unknown, and only the unreliable Historia Augusta mention any name for his sons, claiming that he had an infant son named Pescennius Princus, but some historians such as Anthony Birley hold that this name is fictitious. Hadrumetum Hadrumetum , also known by many variant spellings and names , was a Phoenician colony that pre-dated Carthage . It subsequently became one of

387-499: The Battle of Issus (194) . Niger was captured and executed at Antioch. After arriving at Antioch and consolidating his position, in 195, Severus conducted a campaign against the minor kingdoms Osroene and Adiabene , wresting control of those areas from Parthia . Severus then tried to strengthen his position as augustus, by describing himself as the son of Marcus Aurelius and brother of Commodus . He also raised his own young son, Bassianus, more commonly known as Caracalla , to

430-535: The Carthaginian Empire following Nebuchadnezzar II 's long siege of Tyre in the 580s and 570s   BC. Agathocles of Syracuse captured the town in 310   BC during the Seventh Sicilian War , as part of his failed attempt to move the conflict to Africa. Hadrumetum later provided refuge to Hannibal and other Carthaginian survivors after their 202   BC defeat at Zama , which decided

473-569: The Legio VII Gemina under his command. But Severus had the powerful Danubian and German legions on his side. To try to minimise this advantage and possibly win their support, Albinus struck first against the German forces under Virius Lupus , governor of Germania Inferior . Albinus defeated them, but not decisively enough to challenge their allegiance to Severus. Albinus then considered invading Italy, but Severus had prepared for this by reinforcing

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516-564: The Year of the Five Emperors . After the murder of Pertinax, despite the dismay and demonstrations of the plebeians , the praetorians auctioned the empire to the highest bidder, Didius Julianus . The disenchanted Roman crowd called out the name of Pescennius Niger , governor of Roman Syria , who controlled three legions , to come to Rome to take over. When Pescennius Niger heard the news of Pertinax's death, he proclaimed himself emperor and gained

559-600: The catacombs . It was the second city in Roman Africa after Carthage and the birthplace of Clodius Albinus , who attempted to become emperor in the 190s. At the end of the 3rd century, it became the capital of the new province of Byzacena (modern Sahel, Tunisia ). In 434, it was largely destroyed by the Vandals ; their fervent Arianism produced a number of orthodox martyrs in the remaining community, including SS   Felix and Victorian . A century later, Hadrumetum

602-537: The praetorian prefect Aemilius Laetus and his men, who had arranged the murder, "sold" the imperial throne to wealthy senator Didius Julianus , effectively crowning him emperor. A string of mutinies by the troops in the provinces, however, meant the next emperor was far from decided. Pescennius Niger was proclaimed emperor by the legions in Syria ; Septimius Severus by the troops in Illyricum and Pannonia ; and Albinus by

645-579: The Byzantine acropolis and basilica ; the Roman horse track , cisterns , the theater ; and a Punic necropolis . As a major Roman city, Hadrumetum produced a number of Christian saints , including Mavilus during the regional persecutions of Caracalla 's reign and the Bishop Felix and proconsul Victorian during the Vandals ' efforts to forcibly convert their subjects to Arianism . From 255 to 551,

688-510: The Roman historian Cassius Dio placed the total number of Roman soldiers engaged for both sides combined at 150,000. Historian Michael Kulikowski states that Severus led the much larger force with the combined legions of Dacia and the Danubian provinces . Historian A. J. Graham supports Gibbon's number of 150,000 soldiers in total, rather than the sometimes cited number of 300,000 in total and therefore 150,000 on each side, which he states to be

731-522: The armies in Britain and Gaul. In the civil war that followed, Albinus was initially allied with Septimius Severus, who had captured Rome. Albinus added the name Septimius to his own, and accepted the title of Caesar from him; the two shared a consulship in 194. Albinus remained effective ruler of much of the western part of the Empire, with support from three British legions and one Spanish. When Didius Julianus

774-413: The better day but was unable to obtain the decisive victory he needed. Albinus's army fell back to Lugdunum; Severus followed, and on 19 February 197, the massive and ultimately decisive battle finally commenced. The exact details are as vague as the exact numbers involved. However, we do know both sides were roughly evenly matched and it was therefore a bloody and drawn-out affair lasting over two days (it

817-399: The city was the seat of a Christian bishopric . The see was revived in the 17th century as a Catholic titular see . There were nine ancient bishops of Hadrumetum who are still known. 35°49′28″N 10°38′20″E  /  35.82444°N 10.63889°E  / 35.82444; 10.63889 Battle of Lugdunum The Battle of Lugdunum , also called the Battle of Lyon ,

860-442: The extraordinary whiteness of his complexion. Showing a disposition for military life, he entered the army when very young and served with distinction, especially in 175 during the rebellion of Avidius Cassius against Emperor Marcus Aurelius . His merit was acknowledged by the Emperor in two letters in which he calls Albinus an African, who resembled his countrymen but little, and who was praiseworthy for his military experience and

903-499: The garrisons of the Alpine passes. Not wishing to risk the losses or the delay that forcing the passes would cause, Albinus was deterred. In the winter of 196–197, Severus gathered his forces along the Danube and marched into Gaul, where, much to his surprise, he found that Albinus' forces were about as strong as his own. The two armies first clashed at Tinurtium ( Tournus ), where Severus had

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946-585: The gravity of his character. The Emperor likewise declared that without Albinus the legions (in Bithynia ) would have gone over to Avidius Cassius , and that he intended to have him chosen consul . The Emperor Commodus gave Albinus a command in Gallia Belgica and afterwards in Britain . A false rumor having been spread that Commodus had died, Albinus denounced the man before his soldiers in Britain, calling Commodus

989-518: The head of " Neptune " or the Sun. During the civil war between Pompey and Julius Caesar , G. Considius Longus secured Hadrumetum for the Optimates with forces equivalent to two legions . Despite being reinforced by Gn. Calpurnius Piso 's Berber cavalry and footmen from Clupea , however, he was obliged to allow Caesar to land nearby on 28 December 47   BC. According to Suetonius , this landing

1032-612: The headless corpse with his horse in front of his victorious troops. Severus sent Albinus's head back to Rome as a warning. He had Albinus's body and those of his wife and sons thrown into the Rhone River . Lucius Novius Rufus , who had supported Albinus, was killed. Severus also had 29 senators who supported Albinus executed. In Lugdunum itself, Severus remodelled the Imperial cult sanctuary to celebrate his dominance and humiliate Albinus' provincial supporters. According to Duncan Fishwick,

1075-788: The hebrew word דרום "Darom" (south) or Ha-Dromit ("The southern") . A similar structure appears in the Phoenician name for old Cadiz , which appears as Gadir ("Stronghold") or Agadir ("The Stronghold"). The ancient transcriptions of the name show a great deal of variation. Different Greeks hellenized the name as Adrýmē ( Ἀδρύμη ), Adrýmēs ( Ἀδρύμης ), Adrýmēton ( Ἀδρύμητον ), Adrýmētos ( Ἀδρύμητος ), Adramýtēs ( Ἀδραμύτης ), Adrámētós ( Ἀδράμητος ) and Adrumetum (Ἀδρούμητον). Surviving Roman inscriptions and coinage standardized its latinization as Hadrumetum but it appears in other sources as Adrumetum , Adrumetus , Adrimetum , Hadrymetum , etc. Upon its notional refounding as

1118-516: The line of its military harbor; both had been mostly artificial and have silted up since antiquity. Louis Carton and Abbé   Leynaud rediscovered the Christian catacombs in 1904; the tunnels extend for miles through small subterranean galleries filled with Roman and Byzantine sarcophagi and inscriptions. In addition to the Punic walls, Roman harbors, and Byzantine catacombs, there are ruins of

1161-530: The money he was carrying and the town went over to Caesar. Hadrumetum was one of the most important communities in Roman North Africa because of the fertility of its hinterland (modern Tunisia's Sahel ), which made it an important source of Rome's grain supply . It quarreled with its neighbor Thysdrus over the temple of a goddess equated to Minerva , which stood on their shared border. Under Augustus , Hadrumetum's coins bore his face obverse and

1204-550: The most important cities in Roman Africa before Vandal and Umayyad conquerors left it ruined. In the early modern period, it was the village of Hammeim , now part of Sousse , Tunisia . A number of punic steles were found during excavations at the site of the modern day Église Notre-Dame-de-l'Immaculée-Conception de Sousse . The Phoenician and Punic name for the place was DRMT ( 𐤃‬𐤓‬𐤌𐤕‬ ), "Southern", or ʾDRMT ( 𐤀𐤃‬𐤓‬𐤌𐤕‬ ), "The Southern", which holds similarity to

1247-619: The mouth of a small river on the Gulf of Hammamet ( Latin : Sinus Neapolitanus ), an inlet of the Mediterranean along the Tunisian coast. In the 9th century   BC, Tyrians established Hadrumetum as a trading post and waypoint along their trade routes to Italy and the Strait of Gibraltar . Its establishment preceded Carthage 's but, like other western Phoenician colonies , it became part of

1290-408: The name (and often face) of Africa's proconsul reverse ; after Augustus, the mint was closed. Hadrumetum revolted while Vespasian was proconsul of Africa . It nonetheless continued to prosper; Trajan gave it the rank of a Roman colony , giving its residents Roman citizenship . A breathtaking legacy of intricate mosaics survives from this era, together with many early Christian objects from

1333-705: The outcome of the Second Punic War . The total length of the Punic fortifications was apparently 6,410 meters (21,030 ft); some ruins survive. During the Third Punic War , the government of Hadrumetum supported the Romans against Carthage and, after Carthage's destruction in 146   BC , it received additional territory and the status of a free city in thanks. During this period, it chose its own shufets ( Latin : duumvir ) and minted its own bronze coins with

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1376-432: The rank of Caesar and gave him the name Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. This broke Severus' alliance with Albinus, presenting an obvious threat to Albinus which he countered by declaring himself augustus. The Roman Senate declared Albinus to be a public enemy on 15 December 195. By early 196, Severus had installed his ally Publius Cornelius Anullinus as urban prefect of Rome in another move to consolidate his position. The stage

1419-483: The reformed Imperial rites at Lugdunum resembled those due a master from his slaves. At some point after this battle, the province of Britain was broken up into Upper and Lower halves ( Latin : Britannia Superior & Inferior ). Roman forces in Britannia were also severely weakened, which would lead to incursions, uprisings, and a withdrawal of Rome from the Antonine Wall south to Hadrian's Wall . It

1462-664: The support of 10 legions in total. Meanwhile, Septimius Severus , governor of Pannonia Superior , and also a commander of three legions, had been proclaimed emperor by his legions. Severus promised to avenge the murder of Pertinax, who had been held in high regard by the soldiers. Before moving on Rome to overthrow Didius Julianus, Severus made an alliance with the powerful commander of the three legions and 70 auxiliary regiments in Britannia , Clodius Albinus Severus recognized Albinus as Caesar and apparent heir to himself as Augustus . Albinus accepted this arrangement. Severus, who

1505-414: Was defeated and killed himself, or was captured and executed on the orders of Severus. Severus had his naked body laid out on the ground before him, so that he could ride his horse over it, in a final act of humiliation. Albinus' wife and two sons were initially pardoned by Severus, but he changed his mind almost immediately afterwards, for as the dead Albinus was beheaded, so were they. Albinus' headless body

1548-536: Was fought on 19 February 197 at Lugdunum (modern Lyon , France ), between the armies of the Roman emperor Septimius Severus and of the Roman usurper Clodius Albinus . Severus' victory finally established him as the sole emperor of the Roman Empire following the Year of the Five Emperors and immediate aftermath. This battle is said to be the largest, most hard-fought, and bloodiest of all clashes between Roman forces. According to English historian Edward Gibbon ,

1591-503: Was located closer to Rome than Pescennius Niger, soon gained the support of 16 western legions and headed to Rome. As Severus approached Rome, by the end of May 193, Didius Julianus lost all support and was killed in the palace by a soldier on 2 June 193. The Roman Senate then acclaimed Severus as emperor. Before Severus entered the city, he disbanded the Praetorian Guards and replaced them with his own soldiers. After less than

1634-483: Was now set for a civil war between the forces being gathered by Severus and Albinus, ultimately culminating in the Battle of Lugdunum. In 196, after being hailed as emperor by his troops, Clodius Albinus took 40,000 men in three legions from Britannia to Gaul . After gathering up additional forces, he set up headquarters at Lugdunum. He was joined there by Lucius Novius Rufus, the governor of Hispania Tarraconensis , and by

1677-518: Was put to death by order of the Senate, who dreaded the power of Septimius Severus, the latter turned his arms against Pescennius Niger. After the defeat and death of Niger in 194, and the complete discomfiture of his adherents, especially after the fall of Byzantium in 196, Severus resolved to make himself the absolute master of the Roman Empire. Albinus, seeing the danger of his position, prepared for resistance. He narrowly escaped being assassinated by

1720-484: Was rare for battles of this time to last longer than a few hours). The tide shifted many times during the course of the battle, with the outcome hanging in the balance. It seems Severus had the edge in cavalry , which swung the battle in his favour for the final time. Exhausted and bloodied, Albinus' army was crushed. Historian Michael Kulikowski states that Albinus fled into Lugdunum where he took his own life. Severus had Albinus' body stripped and beheaded. He rode over

1763-642: Was retaken and rebuilt by the Byzantines during the Vandal War . It was conquered by the Umayyad Caliphate in the 7th century. The ruins of Hadrumetum stood in the village of Hammeim, 10 kilometers (6 mi) from the later Sousse , which grew up to include them in its outskirts. Under colonial rule , the French engineer A. Daux rediscovered the jetties and moles of the Roman town's commercial harbor and

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1806-426: Was the occasion of the famously deft recovery, when Caesar tripped while coming ashore but dealt with the poor omen by grabbing handfuls of dirt and proclaiming "I have you now, Africa!" ( Latin : teneo te Africa ) Caesar's attempts to negotiate with Longus were rejected but the campaign subsequently led to his victory over Metellus Scipio and Juba at Thapsus , after which Longus was killed by his own men for

1849-504: Was thrown into the Rhône, together with the corpses of his murdered family. Severus sent his head to Rome as a warning to his supporters; with it he sent an insolent letter, in which he mocked the Senate for their loyalty to Albinus. The town of Lugdunum was plundered, and the adherents of Albinus were cruelly persecuted by Severus. It is said that he wrote a treatise on agriculture and a collection of Milesian tales . The name of Albinus' wife

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