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127-609: Classical Otomi is the name used for the Otomi language as spoken in the early centuries of Spanish colonial rule in Mexico and documented by Spanish friars who learned the language in order to catechize the Otomi peoples. During the colonial period, many Otomis learned to write their language in Roman letters. As a consequence, a significant number of documents in Otomi, both secular and religious, exist from

254-479: A dialect continuum that is clearly demarcated from its closest relative, Mazahua . For this article, the latter approach will be followed. Dialectologists tend to group the languages into three main groups that reflect historical relationships among the dialects: Northwestern Otomi spoken in the Mezquital Valley and surrounding areas of Hidalgo, Queretaro and Northern Mexico State, Southwestern Otomi spoken in

381-416: A dedication when buildings were expanded or constructed. The victims were probably enemy warriors captured in battle and brought to the city for ritual sacrifice to ensure the city could prosper. Some men were decapitated, some had their hearts removed, others were killed by being hit several times over the head, and some were buried alive. Animals that were considered sacred and represented mythical powers and

508-402: A formative which is either a verbal prefix or a proclitic depending on analysis. These proclitics can also precede nonverbal predicates. The dialects of Toluca and Ixtenco distinguish the present , preterit , perfect , imperfect , future , pluperfect , continuative , imperative , and two subjunctives . Mezquital Otomi has additional moods. On transitive verbs, the person of the object

635-465: A grammar of Otomi, but no copies have survived. He is the author of an anonymous dictionary of Otomi (manuscript 1640). In the latter half of the eighteenth century, an anonymous Jesuit priest wrote the grammar Luces del Otomi (which is, strictly speaking, not a grammar but a report on research about Otomi ). Neve y Molina wrote a dictionary and a grammar. During the colonial period, many Otomis learned to read and write their language. Consequently,

762-611: A group of Teotihuacanos organized a coup d'etat in Tikal, Guatemala. This was not the Teotihuacan state; it was a group of the Feathered-Serpent people, thrown out of the city. The Feathered-Serpent Pyramid was burnt, all the sculptures were torn from the temple, and another platform was built to efface the facade ... In 426, the Copán ruling dynasty was created with K'inich Yax K'uk' Mo' as

889-487: A leading advocate for the marking of tone, arguing that because tone is an integrated element of the language's grammatical and lexical systems, the failure to indicate it would lead to ambiguity. Bernard (1980) on the other hand, has argued that native speakers prefer a toneless orthography because they can almost always disambiguate using context, and because they are often unaware of the significance of tone in their language, and consequently have difficulty learning to apply

1016-724: A major power in Mesoamerica. The city's elite housing compounds, clustered around the Avenue of the Dead, bear many burn marks, and archeologists hypothesize that the city experienced civil strife that hastened its decline. Factors that also led to the decline of the city included disruptions in tributary relations, increased social stratification, and power struggles between the ruling and intermediary elites. Following this decline, Teotihuacan continued to be inhabited, though it never reached its previous levels of population. The early history of Teotihuacan

1143-505: A minimum of 125,000 inhabitants, and the city was among the largest cities in the ancient world, containing 2,000 buildings within an area of 18 square kilometers. It was also during this high period when Teotihuacan contained approximately half all people in the Valley of Mexico, becoming a kind of primate city of Mesoamerica. This period saw a massive reconstruction of buildings, and the Temple of

1270-539: A mural or a censer depicting gods like the Great Goddess of Teotihuacan or the Feathered Serpent . Censers would be lit during religious rituals to invoke the gods including rituals with human sacrifice . As evidenced from human and animal remains found during excavations of the pyramids in the city, Teotihuacanos practiced human sacrifice . Scholars believe that the people offered human sacrifices as part of

1397-427: A natural disaster that occurred prior to its population boom. At one point in time, Teotihuacan was rivaled by another basin power, Cuicuilco . Both cities, roughly the same size and hubs for trade, were productive centers of artisans and commerce. Roughly around 100 BCE, however, the power dynamic changed when Mount Xitle, an active volcano, erupted, and heavily affected Cuicuilco and the farmland that supported it. It

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1524-722: A period of geographical expansion as the Spaniards employed Otomi warriors in their expeditions of conquest into northern Mexico. During and after the Mixtón rebellion , in which Otomi warriors fought for the Spanish, Otomis settled areas in Querétaro (where they founded the city of Querétaro ) and Guanajuato which previously had been inhabited by nomadic Chichimecs . Because Spanish colonial historians such as Bernardino de Sahagún used primarily Nahua speakers primarily as sources for their histories of

1651-508: A proclitic: Bi=hon-ga-wi-tho-wa Bi=hon-ga-wi-tho-wa "He/she looks for us only (around) here" The initial proclitic bi marks the present tense and the third person singular, the verb root hon means "to look for", the - ga - suffix marks a first person object, the - wi - suffix marks dual number, and tho marks the sense of "only" or "just" whereas the - wa - suffix marks the locative sense of "here". Originally, all dialects distinguished singular, dual and plural numbers, but some of

1778-550: A significant number of Otomi documents exist from the period, both secular and religious, the most well-known of which are the Codices of Huichapan and Jilotepec. In the late colonial period and after independence, indigenous groups no longer had separate status. At that time, Otomi lost its status as a language of education, ending Classical Otomi period as a literary language. This led to a declining numbers of speakers of indigenous languages, as Indigenous groups throughout Mexico adopted

1905-692: A slower pace than the general population. While absolute numbers of Otomi speakers continue to rise, their numbers relative to the Mexican population are falling. Although Otomi is vigorous in some areas, with children acquiring the language through natural transmission (e.g. in the Mezquital valley and in the Highlands), it is an endangered language . Three dialects in particular have reached moribund status: those of Ixtenco ( Tlaxcala state), Santiago Tilapa ( Mexico state ), and Cruz del Palmar ( Guanajuato state). On

2032-535: A structure ( talud ) is surmounted by a rectangular panel ( tablero ). Variants of the generic style are found in a number of Maya region sites including Tikal , Kaminaljuyu , Copan , Becan , and Oxkintok , and particularly in the Petén Basin and the central Guatemalan highlands. The talud-tablero style pre-dates its earliest appearance at Teotihuacan in the Early Classic period; it appears to have originated in

2159-421: A tail and a hook and an u with a tail) to represent the central vowels. Orthographies used to write modern Otomi have been a focus of controversy among field linguists for many years. Particularly contentious is the issue of whether or not to mark tone, and how, in orthographies to be used by native speakers. Many practical orthographies used by Otomi speakers do not include tone marking. Bartholomew has been

2286-470: A trilingual Spanish- Nahuatl -Otomi dictionary, which also included a small set of grammatical notes about Otomi. The grammarian of Nahuatl, Horacio Carochi , is known to have written a grammar of Otomi, but no copies have survived. In the latter half of the eighteenth century, an anonymous Jesuit cleric wrote the grammar Luces del Otomi , and Neve y Molina wrote a dictionary and a grammar. Otomi language Like all other Oto-Manguean languages , Otomi

2413-591: A written language when friars taught the Otomi to write the language using the Latin script ; colonial period's written language is often called Classical Otomi . Several codices and grammars were composed in Classical Otomi. A negative stereotype of the Otomi promoted by the Nahuas and perpetuated by the Spanish resulted in a loss of status for the Otomi, who began to abandon their language in favor of Spanish. The attitude of

2540-447: Is a tonal language , and most varieties distinguish three tones. Nouns are marked only for possessor; the plural number is marked with a definite article and a verbal suffix, and some dialects keep dual number marking. There is no case marking. Verb morphology is either fusional or agglutinating depending on the analysis. In verb inflection, infixation, consonant mutation, and apocope are prominent processes. The number of irregular verbs

2667-639: Is an ancient Mesoamerican city located in a sub-valley of the Valley of Mexico , which is located in the State of Mexico , 40 kilometers (25 mi) northeast of modern-day Mexico City . Teotihuacan is known today as the site of many of the most architecturally significant Mesoamerican pyramids built in the pre-Columbian Americas , namely the Pyramid of the Sun and the Pyramid of

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2794-520: Is believed that Teotihuacan had a major influence on the Preclassic and Classic Maya. Architectural styles prominent at Teotihuacan are found widely dispersed at a number of distant Mesoamerican sites, which some researchers have interpreted as evidence for Teotihuacan's far-reaching interactions and political or militaristic dominance. A style particularly associated with Teotihuacan is known as talud-tablero , in which an inwards-sloping external side of

2921-421: Is believed that the later exponential growth of Teotihuacan's population was due to the subsequent migration of those displaced by the eruption. While this eruption is referenced as being the primary cause of the mass exodus, recent advancements of dating have shed light on an even earlier eruption. The eruption of Popocatepetl in the middle of the first century preceded that of Xitle, and is believed to have begun

3048-519: Is found in the Valle de Mezquital region of Hidalgo and the southern portion of Querétaro . Some municipalities have concentrations of Otomi speakers as high as 60–70%. Because of recent migratory patterns, small populations of Otomi speakers can be found in new locations throughout Mexico and the United States. In the second half of the 20th century, speaker populations began to increase again, although at

3175-568: Is generally written ʉ or u̱, and front mid rounded vowel [ø] is written ø or o̱ . Letter a with trema , ä, is sometimes used for both the nasal vowel [ã] and the low back unrounded vowel [ʌ] . Glottalized consonants are written with apostrophe (e.g. tz' for [t͡sʔ] ) and palatal sibilant [ʃ] is written with x. This orthography has been adopted as official by the Otomi Language Academy centered in Ixmiquilpan, Hidalgo and

3302-474: Is indicated by the use of articles ; the nouns themselves are unmarked for number. In most dialects, the pronominal system distinguishes four persons (first person inclusive and exclusive , second person and third person) and three numbers (singular, dual and plural). The system below is from the Toluca dialect. The following atypical pronominal system from Tilapa Otomi lacks the inclusive/exclusive distinction in

3429-422: Is large. A class of morphemes cross-references the grammatical subject in a sentence. These morphemes can be analysed as either proclitics or prefixes and mark tense , aspect and mood . Verbs are inflected for either direct object or dative object (but not for both simultaneously) by suffixes. Grammar also distinguishes between inclusive 'we' and exclusive 'we' . After the Spanish conquest, Otomi became

3556-506: Is marked by a suffix. If either subject or object is dual or plural, it is shown with a plural suffix following the object suffix. So the structure of the Otomi verb is as follows: The present tense prefixes are di - (1st person), gi - (2nd person), i - (3rd person). The Preterite is marked by the prefixes do-, ɡo-, and bi- , the Perfect by to-, ko-, ʃi- , the Imperfect by dimá, ɡimá, mi ,

3683-475: Is noted by Cárceres, but he does not transcribe it. Cárceres used the letter æ for the low central unrounded vowel [ʌ] and æ with cedille for the high central unrounded vowel ɨ . He also transcribed glottalized consonants as geminates e.g. ttz for [t͡sʔ] . Cárceres used grave-accented vowels è and ò for [ɛ] and [ɔ] . In the 18th century Neve y Molina used vowels with macron ē and ō for these two vowels and invented extra letters (an e with

3810-460: Is quite mysterious, and the origin of its founders is uncertain. Around 300 BCE, people of the central and southeastern areas of Mesoamerica began to gather into larger settlements. Teotihuacan was the largest urban center of Mesoamerica before the Aztecs, almost 1000 years prior to their epoch. The city was already in ruins by the time of the Aztecs. For many years, archeologists believed it was built by

3937-473: Is subsumed under Anaya/Mezquital. The following phonological description is that of the dialect of San Ildefonso Tultepec, Querétaro, similar to the system found in the Valle del Mezquital variety, which is the most widely spoken Otomian variety. The phoneme inventory of the Proto-Otomi language from which all modern varieties have descended has been reconstructed as /p t k (kʷ) ʔ b d ɡ t͡s ʃ h z m n w j/ ,

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4064-433: Is synthetic and has elements of both fusion and agglutination. Verb stems are inflected through a number of different processes: the initial consonant of the verb root changes according to a morphophonemic pattern of consonant mutations to mark present vs. non-present, and active vs. passive. Verbal roots may take a formative syllable or not depending on syntactic and prosodic factors. A nasal prefix may be added to

4191-685: Is synthetic, and the sentence level is analytic. Simultaneously, the language is head-marking in terms of its verbal morphology, and its nominal morphology is more analytic. According to the most common analysis, Otomi has two kinds of bound morphemes, pro clitics and affixes . Proclitics differ from affixes mainly in their phonological characteristics; they are marked for tone and block nasal harmony . Some authors consider proclitics to be better analyzed as prefixes. The standard orthography writes proclitics as separate words, whereas affixes are written joined to their host root. Most affixes are suffixes and with few exceptions occur only on verbs, whereas

4318-490: Is the term used to define the Otomi spoken in the early centuries of colonial rule. This historical stage of the language was given Latin orthography and documented by Spanish friars who learned it in order to proselytize among the Otomi. Text in Classical Otomi is not readily comprehensible since the Spanish-speaking friars failed to differentiate the varied vowel and consonant phonemes used in Otomi. Friars and monks from

4445-399: Is thought to have been established around 100 BCE, with major monuments continuously under construction until about 250 CE. The city may have lasted until sometime between the 7th and 8th centuries CE, but its major monuments were sacked and systematically burned around 550 CE. Its collapse might be related to the extreme weather events of 535–536 . Teotihuacan began as a religious center in

4572-1061: Is unclear how or from where the style spread into the Maya region. During its zenith, the main structures at Teotihuacan, including the pyramids, were painted in impressive shades of dark red, with some small spots persisting to this day. The city was a center of industry, home to many potters, jewelers, and craftspeople. Teotihuacan is known for producing a great number of obsidian artifacts. No ancient Teotihuacano non- ideographic texts are known to exist (or known to have once existed). Inscriptions from Maya cities show that Teotihuacan nobility traveled to, and perhaps conquered, local rulers as far away as Honduras . Maya inscriptions note an individual named by scholars as " Spearthrower Owl ", apparently ruler of Teotihuacan, who reigned for over 60 years and installed his relatives as rulers of Tikal and Uaxactun in Guatemala . Scholars have based interpretations of Teotihuacan culture on its archeology, murals that adorn

4699-733: Is used for issuing direct orders. Verbs expressing movement towards the speaker such as ʔįhį 'come' use a different set of prefixes for marking person/ TAM . These prefixes can also be used with other verbs to express 'to do something while coming this way'. In Toluca Otomi mba - is the third person singular Imperfect prefix for movement verbs. mba-tųhų 3 / MVMT / IMPERF -sing Teotihuacan 19°41′33″N 98°50′38″W  /  19.69250°N 98.84389°W  / 19.69250; -98.84389 Teotihuacan ( / t eɪ ˌ oʊ t iː w ə ˈ k ɑː n / ; Spanish : Teotihuacán , Spanish pronunciation: [teotiwa'kan] ; modern Nahuatl pronunciation )

4826-517: Is used on road signs in the Mezquital region and in publications in the Mezquital variety, such as the large 2004 SIL dictionary published by Hernández Cruz, Victoria Torquemada & Sinclair Crawford (2004) . A slightly modified version is used by Enrique Palancar in his grammar of the San Ildefonso Tultepec variety. The morphosyntactic typology of Otomi displays a mixture of synthetic and analytic structures. The phrase level morphology

4953-418: Is writing, despite the city having a strong network of contact with the literate Maya. The laboring classes, themselves also stratified, consisted of farmers, skilled craftworkers, and the peripheral rural population. The city dwelling craftspeople of various specialties were housed in apartment complexes distributed throughout the city, known as neighborhood centers, and evidence shows that these centers were

5080-538: The Aztec Empire formed, and Teotihuacan was vassalized once more by the Acolhua . Archeological evidence suggests that Teotihuacan was a multi-ethnic city, and while the predominant language or languages used in Teotihuacan have been lost to history, Totonac and Nahua, early forms of which were spoken by the Aztecs, seem to be highly plausible. This apparent regionally diverse population of Teotihuacan can be traced back to

5207-652: The EZLN and indigenous social movements. Decentralized government agencies were created and charged with promoting and protecting indigenous communities and languages; these include the National Commission for the Development of Indigenous Peoples (CDI) and the National Institute of Indigenous Languages (INALI) . In particular, the federal Ley General de Derechos Lingüísticos de los Pueblos Indígenas ("General Law on

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5334-477: The Mexican Plateau around the first century CE. It became the largest and most populated center in the pre-Columbian Americas. Teotihuacan was home to multi-floor apartment compounds built to accommodate the large population. The term Teotihuacan (or Teotihuacano) is also used to refer to the whole civilization and cultural complex associated with the site. Although it is a subject of debate whether Teotihuacan

5461-505: The Nahua , Otomi , or Totonac ethnic groups. Other scholars have suggested that Teotihuacan was multi-ethnic , due to the discovery of cultural aspects connected to the Maya as well as Oto-Pamean people . It is clear that many different cultural groups lived in Teotihuacan during the height of its power, with migrants coming from all over, but especially from Oaxaca and the Gulf Coast. After

5588-489: The Tlaxcala-Puebla region during the Preclassic. Analyses have traced the development into local variants of the talud-tablero style at sites such as Tikal, where its use precedes the 5th-century appearance of iconographic motifs shared with Teotihuacan. The talud-tablero style disseminated through Mesoamerica generally from the end of the Preclassic period, and not specifically, or solely, via Teotihuacano influence. It

5715-678: The Toltec . This belief was based on colonial period texts, such as the Florentine Codex , which attributed the site to the Toltecs. However, the Nahuatl word "Toltec" generally means "craftsman of the highest level" and may not always refer to the Toltec civilization centered at Tula, Hidalgo . Since Toltec civilization flourished centuries after Teotihuacan, the people could not have been the city's founders. In

5842-608: The Totonac people as the founders of Teotihuacan and have suggested that Teotihuacan was a multi-ethnic state since they find diverse cultural aspects connected to the Zapotec , Mixtec , and Maya peoples. The builders of Teotihuacan took advantage of the geography in the Basin of Mexico. From the swampy ground, they constructed raised beds, called chinampas, creating high agricultural productivity despite old methods of cultivation. This allowed for

5969-469: The caron ( ǎ ). Nasal vowels are marked with a rightward curving hook ( ogonek ) at the bottom of the vowel letter: į, ę, ą, ų. The letter c denotes [t͡s] , y denotes [j] , the palatal sibilant [ʃ] is written with the letter š , and the palatal nasal [ɲ] is written ñ . The remaining symbols are from the IPA with their standard values. Colonial documents in Classical Otomi do not generally capture all

6096-456: The lacustrine environment of the Valley of Mexico and the large gathering of people in a city. As of January 23, 2018, the name Teotihuacan has come under scrutiny by experts, who now feel that the site's name may have been changed by Spanish colonizers in the 16th century. Archeologist Verónica Ortega of the National Institute of Anthropology and History states that the city appears to have actually been named Teohuacan , meaning "City of

6223-531: The 6th century lends some support to the internal unrest hypothesis. The decline of Teotihuacan has been correlated to lengthy droughts related to the climate changes of 535–536 , possibly caused by the eruption of the Ilopango volcano in El Salvador . This theory of ecological decline is supported by archeological remains that show a rise in the percentage of juvenile skeletons with evidence of malnutrition during

6350-407: The 6th century, further supporting the hypothesis of famine as one of the more plausible reasons for the decline of Teotihuacan. Urbanized Teotihuacanos would likely have been dependent on agricultural crops such as maize, beans, amaranth, tomatillos, and pumpkins. If climate change affected crop yields, then the harvest would not have been sufficient to feed Teotihucan's extensive population. However,

6477-475: The Feathered Serpent, which dates back to the previous period, was covered with a plaza with rich sculptural decoration. Typical artistic artifacts of this period are funeral masks, crafted mainly from green stone and covered with mosaics of turquoise, shell or obsidian. These masks were highly uniform in nature. Period IV describes the time period between 650 and 750 CE. It marks the end of Teotihuacan as

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6604-705: The Future by ɡo-, ɡi-, and da- , and the Pluperfect by tamą-, kimą-, kamą-. All tenses use the same suffixes as the Present tense for dual and plural numbers and clusivity. The difference between Preterite and Imperfect is similar to the distinction between the Spanish Preterite habló 'he spoke (punctual)' and the Spanish Imperfect hablaba 'he spoke/he used to speak/he was speaking (non-punctual)'. In Toluca Otomi,

6731-575: The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya , Miller and Taube list eight deities: Esther Pasztory adds one more: The consensus among scholars is that the primary deity of Teotihuacan was the Great Goddess of Teotihuacan . The dominant civic architecture is the pyramid. Politics were based on the state religion, and religious leaders were the political leaders. Religious leaders would commission artists to create religious artworks for ceremonies and rituals. The artwork likely commissioned would have been

6858-577: The Language Rights of the Indigenous Peoples"), promulgated on 13 March 2003, recognizes all of Mexico's indigenous languages, including Otomi, as " national languages ", and gave indigenous people the right to speak them in every sphere of public and private life. Currently, Otomi dialects are spoken by circa 239,000 speakers—some 5 to 6 percent of whom are monolingual —in widely scattered districts (see map). The highest concentration of speakers

6985-549: The Late Formative era, a number of urban centers arose in central Mexico. The most prominent of these appears to have been Cuicuilco , on the southern shore of Lake Texcoco . Scholars have speculated that the eruption of the Xitle volcano may have prompted a mass emigration out of the central valley and into the Teotihuacan valley. These settlers may have founded or accelerated the growth of Teotihuacan. Other scholars have put forth

7112-590: The Maya region. The sudden destruction of Teotihuacan was common for Mesoamerican city-states of the Classic and Epi-Classic period. Many Maya states suffered similar fates in subsequent centuries, a series of events often referred to as the Classic Maya collapse . Nearby, in the Morelos valley, Xochicalco was sacked and burned in 900, and Tula met a similar fate around 1150. During the 1200s CE, Nahua migrants repopulated

7239-516: The Miccaotli phase, c.  200 CE , the urban population had reached its maximum. In 2001, Terrence Kaufman presented linguistic evidence suggesting that an important ethnic group in Teotihuacan was of Totonacan or Mixe–Zoquean linguistic affiliation. He uses this to explain general influences from Totonacan and Mixe–Zoquean languages in many other Mesoamerican languages , whose people did not have any known history of contact with either of

7366-561: The Moon . Although close to Mexico City, Teotihuacan was not a Mexica (i.e. Aztec) city, and it predates the Mexica Empire by many centuries. At its zenith, perhaps in the first half of the first millennium (1 CE to 500 CE), Teotihuacan was the largest city in the Americas, with a population of at least 25,000, but has been estimated at 125,000 or more, making it at least the sixth-largest city in

7493-414: The Nahuatl names. For example, the Nahuatl place name Tenochtitlān , "place of Opuntia cactus", was rendered as *ʔmpôndo in proto-Otomi, with the same meaning. At the time of the Spanish conquest of central Mexico, Otomi had a much wider distribution than now, with sizeable Otomi speaking areas existing in the modern states of Jalisco and Michoacán . After the conquest, the Otomi people experienced

7620-740: The Proto-Otomi clusters *ʔm and *ʔn before oral vowels have become /ʔb/ and /ʔd/ , respectively. In most dialects *n has become /ɾ/ , as in the singular determiner and the second person possessive marker. The only dialects to preserve /n/ in these words are the Eastern dialects, and in Tilapa these instances of *n have become /d/ . Many dialects have merged the vowels *ɔ and *a into /a/ as in Mezquital Otomi, whereas others such as Ixtenco Otomi have merged *ɔ with *o . The different dialects have between three and five nasal vowels. In addition to

7747-500: The Spanish mendicant orders such as the Franciscans wrote Otomi grammars, the earliest of which is Friar Pedro de Cárceres's Arte de la lengua othomí [ sic ], written perhaps as early as 1580, but not published until 1907. In 1605, Alonso de Urbano wrote a trilingual Spanish- Nahuatl -Otomi dictionary, which included a small set of grammatical notes about Otomi. The grammarian of Nahuatl, Horacio Carochi , has written

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7874-586: The Spanish language and Mestizo cultural identities. Coupled with a policy of castellanización this led to a rapid decline of speakers of all indigenous languages including Otomi, during the early 20th century. During the 1990s, however, the Mexican government made a reversal in policies towards indigenous and linguistic rights, prompted by the 1996 adoption of the Universal Declaration of Linguistic Rights and domestic social and political agitation by various groups such as social and political agitation by

8001-559: The Spanish trilled [r] , and /s/ , which is not present in native Otomi vocabulary either. All Otomi languages are tonal , and most varieties have three tones, high, low and rising. One variety of the Sierra dialect, that of San Gregorio, has been analyzed as having a fourth, falling tone. In Mezquital Otomi, suffixes are never specified for tone, while in Tenango Otomi, the only syllables not specified for tone are prepause syllables and

8128-501: The Sun" rather than "City of the Gods", as the current name suggests. The first human establishment in the Teotihuacan area dates back to 600 BCE, and until 200 BCE the site consisted of scattered small villages. The total estimated population of the Teotihuacan Valley during this time was approximately 6,000. From 100 BCE to 750 CE, Teotihuacan evolved into a huge urban and administrative center with cultural influences throughout

8255-402: The Temple of the Feathered Serpent was desecrated and construction in the city proceeded in a more egalitarian direction, focusing on the building of comfortable, stone accommodations for the population . Period III lasted from 350 to 650 CE and is known as the classical period of Teotihuacan, during which the city reached the apogee of influence in Mesoamerica. Its population is estimated at

8382-480: The Xolalpan period, the city's population was estimated to be 100,000 to 200,000 people. This number was achieved by estimating compound sizes to hold approximately 60 to 100, with 2,000 compounds. These high numbers continued until the city started to decline between 600 and 700 CE. One of Teotihuacan's neighborhoods, Teopancazco , was occupied during most of the time Teotihuacan was as well. It showed that Teotihuacan

8509-399: The abovementioned groups. Other scholars maintain that the largest population group must have been of Otomi ethnicity because the Otomi language is known to have been spoken in the area around Teotihuacan both before and after the Classic period and not during the middle period. Teotihuacan compounds show evidence of being segregated into three classes: high elites, intermediate elites, and

8636-537: The academic designation from Otomi to Hñähñú , the endonym used by the Otomi of the Mezquital Valley ; however, no common endonym exists for all dialects of the language. The Oto-Pamean languages are thought to have split from the other Oto-Manguean languages around 3500 BC. Within the Otomian branch, Proto-Otomi seems to have split from Proto-Mazahua ca. 500 AD. Around 1000 AD, Proto-Otomi began diversifying into

8763-499: The aforementioned degradation of agricultural lands and structural damage to the city. Xitle's eruption further instigated the abandonment of Cuicuilco. In the Tzacualli phase ( c.  1 –150 CE), Teotihuacan saw a population growth to approximately 60,000 to 80,000 people, most of whom are believed to have come from the Mexican basin. Following this growth, however, the influx of new residents slowed, and evidence suggests that, by

8890-422: The area. By the 1300s, it had fallen under the sway of Huexotla , and in 1409 was assigned its own tlatoani , Huetzin, a son of the tlatoani of Huexotla . But his reign was cut short when Tezozomoc , tlatoani of Azcapotzalco , invaded Huexotla and the neighboring Acolhua lands in 1418. Huetzin was deposed by the invaders, and Tezozomoc installed a man named Totomochtzin. Less than a decade later, in 1427,

9017-402: The basic word order is Verb Subject Object , but some dialects tend towards Subject Verb Object word order, probably under the influence of Spanish. Possessive constructions use the order possessed-possessor , but modificational constructions use modifier -head order. From the variety of Santiago Mexquititlan, Queretaro, here is an example of a complex verb phrase with four suffixes and

9144-461: The broader Mesoamerica region. The history of Teotihuacan is distinguished by four consecutive periods: Period I occurred between 200 - 1 BCE and marks the development of a distinctively urban area. During this period, Teotihuacan began to grow into a city as local farmers began coalescing around the abundant springs of Teotihuacan. Period II lasted between 1 CE to 350 CE. During this era, Teotihuacan exhibited explosive growth and emerged as

9271-549: The carrying of heavy objects over an extended period of time. Evidence of these heavy materials is found in the copious amounts of imported pottery, and raw materials found on-site, such as rhyolitic glass shards, marble, and slate. The residences of the rural population of the city were in enclaves between the middle-class residences or the periphery of the city while smaller encampments filled with earthenware from other regions, also suggest that merchants were situated in their own encampments as well. In An Illustrated Dictionary of

9398-636: The centers of the Maya region (as well as elsewhere in Mesoamerica) has been a long-standing and significant area for debate. Substantial exchange and interaction occurred over the centuries from the Terminal Preclassic to the Mid-Classic period. "Teotihuacan-inspired ideologies" and motifs persisted at Maya centers into the Late Classic, long after Teotihuacan itself had declined. However, scholars debate

9525-459: The city covered over 30 km (over 11 + 1 ⁄ 2 square miles), and perhaps housed a population of 150,000 people, with one estimate reaching as high as 250,000. Various districts in the city housed people from across the Teotihuacan region of influence, which spread south as far as Guatemala . Notably absent from the city are fortifications and military structures. The nature of political and cultural interactions between Teotihuacan and

9652-426: The city in the 7th or 8th century, sacking and burning it. More recent evidence, however, seems to indicate that the burning was limited to the structures and dwellings associated primarily with the ruling class . Some think this suggests that the burning was from an internal uprising and the invasion theory is flawed because early archeological efforts were focused exclusively on the palaces and temples, places used by

9779-465: The collapse of Teotihuacan, central Mexico was dominated by more regional powers, notably Xochicalco and Tula . The city and the archeological site are located in what is now the San Juan Teotihuacán municipality in the State of México , approximately 40 kilometers (25 mi) northeast of Mexico City . The site covers a total surface area of 83 square kilometers (32 sq mi) and

9906-449: The colony, the Nahuas' negative image of the Otomi people was perpetuated throughout the colonial period. This tendency towards devaluing and stigmatizing the Otomi cultural identity relative to other Indigenous groups gave impetus to the process of language loss and mestizaje , as many Otomies opted to adopt the Spanish language and customs in search of social mobility. " Classical Otomi "

10033-533: The degree of mutual intelligibility between varieties. It assigns an ISO code to each of these nine. INALI , the Mexican National Institute of Indigenous Languages, avoids the problem of assigning dialect or language status to Otomian varieties by defining "Otomi" as a "linguistic group" with nine different "linguistic varieties". Still, for official purposes, each variety is considered a separate language. Other linguists, however, consider Otomi to be

10160-411: The dialect. Most of those forms are composed of two morphemes , meaning "speak" and "well" respectively. The word Otomi entered the Spanish language through Nahuatl and describes the larger Otomi macroethnic group and the dialect continuum. From Spanish, the word Otomi has become entrenched in the linguistic and anthropological literature. Among linguists, the suggestion has been made to change

10287-470: The earlier Olmec civilization, left ample attestations of dynastic authoritarian sovereignty in the form of royal palaces, ceremonial ball courts, and depictions of war, conquest, and humiliated captives. However, no such artifacts have been found in Teotihuacan. Many scholars have thus concluded that Teotihuacan was led by some sort of "collective governance." In January 378, the warlord Sihyaj K'ahk' (literally, "born of fire"), depicted with artifacts and

10414-519: The early 20th century, as scholars debated whether Teotihuacan or Tula-Hidalgo was the Tollan described by 16th-century chronicles. It now seems clear that Tollan may be understood as a generic Nahua term applied to any large settlement. In the Mesoamerican concept of urbanism, Tollan and other language equivalents serve as a metaphor , linking the bundles of reeds and rushes that formed part of

10541-485: The eastern dialect of San Pablito Pahuatlan in the Sierra Norte de Puebla, and Otomi of Santa Ana Hueytlalpan. A voiceless aspirate stop series /pʰ tʰ kʰ/ , derived from earlier clusters of stop + [h] , occurs in most dialects, but it has turned into the fricatives /ɸ θ x/ in most Western dialects. Some dialects have innovated a palatal nasal /ɲ/ from earlier sequences of *j and a nasal vowel. In several dialects,

10668-464: The economic and cultural engines of Teotihuacan. Established by the elite to showcase the sumptuary goods that the resident craftsmen provided, the neighborhood centers representing diversity in goods was aided by the heavy concentration of immigrated individuals from different regions of Mesoamerica. Along with archeological evidence pointing to one of the primary traded items being textiles, craftspeople capitalized on their mastery of painting, building,

10795-402: The extent and degree of Teotihuacan influence. Some believe that it had direct and militaristic dominance while others view the adoption of "foreign" traits as part of a selective, conscious, and bi-directional cultural diffusion . New discoveries have suggested that Teotihuacan was not much different in its interactions with other centers from the later empires, such as the Toltec and Aztec. It

10922-463: The feather-serpent imagery associated with Teotihuacan culture, conquered Tikal , 600 miles away from Teotihuacan, removing and replacing the Maya king, with support from El Peru and Naachtun , as recorded by Stela 31 at Tikal and other monuments in the Maya region. At this time, the Spearthrower Owl ruler was also associated with Teotihuacan culture. Linda R. Manzanilla wrote in 2015: In 378

11049-408: The first king. The Dynasty went on to have sixteen rulers. Copán is located in modern-day Honduras, as described by Copán Altar Q . Soon thereafter, Yax K'uk' Mo' installed Tok Casper as king of Quiriguá , about 50 km north of Copán. The city reached its peak in 450 CE when it was the center of a powerful culture whose influence extended through much of the Mesoamerican region. At this time,

11176-476: The first person plural and the dual/plural distinction in the second person. Otomi nouns are marked only for their possessor; plurality is expressed via pronouns and articles . There is no case marking. The particular pattern of possessive inflection is a widespread trait in the Mesoamerican linguistic area : there is a prefix agreeing in person with the possessor, and if the possessor is plural or dual, then

11303-408: The formation of channels, and subsequently canoe traffic, to transport food from farms around the city. The earliest buildings at Teotihuacan date to about 200 BCE. The largest pyramid, the Pyramid of the Sun , was completed by 100 CE. Evidence of a king or other authoritarian ruler is strikingly absent in Teotihuacan. Contemporaneous cities in the same region, including Mayan and Zapotec, as well as

11430-425: The four nasal vowels of proto-Otomi, some dialects have /õ/ . Ixtenco Otomi has only /ẽ ũ ɑ̃/ , whereas Toluca Otomi has /ĩ ũ ɑ̃/ . In the Otomi of Cruz del Palmar, Guanjuato, the nasal vowels are /ĩ ũ õ/ , the former *ɑ̃ having changed to /õ/ . Modern Otomi has borrowed many words from Spanish, in addition to new phonemes that occur only in loan words, such as /l/ that appears in some Otomi dialects instead of

11557-738: The laboring class. Residential architectural structures seem to be differentiable by the artistry and complexity of the structure itself. Based on the quality of construction materials and sizes of rooms as well as the quality of assorted objects found in the residency, dwellings radiating outward from the Central district and along the Avenue of the Dead might have been occupied by higher status individuals. However, Teotihuacan overall does not appear to have been organized into discrete zoning districts. The more elite compounds were often decorated with elaborate murals. Thematic elements of these murals included processions of lavishly dressed priests, jaguar figures,

11684-457: The languages spoken in Teotihuacan , the greatest Mesoamerican ceremonial center of the Classic period, the demise of which occurred ca. 600 AD. The Precolumbian Otomi people did not have a fully developed writing system . However, Aztec writing , largely ideographic, could be read in Otomi as well as Nahuatl. The Otomi often translated names of places or rulers into Otomi rather than using

11811-521: The larger world toward the Otomi language started to change in 2003 when Otomi was granted recognition as a national language under Mexican law together with 61 other indigenous languages. Otomi comes from the Nahuatl word otomitl , which in turn possibly derived from an older word, totomitl "shooter of birds." It is an exonym ; the Otomi refer to their language as Hñähñú, Hñähño, Hñotho, Hñähü, Hñätho, Hyųhų, Yųhmų, Ñųhų, Ñǫthǫ, or Ñañhų , depending on

11938-425: The largest metropolis in Mesoamerica. Factors influencing this growth include the destruction of other settlements due to volcanic eruptions and the economic pull of the expanding city. This influx of new residents caused a reorganization of urban housing to the unique compound complexes that typify Teotihuacan. This period is notable for its monumental architecture and sculpture, especially the construction of some of

12065-601: The largest, or perhaps had the largest, population of any city in the Basin of Mexico during its occupation. Teotihuacan was a large pre-historic city that underwent massive population growth and sustained it over most of the city's occupancy. In 100 CE, the population could be estimated at around 60,000-80,000, after 200 years of the city's occupancy, within 20 km of the city. The population, eventually, stabilized around 100,000 people around 300 CE. The population reached its peak numbers around 400 to 500 CE. During 400 to 500 CE,

12192-418: The last syllable of polysyllabic words. Stress in Otomi is not phonemic but rather falls predictably on every other syllable, with the first syllable of a root always being stressed. In this article, the orthography of Lastra (various, including 1996, 2006) is employed which marks syllabic tone. The low tone is unmarked ( a ), the high level tone is marked with the acute accent ( á ), and the rising tone with

12319-415: The military were also buried alive or captured and held in cages such as cougars, a wolf, eagles, a falcon, an owl, and even venomous snakes. Numerous stone masks have been found at Teotihuacan, and have been generally believed to have been used during a funerary context. However, other scholars call this into question, noting that the masks "do not seem to have come from burials". Teotihuacan had one of

12446-452: The modern Otomi varieties. Much of central Mexico was inhabited by speakers of the Oto-Pamean languages before the arrival of Nahuatl speakers; beyond this, the geographical distribution of the ancestral stages of most modern indigenous languages of Mexico, and their associations with various civilizations remain undetermined. It has been proposed that Proto-Otomi-Mazahua most likely was one of

12573-432: The more innovative dialects, such as those of Querétaro and of the Mezquital area, distinguish only singular and plural numbers, sometimes using the previous dual forms as a paucal number. The Ixtenco dialect distinguishes singular, plural, and mass plural numbers. The personal prefixes distinguish four persons, making for a total of eleven categories of grammatical person in most dialects. The grammatical number of nouns

12700-550: The most well-known sites of Teotihuacan , the Pyramids of the Sun and Moon. Further, the shift of political power from the Temple of the Feathered Serpent and its surrounding palace structure to the Avenue of the Dead Complex occurred sometime between CE 250 and 350. Some authors believe that this represents a shift from the centralized, monarchical political system to a more decentralized and bureaucratic organization. Around 300 CE,

12827-479: The name as "place of those who have the road of the gods." This is because the Aztecs believed that the gods created the universe at that site. The name is pronounced [te.oːtiːˈwakaːn] in Nahuatl , with the stress on the syllable wa . By normal Nahuatl orthographic conventions, a written accent mark would not appear in that position. Both this pronunciation and the Spanish pronunciation [te.otiwaˈkan] are used; in Spanish and usually English,

12954-432: The narrative of these places. Archaeologists have also performed oxygen isotope ratio testing and strontium isotope ratio testing to determine, using the bones and the teeth of the skeletons uncovered, whether these skeletons were native to Teotihuacan or were immigrants to the city. The oxygen ratio testing can be used to determine where someone grew up, and the strontium ratio testing can be used to determine where someone

13081-536: The national average. The Otomi languages belongs to the Oto-Pamean branch of the Oto-Manguean languages . Within Oto-Pamean, it is part of the Otomian subgroup, which also includes Mazahua . Otomi has traditionally been described as a single language, although its many dialects are not all mutually intelligible. SIL International's Ethnologue considers nine separate Otomi languages based on literature needs and

13208-703: The noun is also marked with a suffix that agrees in number with the possessor. Demonstrated below is the inflectional paradigm for the word ngų ́ "house" in the dialect of Toluca. Definite articles preceding the noun are used to express plurality in nominal elements, since the nouns themselves are invariant for grammatical number. Most dialects have rʌ 'the (singular)' and yʌ 'the (dual/plural)'. Example noun phrases: Classical Otomi, as described by Cárceres, distinguished neutral, honorific, and pejorative definite articles: ąn , neutral singular; o , honorific singular; nø̌ , pejorative singular; e , neutral and honorific plural; and yo , pejorative plural. Verb morphology

13335-416: The oral vowels /i ɨ u e ø o ɛ a ɔ/ , and the nasal vowels /ĩ ũ ẽ ɑ̃/ . Modern dialects have undergone various changes from the common historic phonemic inventory. Most have voiced the reconstructed Proto-Otomian voiceless nonaspirate stops /p t k/ and now have only the voiced series /b d ɡ/ . The only dialects to retain all the original voiceless nonaspirate stops are Otomi of Tilapa and Acazulco and

13462-599: The other hand, the level of monolingualism in Otomi is as high as 22.3% in Huehuetla , Hidalgo, and 13.1% in Texcatepec , Veracruz). Monolingualism is usually significantly higher among women than among men. Due to the politics from the 1920s to the 1980s that encouraged the "Hispanification" of indigenous communities and made Spanish the only language used in schools, no group of Otomi speakers today has general literacy in Otomi, while their literacy rate in Spanish remains far below

13589-446: The performance of music and military training. These neighborhood centers closely resembled individual compounds, often surrounded by physical barriers separating them from the others. In this way, Teotihuacan developed an internal economic competition that fueled productivity and helped create a social structure of its own that differed from the larger structure. The repeated actions of the craftworkers left their physical mark. Based on

13716-520: The period, and the most well-known documents are the Codices of Huichapan and Jilotepec. Text in classical Otomi is not easily accessible since the Spanish speaking friars failed to differentiate the varied vowel and consonant sounds of the Otomi language. Friars wrote several grammars, the earliest documented of which was the Arte de la lengua othomí [ sic ] of Pedro de Cárceres in 1580 (but not published until 1907). In 1605, Alonso de Urbano wrote

13843-579: The phonological contrasts of the Otomi language. Since the friars who alphabetized the Otomi populations were Spanish speakers, it was difficult for them to perceive contrasts that were present in Otomi but absent in Spanish, such as nasalisation, tone, the large vowel inventory as well as aspirated and glottal consonants. Even when they recognized that there were additional phonemic contrasts in Otomi they often had difficulties choosing how to transcribe them and with doing so consistently. No colonial documents include information on tone. The existence of nasalization

13970-405: The proclitics occur both in nominal and verbal paradigms. Proclitics mark the categories of definiteness and number, person, negation, tense and aspect – often fused in a single proclitic. Suffixes mark direct and indirect objects as well as clusivity (the distinction between inclusive and exclusive "we"), number, location and affective emphasis. Historically, as in other Oto-Manguean languages,

14097-599: The root to express reciprocality or middle voice . Some dialects, notably the eastern ones, have a system of verb classes that take different series of prefixes. These conjugational categories have been lost in the Western dialects, although they existed in the Western areas in the colonial period as can be seen from Cárceres's grammar. Verbs are inflected for either direct object or indirect object (but not for both simultaneously) by suffixes. The categories of person of subject, tense, aspect, and mood are marked simultaneously with

14224-446: The same language. They concluded that Texcatepec, Eastern Highland Otomi , and Tenango may be considered the same language at a lower threshold of 70% intelligibility. Ethnologue finds a similar lower level of 70% intelligibility between Querétaro, Mezquital, and Mexico State Otomi. The Ethnologue Temaoya Otomi is split off from Mexico State Otomi, and introduce Tilapa Otomi as a separate language; while Egland's poorly tested Zozea Otomi

14351-524: The semantic difference between the two subjunctive forms (A and B) has not yet been clearly understood in the linguistic literature. Sometimes subjunctive B implicates that is more recent in time than subjunctive A. Both indicate something counterfactual. In other Otomi dialects, such as Otomi of Ixtenco Tlaxcala, the distinction between the two forms is one of subjunctive as opposed to irrealis . The Past and Present Progressive are similar in meaning to English 'was' and 'is X-ing', respectively. The Imperative

14478-640: The site (and others, like the Wagner Murals , found in private collections), and hieroglyphic inscriptions made by the Maya describing their encounters with Teotihuacan conquerors. The creation of murals, perhaps tens of thousands of murals, reached its height between 450 and 650. The artistry of the painters was unrivaled in Mesoamerica and has been compared with that of painters in Renaissance Florence, Italy . Scholars originally thought that invaders attacked

14605-458: The storm god deity, and an anonymous goddess whose hands offer gifts of maize, precious stones, and water. Rulers who may have requested to be immortalized through art are noticeably absent in Teotihuacan artwork. Observed artwork, instead, tends to portray institutionalized offices and deities. It suggests their art glorifies nature and the supernatural and emphasizes egalitarian rather than aristocratic values. Also absent from Teotihuacan artwork

14732-540: The stress falls on the final syllable. The original name of the city is unknown, but it appears in hieroglyphic texts from the Maya region as puh , or "Place of Reeds". This suggests that, in the Maya civilization of the Classic period, Teotihuacan was understood as a Place of Reeds similar to other Postclassic Central Mexican settlements that took the name of Tollan , such as Tula-Hidalgo and Cholula . This naming convention led to much confusion in

14859-436: The tone diacritics correctly. For Mezquital Otomi, Bernard accordingly created an orthography in which tone was indicated only when necessary to disambiguate between two words and in which the only symbols used were those available on a standard Spanish language typewriter (employing for example the letter c for [ɔ] , v for [ʌ] , and the symbol + for [ɨ] ). Bernard's orthography has not been influential and in used only in

14986-623: The two main hypotheses are not mutually exclusive. Drought leading to famine could have led to incursions from smaller surrounding civilizations as well as internal unrest. As Teotihuacan fell in local prominence, other nearby centers, such as Cholula , Xochicalco , and Cacaxtla , competed to fill the power void. They may have even aligned themselves against Teotihuacan to seize the opportunity to further reduce its influence and power. The art and architecture at these sites emulate Teotihuacan forms but also demonstrate an eclectic mix of motifs and iconography from other parts of Mesoamerica, particularly

15113-414: The upper classes. Because all of these sites showed burning, archeologists concluded that the whole city was burned. Instead, it is now known that the destruction was centered on major civic structures along the Avenue of the Dead. The sculptures inside palatial structures, such as Xalla, were shattered. No traces of foreign invasion are visible at the site. Evidence for population decline beginning around

15240-862: The valley of Toluca, and Eastern Otomi spoken in the Highlands of Northern Puebla, Veracruz and Hidalgo, in Tlaxcala and two towns in the Toluca Valley, San Jerónimo Acazulco and Santiago Tilapa . The Northwestern varieties are characterized by an innovative phonology and grammar, whereas the Eastern varieties are more conservative. The assignment of dialects to the three groups is as follows: Egland, Bartholomew & Cruz Ramos (1983) conducted mutual intelligibility tests in which they concluded that eight varieties of Otomi could be considered separate languages in regards to mutual intelligibility, with 80% intelligibility being needed for varieties to be considered part of

15367-433: The wear of teeth, archeologists were able to determine that some bodies worked with fibers with their frontal teeth, insinuating that they were involved with making nets, like those depicted in mural art. Female skeletons provided evidence that they might have sewn or painted for long periods of time, indicative of the headdresses that were created as well as pottery which was fired and painted. Wear on specific joints indicate

15494-495: The works published by himself and the Otomi author Jesus Salinas Pedraza. Practical orthographies used to promote Otomi literacy have been designed and published by the Instituto Lingüístico de Verano and later by the national institute for indigenous languages ( INALI ). Generally they use diareses ë and ö to distinguish the low mid vowels [ɛ] and [ɔ] from the high mid vowels e and o. High central vowel [ɨ]

15621-509: The world during its epoch. The city covered eight square miles (21 km )  and 80 to 90 percent of the total population of the valley resided in Teotihuacan. Apart from the pyramids, Teotihuacan is also anthropologically significant for its complex, multi-family residential compounds, the Avenue of the Dead , and its vibrant, well-preserved murals . Additionally, Teotihuacan exported fine obsidian tools found throughout Mesoamerica. The city

15748-420: Was a multiethnic city that was broken up into areas of different ethnicities and workers. This neighborhood was important in two ways; the high infant mortality rate and the role of the different ethnicities. The high infant mortality rate was important within the neighborhood, and the city at large, as there are a large number of perinatal skeletons at Teopancazco. This suggests that the population of Teotihuacan

15875-536: Was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987. It is the most-visited archeological site in Mexico, receiving 4,185,017 visitors in 2017. The name Teōtīhuacān was given by the Nahuatl -speaking Aztecs centuries after the fall of the city around 550 CE. The term has been glossed as "birthplace of the gods", or "place where gods were born", reflecting Nahua creation myths that were said to occur in Teotihuacan. Nahuatl scholar Thelma D. Sullivan interprets

16002-445: Was sustained and grew due to people coming into the city, rather than the population reproducing. The influx of people came from surrounding areas, bringing different ethnicities to the city. Teotihuacan also had two other neighborhoods that prominently depicted this multiethnic city picture. Both neighborhoods contained not only different architecture from the other parts of Teotihuacan but also artifacts and burial practices that began

16129-542: Was the center of a state empire, its influence throughout Mesoamerica is well documented. Evidence of Teotihuacano presence is found at numerous sites in Veracruz and the Maya region . The later Aztecs saw these magnificent ruins and claimed a common ancestry with the Teotihuacanos, modifying and adopting aspects of their culture. The ethnicity of the inhabitants of Teotihuacan is the subject of debate. Possible candidates are

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