List of forms of government
69-463: In the field of political science, civics is the study of the civil and political rights and obligations of citizens in a society . The term civics derives from the Latin word civicus , meaning "relating to a citizen". In U.S. politics, in the context of urban planning , the term civics comprehends the city politics that affect the political decisions of the citizenry of a city. Civic education
138-506: A bill of rights or similar document. They are also defined in international human rights instruments , such as the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights . Civil and political rights need not be codified to be protected. However, most democracies worldwide do have formal written guarantees of civil and political rights. Civil rights are considered to be natural rights . Thomas Jefferson wrote in his A Summary View of
207-412: A central pin or spike and two recessed sections: an inner circular section called the dish and a circular outer section. Five points are awarded for a quoit landing cleanly over the pin, two points for a quoit landing cleanly in the dish, and one point for a quoit landing cleanly on the outer circular section of the board. The scoreboard consists of numbers running from 1 to 10, 11 or 12, and the object of
276-409: A class of rights that protect individuals ' freedom from infringement by governments , social organizations , and private individuals. They ensure one's entitlement to participate in the civil and political life of society and the state . Civil rights generally include ensuring peoples' physical and mental integrity, life , and safety , protection from discrimination , the right to privacy ,
345-507: A comparison made by Simonides between Spartan education of citizens and horse husbandry: Simonides called Sparta "the tamer of men," because by early strictness of education, they, more than any nation, trained the citizens to obedience to the laws, and made them tractable and patient of subjection, as horses that are broken in while colts. According to the Roman historian Plutarch , the semi-legendary Lycurgus of Sparta considered education of
414-598: A dozen clubs, now reduced to one which is based in Stonehaven , under the control of the Scottish Quoiting Association, whilst Wales has only a few clubs, most of them in Dyfed and Powys . In this game, the top of the spike is flush with the clay, so encircling the pin is not a significant part of the game. The long game has similarities to the game of bowls , in that a player scores a point for each quoit nearer to
483-678: A game". Probably from Old French coite: "flat stone". Possible derivation of coilte: "cushion". It is not until the 19th century that the game is documented in any detailed way. The official rules first appeared in the April 1881 edition of The Field , having been defined by a body formed from pubs in Northern England. A July 13, 1836, advertisement in the National Intelligencer (Washington, D.C.) touted facilities for "the manly and healthy amusements of quoits, ten-pin, fives, &c." on
552-493: A prince to live in the court without a troop of guards and followers, extraordinary apparel, such and such torches and statues, and other like particulars of state and magnificence; but that a man may reduce and contract himself almost to the state of a private man, and yet for all that not to become the more base and remiss in those public matters and affairs, wherein power and authority is requisite. In his treatise Leviathan , English philosopher Thomas Hobbes heavily criticised
621-463: A pub game, this variant is predominantly played in mid and south Wales and in England along its border with Wales. Matches are played by two teams (usually the host pub versus another pub) and typically consist of four games of singles, followed by three games of doubles. Players take it in turns to pitch four rubber rings across a distance of around 8½ feet onto a raised quoits board. The board consists of
690-399: A respect unto men only as men, and to the equity of the things themselves, and not unto the glory that might follow. Aurelius was also taught by his father how to live as a public figure restrained by modesty: That I lived under the government of my lord and father, who would take away from me all pride and vainglory, and reduce me to that conceit and opinion that it was not impossible for
759-524: A role. Implied or unenumerated rights are rights that courts may find to exist even though not expressly guaranteed by written law or custom; one example is the right to privacy in the United States , and the Ninth Amendment explicitly shows that other rights are also protected. The United States Declaration of Independence states that people have unalienable rights including "Life, Liberty, and
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#1732848609029828-407: A spirit of perfect patriotism: 'To conclude, Lycurgus bred up his citizens in such a way that they neither would nor could live by themselves; they were to make themselves one with the public good, and, clustering like bees around their commander, be by their zeal and public spirit carried all but out of themselves, and devoted wholly to their country. Civic education for toughness and martial prowess
897-475: Is 'the school of Hellas', since: in education, where our rivals from their very cradles by a painful discipline seek after manliness, at Athens we live exactly as we please, and yet are just as ready to encounter every legitimate danger. However, English philosopher Thomas Hobbes believed that the Athenians were only taught to think they had personal freedom in order to discourage them from seeking reform. In
966-405: Is America's union that represent the working-class people nationwide. Quoits Quoits ( / ˈ k ɔɪ t s / or / ˈ k w ɔɪ t s / ) is a traditional game which involves the throwing of metal, rope or rubber rings over a set distance, usually to land over or near a spike (sometimes called a hob, mott or pin). The game of quoits encompasses several distinct variations. Quoits
1035-478: Is a popular outdoor variation played principally in and around Pennsylvania , USA (specifically the "Slate Belt" which is in the Lehigh Valley). This game uses two 1 lb (450 g) rubber quoits per player, which are pitched at a short metal pin mounted on a heavy 24 in × 24 in × 1 in (610 mm × 610 mm × 25 mm) slab of slate. The common pronunciation of quoits in
1104-509: Is a translation of Latin jus civis (right of the citizen). Roman citizens could be either free ( libertas ) or servile ( servitus ), but they all had rights in law. After the Edict of Milan in 313, these rights included the freedom of religion; however, in 380, the Edict of Thessalonica required all subjects of the Roman Empire to profess Nicene Christianity. Roman legal doctrine was lost during
1173-506: Is a well-known non-profit organization that helps to preserve freedom of speech and works to change policy. Another organization is the NAACP , founded in 1909, which focuses on protecting the civil rights of minorities. The NRA is a civil rights group founded in 1871 that primarily focuses on protecting the right to bear arms. These organizations serve a variety of causes, one being the AFL–CIO , which
1242-455: Is approximately 6 + 1 ⁄ 2 in (17 cm) in diameter, has a 3-inch-diameter (8 cm) hole, and stands 1 in (2.5 cm) high. Since 2003 the USQA has conducted annual tournaments culminating in a World Championship in both singles and doubles as well as a season ending points champion. Mexican Americans play this game in the U.S. southwest and call it wacha . Exclusively
1311-476: Is no life? So now, because of him our city here is crammed with bureaucratic types and stupid democratic apes who always cheat our people. Nobody carries on the torch— no one's trained in that these days. During his diatribe, he emphasises the importance of poetry to civic education: Small children have a teacher helping them, for young men there's the poets—we've got a solemn duty to say useful things. Similarly, Plutarch would later speak of
1380-421: Is supposedly the game the ancient Greek deity Apollo was playing with his lover Hyacinth which ultimately resulted in his death. In Apollonius of Rhodes ' Argonautica , Thetis sees Jason and the other heroes "delighting in mass throwing (σόλῳ ῥιπῇσί) and arrows." The Greek word "σόλος" usually refers to a mass of iron used for throwing. It is often translated as "quoit." From coyte: "flat stone thrown in
1449-402: Is that if individuals have fewer political rights than are they more likely to commit political violence such as in countries where individual rights are highly restricted. That is why it is important for countries to protect the political rights of all citizens including minority groups. This extends to racial, ethnic, tribal, and religious groups. By granting them the same rights it helps reduce
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#17328486090291518-470: Is that they teach "the virtues of democratic deliberation for the sake of future citizenship." This type of education is often alluded to in the deliberative democracy literature as fulfilling the necessary and fundamental social and institutional changes necessary to develop a democracy that involves intensive participation in group decision making, negotiation, and social life of consequence. Civil and political rights Civil and political rights are
1587-425: Is the study of the theoretical, political, and practical aspects of citizenship manifest as political rights, civil rights , and legal obligations. Civic education includes the study of civil law , the civil codes , and government with especial attention to the political role of the citizens in the operation and oversight of government. Moreover, in the history of Ancient Rome , the term civics also refers to
1656-723: The Civic Crown , to the Corona civica , which was a garland of oak leaves awarded to Romans who saved the lives of fellow citizens. In the History of the Peloponnesian War , Thucydides quotes a speech by Archidamus II wherein he stressed the importance for Sparta of civic education for the Spartan virtues of toughness, obedience, cunning, simplicity, and preparedness: And we are wise, because we are educated with too little learning to despise
1725-531: The English Bill of Rights in 1689. It was one of the influences drawn on by George Mason and James Madison when drafting the Virginia Declaration of Rights in 1776. The Virginia declaration heavily influenced the U.S. Bill of Rights (1789). The removal by legislation of a civil right constitutes a "civil disability". In early 19th century Britain, the phrase "civil rights" most commonly referred to
1794-484: The Socratic dialogue Crito , Crito of Alopece learns from Socrates the importance in civic education of following expert opinion, rather than majority opinion. Socrates uses the analogy of the training gymnast, who he implies ought to follow his gymnastics trainer, not whatever the majority of people think about gymnastics. Crito also hears Socrates' argument that a citizen ought to obey his city's laws partly because it
1863-588: The right to a fair trial , (in some countries) the right to keep and bear arms , freedom of religion , freedom from discrimination , and voting rights . They were pioneered in the seventeenth and eighteenth-century during the Age of Enlightenment . Political theories associated with the English, American, and French revolutions were codified in the English Bill of Rights in 1689 (a restatement of Rights of Englishmen , some dating back to Magna Carta in 1215) and more fully in
1932-402: The right to petition , the right of self-defense , and the right to vote . These rights also must follow the legal norm as in they must have the force of law and fit into the system of administrative justice. A key feature in modern society is that the more a state can guarantee political rights of citizens the better the states relations are with its citizens. Civil and political rights form
2001-880: The French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in 1789 and the United States Bill of Rights in 1791. They were enshrined at the global level and given status in international law first by Articles 3 to 21 of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights and later in the 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights . In Europe, they were enshrined in the European Convention on Human Rights in 1953. There are current organizations that exist to protect people's civil and political rights in case they are infringed upon. The ACLU , founded in 1920,
2070-514: The Middle Ages, but claims of universal rights could still be made based on Christian doctrine. According to the leaders of Kett's Rebellion (1549), "all bond men may be made free, for God made all free with his precious blood-shedding." In the 17th century, English common law judge Sir Edward Coke revived the idea of rights based on citizenship by arguing that Englishmen had historically enjoyed such rights . The Parliament of England adopted
2139-502: The Rights of British America that "a free people [claim] their rights as derived from the laws of nature, and not as the gift of their chief magistrate ." The question of to whom civil and political rights apply is a subject of controversy. Although in many countries citizens are considered to have greater protections against infringement of rights than non-citizens, civil and political rights are generally considered to be universal rights that apply to all persons . One thing to mention
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2208-453: The Slate Belt region is (qwaits). Players take turns throwing a quoit at the pin. The quoit nearest the pin gets one point. If one player has two quoits nearer the pin than either of his opponent's quoits, he gets two points. A quoit that encircles the pin (called a ringer) gets three points. If all four quoits are ringers, the player who threw the last ringer gets three points only; otherwise,
2277-681: The United States gathered steam by 1848 with such documents as the Declaration of Sentiment. Consciously modeled after the Declaration of Independence , the Declaration of Rights and Sentiments became the founding document of the American women's movement, and it was adopted at the Seneca Falls Convention, July 19 and 20, 1848. Worldwide, several political movements for equality before
2346-435: The area include Wesley Newcomb Hohfeld , and Jean Edward Smith . First-generation rights, often called "blue" rights, deal essentially with liberty and participation in political life. They are fundamentally civil and political in nature, as well as strongly individualistic : They serve negatively to protect the individual from excesses of the state. First-generation rights include, among other things, freedom of speech ,
2415-613: The assumption that his plans are good; indeed, it is right to rest our hopes not on a belief in his blunders, but on the soundness of our provisions. Nor ought we to believe that there is much difference between man and man, but to think that the superiority lies with him who is reared in the severest school. French essayist Michel de Montaigne commended how Agesilaus II , the son of Archidamus, followed his father's approach closely: One asking to this purpose, Agesilaus, what he thought most proper for boys to learn? "What they ought to do when they come to be men," said he. Plutarch relates
2484-482: The auspices of The National Quoits Association, formed in 1986. In this game, the pins are 11 yards (10 metres) apart, with their tops protruding 3–4 inches (8–10 centimetres) above the clay. Quoits measure about 5 + 1 ⁄ 2 in (14 cm) in diameter and weigh around 5 + 1 ⁄ 2 lb (2.5 kg). Sometimes called the old game, this version is played in Wales and Scotland ; Scotland had around
2553-420: The bathroom of his choice is a well known case in these civil right fights. Another issue in civil rights has been the issue with police brutality in certain communities especially minority communities. This has been seen as another way for minority groups to be oppressed and their rights infringed upon. Outrage has also been a massive result of incidents caught on tape of police abusing and in some cases causing
2622-504: The citizenry to be his main priority as framer of the Spartan constitution. Plutarch observes that 'the whole course of [Spartan] education was one of continued exercise of a ready and perfect obedience' in which 'there scarcely was any time or place without someone present to put them in mind of their duty, and punish them if they had neglected it.' He also describes how the Spartans limited civic education so as to maintain social control over
2691-449: The clay. Quoits that land cleanly over the hob score two points, regardless of the opponent's efforts, and are removed immediately, prior to the next throw. Quoits which land on their backs, or inclined in a backwards direction, are also removed immediately. In the games played around South Suffolk, Stoke by Nayland (The Black Horse) the inclined beds of clay had a hidden pin, which had a piece of white paper inserted over it. Quoits that hit
2760-463: The deaths of people from minority groups such as African Americans. That is why to address the issue has been accountability to police engaging in such conduct as a way to deter other officers from committing similar actions. T. H. Marshall notes that civil rights were among the first to be recognized and codified, followed later by political rights and still later by social rights. In many countries, they are constitutional rights and are included in
2829-465: The defects of tyranny. From his brother he imbibed a specific ideal for the Roman state: He it was also that did put me in the first conceit and desire of an equal commonwealth, administered by justice and equality; and of a kingdom wherein should be regarded nothing more than the good and welfare of the subjects. He also followed the example of his adopted father Antoninus Pius , who he said kept careful watch of government administration and finances,
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2898-532: The emphasis in contemporary civic education on studying Athenian democracy and Roman republicanism , saying that it wrongly encouraged monarchical subjects to restrain the actions of their monarchs. He thought that those citizens who imbibed the value of democracy from classic works were likely to oppose monarchy in the manner rabid dogs avoid water. Hobbes was deeply uncomfortable with Aristotelian civic education, which he said advised popular governance instead of monarchical rule. English philosopher Francis Bacon
2967-546: The first player to make 21 points wins the game. For two or four players. This version of the game exists largely as a form of recreation, or as a game of skill found typically at fairgrounds and village fetes. There are no leagues or universally accepted standards of play and players normally agree upon the rules before play commences. Garden quoit and hoopla sets can be purchased in shops and usually involve players taking it in turns to throw rope or wooden hoops over one or more spikes. The fairground version typically involves
3036-422: The freedom of thought , speech , religion , press , assembly , and movement . Political rights include natural justice (procedural fairness) in law , such as the rights of the accused , including the right to a fair trial ; due process ; the right to seek redress or a legal remedy ; and rights of participation in civil society and politics such as freedom of association , the right to assemble ,
3105-418: The game is to score each of these numbers separately using four or fewer quoits, the first side to achieve this being the winner. Deck quoits is a variant which is popular on cruise ships. The quoits are invariably made of rope, so as to avoid damaging the ship's deck, but there are no universally agreed standards or rules - partly because of the game's informal nature and partly because the game has to adapt to
3174-498: The government intervene to protect individuals from infringement on their rights by other individuals , or from corporations —e.g., in what way should employment discrimination in the private sector be dealt with? Political theory deals with civil and political rights. Robert Nozick and John Rawls expressed competing visions in Nozick's Anarchy, State, and Utopia and Rawls' A Theory of Justice . Other influential authors in
3243-402: The host, and fought for Argos as he were her own son, glad at heart whenso the city prospered, deeply grieved if e'er reverses came; many a lover though he had midst men and maids, yet was he careful to avoid offence. In his Meditations , Marcus Aurelius tells of how he was educated as a citizen to value free speech , to refrain from rhetoric and giving hortatory lectures, and to perceive
3312-459: The huntress Atalanta 's son, Parthenopaeus, a youth of peerless beauty; from Arcady he came even to the streams of Inachus , and in Argos spent his boyhood. There, when he grew to man's estate, first, as is the duty of strangers settled in another land, he showed no pique or jealousy against the state, became no quibbler, chiefest source of annoyance citizen or stranger can give, but took his stand amid
3381-548: The issue of such legal discrimination against Catholics. In the House of Commons , support for civil rights was divided, with many politicians agreeing with the existing civil disabilities of Catholics. The Roman Catholic Relief Act of 1829 restored their civil rights. In the United States, the term civil rights has been associated with the civil rights movement (1954–1968), which fought against racism. The movement also fought segregation and Jim Crow laws and this fight took place in
3450-424: The law occurred between approximately 1950 and 1980. These movements had a legal and constitutional aspect, and resulted in much law-making at both national and international levels. They also had an activist side, particularly in situations where violations of rights were widespread. Movements with the proclaimed aim of securing observance of civil and political rights included: Most civil rights movements relied on
3519-487: The laws, and with too severe a self-control to disobey them, and are brought up not to be too knowing in useless matters—such as the knowledge which can give a specious criticism of an enemy's plans in theory, but fails to assail them with equal success in practice—but are taught to consider that the schemes of our enemies are not dissimilar to our own, and that the freaks of chance are not determinable by calculation. In practice we always base our preparations against an enemy on
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#17328486090293588-463: The original and main part of international human rights . They comprise the first portion of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (with economic, social, and cultural rights comprising the second portion). The theory of three generations of human rights considers this group of rights to be "first-generation rights", and the theory of negative and positive rights considers them to be generally negative rights . The phrase "civil rights"
3657-408: The pin than his opponent. The hobs are 18 yd (16 m) apart, while the quoits are typically around 9 in (23 cm) in diameter and weigh up to 11 lb (5 kg), almost double that of the northern game. An English version of the long game, played using quoits of reduced size and weight. As with the long game, the hobs are 18 yards apart, but their tops are raised above the level of
3726-558: The pin were called ‘ringers’ after the noise made by metal hitting metal. Traditional American 4lb quoits. The standard for American Quoits is governed by the United States Quoiting Association. The USQA was created in April 2003. The USQA unified a specific standard for the 4 Lb quoit. Each regulation set of USQA Quoits includes 4 foundry-cast steel quoits in perfect proportion to the historical Traditional American Quoit. Each quoit weighs 4 lb (1.8 kg) and
3795-559: The power of the poet Thales to, in the words of the English poet John Milton , 'prepare and mollify the Spartan surliness with his smooth songs and odes, the better to plant among them law and civility'. Plutarch also spoke of the deep influence of Homer 's 'lessons of state' on Lycurgus , framer of the Spartan constitution. In the Euripides tragedy The Suppliants , King Adrastus of Argos describes how Hippomedon received his civic education for endurance, martial skill, and service to
3864-578: The premises of a "Coffee House" in Berkeley Springs , Virginia (now West Virginia). A game played with metal discs, traditionally made of steel , and thrown across a set distance at a metal spike (called a pin, hob or mott). The spike is centrally, and vertically, positioned in a square of moist clay measuring three feet across. This version uses the 15 rules published in The Field in 1881 and has remained largely unchanged since that time. Played under
3933-653: The pursuit of Happiness". It is considered by some that the sole purpose of government is the protection of life, liberty , and property. Some thinkers have argued that the concepts of self-ownership and cognitive liberty affirm rights to choose the food one eats, the medicine one takes , and the habit one indulges . Civil rights guarantee equal protection under the law. When civil and political rights are not guaranteed to all as part of equal protection of laws , or when such guarantees exist on paper but are not respected in practice, opposition, legal action and even social unrest may ensue. Civil rights movements in
4002-466: The risk of political violence breaking out. According to political scientist Salvador Santino F. Regilme Jr., analyzing the causes of and lack of protection from human rights abuses in the Global South should be focusing on the interactions of domestic and international factors—an important perspective that has usually been systematically neglected in the social science literature. Custom also plays
4071-411: The shape and area of each particular ship it is played upon. Players take it in turn to throw three or four hoops at a target which usually, though not always, consists of concentric circles marked on the deck. The centre point is called the jack. Occasionally this may take the form of a raised wooden peg, but more usually it is marked on the surface in the same way that the concentric circles are. This
4140-579: The state: Such another was Hippomedon, third of all this band; from his very boyhood he refrained from turning towards the allurements of the Muses , to lead life of ease; his home was in the fields, and gladly would he school his nature to hardships with a view to manliness, aye hasting to the chase, rejoicing in his steeds or straining of his bow, because he would make himself of use unto his state. Adrastus also describes how Parthenopeus received his education for citizenship in his adopted city: Next behold
4209-801: The streets, in public places, in government, and in the courts including the Supreme Court. The civil rights movement was also not the only movement fighting for civil rights as The Black Panthers were also a group focused on fighting racism and Jim Crow. Other things that civil rights have been associated with are not just race but also rights of Transgender and other LGBTQ individuals. These have been fights over sexuality instead of race and focused around whether these individuals may access certain spaces like bathrooms according to their sexual identity or biological sex. Gavin Grimm's fight in Virginia over whether he could use
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#17328486090294278-560: The technique of civil resistance , using nonviolent methods to achieve their aims. In some countries, struggles for civil rights were accompanied, or followed, by civil unrest and even armed rebellion. While civil rights movements over the last sixty years have resulted in an extension of civil and political rights, the process was long and tenuous in many countries, and many of these movements did not achieve or fully achieve their objectives. Questions about civil and political rights have frequently emerged. For example, to what extent should
4347-445: The things we have to learn before we can do them, we learn by doing them." They adduce that for this purpose schools must encourage ethical behavior and personal responsibility. In order to achieve these goals schools must allow students the three great freedoms—freedom of choice, freedom of action and freedom to bear the results of action—that constitute personal responsibility. The "strongest, political rationale" for democratic schools
4416-411: The way Spartan citizens spent their time learning to acquire virtues such as courage and temperance, to the exclusion of studying any other subject. Spartan boys were also taught music and songs in praise of courage and in condemnation of cowardice. Essentially, the Spartan ideal of civic education was a process whereby the interest of the citizen becomes totally united with the interest of the polity, in
4485-482: The young: Reading and writing they gave them, just enough to serve their turn; their chief care was to make them good subjects, and to teach them to endure pain and conquer in battle. However, the youth were also required to express themselves forcefully and succinctly, as well to think and reflect on matters of civic virtue, including such questions as who is or is not a good citizen of Sparta. Montaigne would later praise this particular technique of education, admiring
4554-449: Was aware of the relevance of civic education to what he termed 'civil merit'. However, in his essay The Advancement of Learning , Bacon also argues that civic education should be preceded by religious and moral education, so that those who judge policy will not be under the influence of moral relativism . Sudbury schools contend that values , social justice and democracy must be learned through experience as Aristotle said: "For
4623-478: Was his city which educated him for citizenship. In the Aristophanes comedy The Frogs , the character of the playwright Aeschylus scolds fellow tragedian Euripides for writing scenes pernicious to proper ideals of citizenship: What crimes is he not guilty of? Did he not put up on display pimps and women giving birth in holy shrines and having sex with their own brothers, and then claim that living
4692-444: Was not only within the purview of Spartan men: Plutarch recounts how Lycurgus 'ordered the maidens to exercises themselves with wrestling, running, throwing the quoit , and chasing the dart' with a view to creating healthy children for the state. Pericles' Funeral Oration provides insight into Athens' sharply contrasting form of civic education from Sparta, for personal freedom, rather than blind obedience, where he boasts that Athens
4761-430: Was open to hearing ideas about how to serve the common good, and cared neither for ambition nor pandering to the popular will: Again, that secrets he neither had many, nor often, and such only as concerned public matters: his discretion and moderation, in exhibiting of the public sights and shows for the pleasure and pastime of the people: in public buildings. [ sic ] congiaries, and the like. In all these things, having
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