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72-437: It has two main functions. The first is to ensure that the 'social function' of urban land and buildings is put before their commercial value. This has been defined as "the prioritization of use value over exchange value". The second is to ensure 'democratic city management'. This has been defined as "a path to plan, produce, operate and govern cities subject to social control and participation." It has been argued that, although

144-489: A dialectical unity . If this is not fully clear from Marx's writings, that is perhaps mainly because he never theorised the sphere of final consumption in any detail, nor the way in which commerce reshapes the way that final consumption takes place. Das Kapital Capital: A Critique of Political Economy (German: Das Kapital. Kritik der politischen Ökonomie ), also known as Capital and Das Kapital ( German pronunciation: [das kapiˈtaːl] ),

216-456: A mode of production , and seeks to trace its origins, development, and decline. Marx argues that capitalism is a form of economic organization which has arisen and developed in a specific historical context, and which contains tendencies and contradictions which will inevitably lead to its decline and collapse. Marx considered Das Kapital a scientific work, and in it critiqued both the system and bourgeois political economists who argue that it

288-469: A "strictly scientific work" of political economy , the content of which did not apply to monarchic Russia, where "capitalist exploitation " had never occurred and was officially dismissed, given "that very few people in Russia will read it, and even fewer will understand it". Nonetheless, Marx acknowledged that Russia was the country where Das Kapital "was read and valued more than anywhere". For instance,

360-452: A French translation, published in 44 installments from August 1872 through May 1875, and then as a single work with a printing of ten thousand copies, the largest up until then. Eventually, Marx's work was translated into all major languages. The definitive critical edition of Marx's works, known as MEGA II ( Marx-Engels Gesamtausgabe ), includes Das Kapital in German (only the first volume

432-503: A commodity with a very high use-value may have a very low exchange-value, such as water. Marx comments for example that "in English writers of the 17th century we frequently find worth in the sense of value in use, and value in the sense of exchange-value." With the expansion of market economy, however, the focus of economists has increasingly been on prices and price-relations, the social process of exchange as such being assumed to occur as

504-415: A company actually satisfies customers, they want an adequate profit on their investment (but a countertrend is so-called " socially responsible investing "). In modern times, business leaders are often very concerned with total quality management in production, which has become the object of scientific studies, as well as a new source of industrial conflict, since attempts are made to integrate everything

576-455: A critique of Hegel's liberal "Philosophy of Right". He remained a sharp critic of what was to the Marxian view a destructive philosophy: The utility of a thing makes it a use value. But this utility is not a thing of air. Being limited by the physical properties of the commodity, it has no existence apart from that commodity. A commodity, such as iron, corn, or a diamond, is therefore, so far as it

648-543: A dissertation comparing the philosophy of nature in the works of the philosophers Democritus (circa 460–370 BC) and Epicurus (341–270 BC). The logical architecture of Das Kapital is derived in part from the Politics and the Nicomachean Ethics by Aristotle, including the fundamental distinction between use value and exchange value , the syllogisms ( C-M-C' and M-C-M' ) for simple commodity circulation and

720-526: A full, three-volume edition as Theorien über den Mehrwert ( Theories of Surplus Value , 1905–1910). The first volume was published in English as A History of Economic Theories (1952). The Communist Party of the Soviet Union published its own edition of Volume IV in which it claimed that Kautsky's edition bastardized the original text, with their version containing more of the original, unedited material. The first translated publication of Das Kapital

792-427: A historic value in the first beginnings of the science, when the social forms of bourgeois production had still laboriously to be peeled out of the material, and, at great effort, to be established as independent objects of study. In fact, however, the use value of the commodity is a given presupposition—the material basis in which a specific economic relation presents itself. It is only this specific relation which stamps

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864-602: A money- price . Marx acknowledges that commodities being traded also have a general utility , implied by the fact that people want them, but he argues that this by itself says nothing about the specific character of the economy in which they are produced and sold. The concepts of value, use value, utility, exchange value and price have a very long history in economic and philosophical thought. From Aristotle to Adam Smith and David Ricardo , their meanings have evolved. Smith recognized that commodities may have an exchange-value but may satisfy no use-value, such as diamonds, while

936-499: A more recent English translation was made by Ben Fowkes and David Fernbach (the Penguin edition). In 2024, Princeton University Press published the first English translation of the second German edition of Capital, Volume 1, edited and translated by Paul North and Paul Reitter. Volumes 2 and 3 are forthcoming. In 2017, the historian Gareth Stedman Jones wrote in the Books and Arts section of

1008-402: A naturally given fact. In The Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844 , Marx emphasizes that the use-value of a labour-product is practical and objectively determined; that is, it inheres in the intrinsic characteristics of a product that enable it to satisfy a human need or want. The use-value of a product therefore exists as a material reality according to social needs regardless of

1080-518: A nominal price or value can be imputed to goods or assets which are not reproducible goods and not produced by human labour, as correctly noted later by Engels that a product is not necessarily a commodity. However Marx generally holds that only human labour expended can create value compared with Nature, through instrumentation known as modus operandi, or the method of working. "As exchange-values, all commodities are merely definite quantities of congealed labour-time", wrote Karl Marx. The discrepancy of

1152-614: A notion of human capital. Equation: A = P + hL (A, the Concept of Substitutive Work = P, the loss of Primary Productive Energy (which is P/Ep, the coefficient of efficiency) + h, the units of energy (which is the energy consumed by workers during work done) * L, Labour time per hour) Marx's concept of use-value seems akin to, but in reality differs from the neoclassical concept of utility: In summary, different concepts of use value lead to different interpretations and explanations of trade , commerce and capitalism . Marx's main argument

1224-472: A reality only by use or consumption: they also constitute the substance of all wealth, whatever may be the social form of that wealth. In the form of society we are about to consider, they are, in addition, the material depositories of exchange value." This was a direct reference by Marx to Hegel's Elements of the Philosophy of Right §63 as Marx adds: A thing can be a use value, without having value. This

1296-439: A secure way. There must also be a real market demand for it. And all that may depend greatly on the nature of the use-value itself, as well as the ability to package, store, preserve and transport it. In the case of information or communication as use-values, transforming them into commodities may be a complex and problem-fraught process. Thus, the objective characteristics of use-values are very important for understanding (1)

1368-730: A system. A good example would be all the different products involved in the production and use of motor cars. The category of use-value is also important in distinguishing different economic sectors according to their specific type of output. Following Quesnay 's analysis of economic reproduction , Marx distinguished between the economic sector producing means of production and the sectors producing consumer goods and luxuries. In modern national accounts more subtle distinctions are made, for example between primary, secondary and tertiary production, semi-durable and durable goods, and so on. In his textbook The Theory of Capitalist Development (1942), American Marxist Paul Sweezy claimed: Use-value

1440-429: A use-value a commodity such as a diamond. We cannot tell by looking at it that the diamond is a commodity. Where it serves as an aesthetic or mechanical use-value, on the neck of a courtesan or in the hand of a glass-cutter, it is a diamond and not a commodity. To be a use-value is evidently a necessary prerequisite of the commodity, but it is immaterial to the use-value whether it is a commodity. Use-value as such, since it

1512-520: A worker is and does (both their creative potential and how they relate to others) in the battle for improved quality. In that case, it could be argued not just labour power but the whole person is a use-value (see further Richard Sennett 's books such as The Culture of the New Capitalism , Yale (2006). Some regard this practice as a kind of " wage-slavery ". From beginning to end, and from production to consumption, use-value and exchange-value form

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1584-446: A yard of linen. Whatever its social form may be, wealth always consists of use-values, which in the first instance are not affected by this form. From the taste of wheat it is not possible to tell who produced it, a Russian serf, a French peasant or an English capitalist. Although use-values serve social needs and therefore exist within the social framework, they do not express the social relations of production. For instance, let us take as

1656-401: Is 'any thing necessary, useful or pleasant in life,' an object of human wants, a means of existence in the widest sense of the term. Use-value as an aspect of the commodity coincides with the physical palpable existence of the commodity. Wheat, for example, is a distinct use-value differing from the use-values of cotton, glass, paper, etc. A use-value has value only in use, and is realized only in

1728-629: Is a foundational theoretical text in materialist philosophy and critique of political economy written by Karl Marx , published as three volumes in 1867, 1885, and 1894. The culmination of his life's work, the text contains Marx's analysis of capitalism , to which he sought to apply his theory of historical materialism "to lay bare the economic law of motion of modern society", following from classical political economists such as Adam Smith and David Ricardo . The text's second and third volumes were completed from Marx's notes after his death and published by his colleague Friedrich Engels . Das Kapital

1800-450: Is a material thing, a use value, something useful. This property of a commodity is independent of the amount of labour required to appropriate its useful qualities. When treating of use value, we always assume to be dealing with definite quantities, such as dozens of watches, yards of linen, or tons of iron. The use values of commodities furnish the material for a special study, that of the commercial knowledge of commodities. Use values become

1872-498: Is an expanded English translation of the successful 2008 Japanese pocket version Das Kapital known as Manga de Dokuha . The English translation of volume 1 by Samuel Moore and Eleanor Marx 's partner Edward Aveling , overseen by Engels, was published in 1887 as Capital: A Critical Analysis of Capitalist Production by Swan Sonnenschein, Lowrey, & Co. This was reissued in the 1970s by Progress Publishers in Moscow, while

1944-411: Is an expression of a certain relation between the consumer and the object consumed. Political economy, on the other hand, is a social science of the relations between people. It follows that 'use-value as such' lies outside the sphere of investigation of political economy. Marx explicitly rejected Sweezy and Uno's interpretation of use-value (see the previously cited quotation from 1859, in which use-value

2016-512: Is distinguished from the general concept of utility). In a draft included in the Grundrisse manuscripts, which inspired the starting point of A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy and Das Kapital , Marx states: The commodity itself appears as unity of two aspects. It is use value, i.e. object of the satisfaction of any system whatever of human needs. This is its material side, which

2088-573: Is efficient and stable. In Das Kapital (1867), Marx proposes that the motivating force of capitalism is in the exploitation of labor , whose unpaid work is the ultimate source of surplus value . The owner of the means of production is able to claim the right to this surplus value because they are legally protected by the ruling regime through property rights and the legally established distribution of shares which are by law distributed only to company owners and their board members. The historical section shows how these rights were acquired in

2160-485: Is in French) and shows all the versions and alterations made to the text as well as a very extensive apparatus of footnotes and cross-references. The first unabridged translation of Das Kapital to Bengali was done by professor Piyush Dasgupta . It was published in six volumes by Baniprakash, Kolkata, India between 1974 and 1983. In 2012, Red Quill Books released Capital: In Manga! , a comic book version of Volume I which

2232-426: Is independent of the determinate economic form, lies outside the sphere of investigation of political economy. It belongs in this sphere only when it is itself a determinate form. Use-value is the immediate physical entity in which a definite economic relationship—exchange-value—is expressed. The concept is also introduced at the beginning of Das Kapital , where Marx writes, but in the extract below he holds it up as

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2304-418: Is just that from the point of view of the financier or investor, the main concern is not what exactly is being produced as such or how useful that is for society, but whether the investment can make a profit for him. If the products of the enterprise being invested in sell and make a profit, then that is regarded as sufficient indication of usefulness. Even so, the investor is obviously interested in "the state of

2376-445: Is just the money they make; whatever the buyer does with the goods and services produced is, so it seems, of no real concern. But this is arguably a misunderstanding of business activity and the bourgeoisie as a class. Marx thought that capitalists can never be totally "indifferent" to use-values, because inputs of sufficient quality (labour, materials, equipment) must be bought and managed to produce outputs that: For this purpose,

2448-423: Is spent on commodities for which there is market-demand, can be considered productive labour and therefore exploited on Marx's account. There are also those who argued that Marx's so-called immiseration thesis is presumed to mean that the proletariat is absolutely immiserated. The existing scholarly consensus tends towards the opposite view that Marx believed that only relative immiseration would occur, that is,

2520-407: Is subtitled "The process of capitalist production as a whole" and is concerned primarily with the internal differentiation of the capitalist class. The first three parts are concerned with the division of surplus value amongst individual capitals, where it takes the form of profit. The following parts are concerned with merchants' capital, interest-bearing capital and landed capital. The last part draws

2592-428: Is that if we focus only on the general utility of a commodity, we abstract from and ignore precisely the specific social relations of production which created it. Some academics such as Professor Robert Albritton , a Canadian political scientist, have claimed that according to Marx, capitalists are basically "indifferent" to the use-value of the goods and services in which they trade, since what matters to capitalists

2664-583: Is the case whenever its utility to man is not due to labour. Such are air, virgin soil, natural meadows, &c. A thing can be useful, and the product of human labour, without being a commodity. Whoever directly satisfies his wants with the produce of his own labour, creates, indeed, use values, but not commodities. In order to produce the latter, he must not only produce use values, but use values for others, social use values. (And not only for others, without more. The mediaeval peasant produced quit-rent-corn for his feudal lord and tithe-corn for his parson. But neither

2736-409: Is the most cited book in the social sciences published before 1950. Marx's theory of historical materialism posits that the economic structure of society – in particular, the forces and relations of production – are the crucial factors in shaping its nature. Rather than a simple description of capitalism as an economic model , Das Kapital instead examines capitalism as a historical epoch and

2808-420: Is the point of departure for the topic of capital accumulation which was given its Marxist treatment later in detail by Rosa Luxemburg , among others. Das Kapital, Volume III , subtitled The Process of Capitalist Production as a Whole , was prepared by Engels from notes left by Marx and published in 1894. It is divided into seven parts: The work is best known today for Part 3 which in summary says that as

2880-515: The British Library in London. At the time of his death (1883), Marx had prepared the manuscript for Das Kapital, Volume IV , a critical history of theories of surplus value of his time, the 19th century, based on the earlier manuscript Theories of Surplus Value (1862–63). The philosopher Karl Kautsky (1854–1938) published a partial edition of Marx's surplus-value critique and later published

2952-460: The inputs in production must moreover be used in an economical way, and care must be taken not to waste resources to the extent that this would mean additional costs for an enterprise, or reduce productivity. The Theory of Use Values relates directly to human labour and the power of machines to destroy value, "Living labour must seize on these things, awaken them from the dead, change them from merely possible into real and effective use values". It

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3024-533: The Russian edition was the fastest selling as 3,000 copies were sold in one year while the German edition took five years to sell 1,000, therefore the Russian translation sold fifteen times faster than the German original. This edition was in part worked on by revolutionary socialist Mikhail Bakunin , but "he quit after completing part of the first chapter" and it was completed by Nikolai Danielson and German Lopatin among others. Marx revised, rewrote, and monitored

3096-531: The categories cannot explain. This meant that Marx had to build his arguments on historical narratives and empirical evidence rather than the arbitrary application of his ideas in his evaluation of capitalism. On the other hand, Das Kapital has also received criticism. There are theorists who claimed that this text was unable to reconcile capitalist exploitation with prices dependent upon subjective wants in exchange relations. Marxists generally reply that only socially necessary labor time , that is, labor which

3168-412: The circulation of value as capital . Moreover, the description of machinery under capitalist relations of production as "self-acting automata " derives from Aristotle's speculations about inanimate instruments capable of obeying commands as the condition for the abolition of slavery . In the 19th century, Marx's research of the available politico-economic literature required twelve years, usually in

3240-537: The concept of total factor productivity, prompting some to consider such things as technology, human capital , and stock of knowledge. Later scholars, such as Walter Benjamin , Fernand Braudel , Ben Fine , Manuel Castells and Michel Aglietta attempted to fill the gap in Marx's unfinished work. In modern times the theory has been extended to conclude that conversion of energy-driven work does not rely on labour-intensive inputs; thus use can be unsupervised work that develops

3312-572: The development and expansion of market trade, and (2) necessary technical relationships between different economic activities (e.g. supply chains ). To produce a car, for example, you objectively require steel, and this steel is required, regardless of what its price might be. Necessary relationships therefore exist between different use-values, because they are technically, materially and practically related. Some authors therefore write about an "industrial complex" or "technological complex", indicating thereby how different technological products are linked in

3384-449: The emergence of an entirely new mode of production as the culmination of the same historical dialectic that led to the emergence of capitalism from prior forms. The third volume is highly controversial, peculiarly the tenth chapter, as some economists feel like Marx contradicted himself with the Marxian fundamental value theory while trying to tackle the transformation problem . Volume 3

3456-425: The first place chiefly through plunder and conquest and the activity of the merchant and "middle-man". In producing capital , the workers continually reproduce the economic conditions by which they labour. Das Kapital proposes an explanation of the "laws of motion" of the capitalist economic system from its origins to its future by describing the dynamics of the accumulation of capital, the growth of wage labour ,

3528-436: The first volume. These three volumes are collectively known as Das Kapital . NML: Das Kapital, Volume I (1867) is a critical analysis of political economy, meant to reveal the contradictions of the capitalist mode of production , how it was the precursor of the socialist mode of production and of the class struggle rooted in the capitalist social relations of production. The first of three volumes of Das Kapital

3600-636: The great landmarks of nineteenth-century thought, it is [because it connects] critical analysis of the economy of his time with its historical roots. In doing so, he inaugurated a debate about how best to reform or transform politics and social relations, which has gone on ever since. Positive reception also cited the soundness of the methodology used in producing the book, which is called immanent critique. This approach, which starts from simple category and gradually unfolds into complex categories, employed "internal" criticism that finds contradiction within and between categories while discovering aspects of reality that

3672-415: The individual need of any particular person. The use-value of a commodity is specifically a social use-value, meaning that it has a generally accepted use-value for others in society, and not just for the producer. Marx first defines use-value precisely in A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (1859) where he explains: To begin with, a commodity, in the language of the English economists,

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3744-401: The interdependent" connection of humans and nature. The purpose of Das Kapital (1867) was a scientific foundation for the politics of the modern labour movement . The analyses were meant "to bring a science , by criticism, to the point where it can be dialectically represented" and so "reveal the law of motion of modern society" to describe how the capitalist mode of production was

3816-410: The legislation is pro-poor, elite actors have been able to use their power to operate in a manner that still privileges elite interests. This article relating to the law of Brazil is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Use value Use value ( German : Gebrauchswert ) or value in use is a concept in classical political economy and Marxist economics . It refers to

3888-483: The market" for the enterprise's products—if certain products are being used less or used more, this affects sales and profits. So to evaluate "the state of the market", the investor needs knowledge about the place of a product in the value chain and how it is being used. Often, Marx assumed in Das Kapital for argument's sake that supply and demand will balance, and that products do sell. Even so, Marx carefully defines

3960-414: The most disparate epochs of production may have in common, and whose examination therefore lies beyond political economy. Use value falls within the realm of political economy as soon as it becomes modified by the modern relations of production, or as it, in turn, intervenes to modify them . What it is customary to say about it in general terms, for the sake of good form, is confined to commonplaces which had

4032-453: The organic fixed capital requirements of production rise as a result of advancements in production generally, the rate of profit tends to fall . This result which orthodox Marxists believe is a principal contradictory characteristic leading to an inevitable collapse of the capitalist order was held by Marx and Engels to—as a result of various contradictions in the capitalist mode of production —result in crises whose resolution necessitates

4104-670: The precursor of the socialist mode of production . The argument is an analysis of the classical economics of Adam Smith , David Ricardo , John Stuart Mill and Benjamin Franklin , drawing on the dialectical method that G. W. F. Hegel developed in Science of Logic and The Phenomenology of Spirit . Other intellectual influences on Capital were the French socialists Charles Fourier , Henri de Saint-Simon , Jean Charles Léonard de Sismondi and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon . At university, Marx wrote

4176-411: The process of consumption. One and the same use-value can be used in various ways. But the extent of its possible application is limited by its existence as an object with distinct properties. It is, moreover, determined not only qualitatively but also quantitatively. Different use-values have different measures appropriate to their physical characteristics; for example, a bushel of wheat, a quire of paper,

4248-443: The production process both as a labour process creating use-values, and a valorisation process creating new value. He asserts only that "capital in general" as an abstract social power, or as a property claim to surplus value , is indifferent to particular use-values—what matters in this financial relation is only whether more value can be appropriated through the exchanges that occur. Most share-holders are not interested in whether

4320-463: The quit-rent-corn nor the tithe-corn became commodities by reason of the fact that they had been produced for others. To become a commodity a product must be transferred to another, whom it will serve as a use value, by means of an exchange.) Lastly nothing can have value, without being an object of utility. If the thing is useless, so is the labour contained in it; the labour does not count as labour, and therefore creates no value. Marx acknowledges that

4392-469: The scientific journal Nature : What is extraordinary about Das Kapital is that it offers a still-unrivalled picture of the dynamism of capitalism and its transformation of societies on a global scale. It firmly embedded concepts such as commodity and capital in the lexicon. And it highlights some of the vulnerabilities of capitalism, including its unsettling disruption of states and political systems. [...] If Das Kapital has now emerged as one of

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4464-495: The social intertwining of the different capitals, of the component parts of capital and of revenue (= s)". This intertwining, conceived as a movement of commodities and of money, enabled Marx to work out at least the essential elements, if not the definitive form of a coherent theory of the trade cycle, based upon the inevitability of periodic disequilibrium between supply and demand under the capitalist mode of production ( Ernest Mandel , Intro to Volume II of Capital , 1978). Part 3

4536-447: The solid foundation on which the whole of the unfolding analysis is based. Marx wrote in a letter sent to Engels on 30 April 1868: "In Book 1 [...] we content ourselves with the assumption that if in the self-expansion process £100 becomes £110, the latter will find already in existence in the market the elements into which it will change once more. But now we investigate the conditions under which these elements are found at hand, namely

4608-458: The sphere of personal consumption in accordance with the requirements of capital accumulation . Minor issues remained from these neoclassical theories, such as the question of the proper empirical definition of capital and labour in the laws of factor substitution . Other empirical issues include the so-called Solow Residual in which the heterogenous nature of labour is thoroughly explored for its qualitative elements beyond differentiation, and

4680-442: The tangible features of a commodity (a tradeable object) which can satisfy some human requirement, want or need, or which serves a useful purpose. In Karl Marx 's critique of political economy , any product has a labor-value and a use-value, and if it is traded as a commodity in markets, it additionally has an exchange value , defined as the proportion by which a commodity can be exchanged for other entities, most often expressed as

4752-615: The transformation of the workplace, the concentration of capital, commercial competition, the banking system, the decline of the profit rate , land-rents, et cetera . The critique of the political economy of capitalism proposes: After two decades of economic study and preparatory work (especially regarding the theory of surplus value ), the first volume appeared in 1867 as The Production Process of Capital . After Marx's death in 1883, Engels introduced Volume II: The Circulation Process of Capital in 1885; and Volume III: The Overall Process of Capitalist Production in 1894 from manuscripts and

4824-449: The true purpose of value came to be one of the biggest sources of conflict between capital and labour. The transformation of a use-value into a social use-value and into a commodity (the process of commodification ) is not automatic or spontaneous, but has technical, social and political preconditions. For example, it must be possible to trade it, and to transfer ownership or access rights to it from one person or organization to another in

4896-439: The use value as a commodity. In his text The Making of Marx's 'Capital' , Roman Rosdolsky explains the role of use value in Marx's economics. Marx himself, in the introduction to his Grundrisse manuscript, had defined the economic sphere as the totality of production, circulation, distribution and consumption . However, as Marx did not live to finish Das Kapital , he did not theorise how commercial relations would reshape

4968-648: The whole account together. The aim of the volume as a whole is to locate and describe the concrete forms which grow out of the movements of capital as a whole. Thus, the various forms of capital approach step by step the form which they assume on the surface of society in the action of different capitals on one another in competition and in the ordinary consciousness of the agents of production themselves (25) (Clarke). In volume 3 (as in his earlier text The German Ideology ), Marx discusses how primitive accumulation alienates humans from nature. In volume 3, Marx also describes capitalism as producing an "irreparable rift in

5040-581: The worker and the industrialist (as in Volume I), but rather the money owner and money lender, the wholesale merchant, the trader and the entrepreneur or functioning capitalist. Moreover, workers appear in Volume II essentially as buyers of consumer goods and therefore as sellers of the commodity labour power , rather than producers of value and surplus-value , although this latter quality established in Volume I remains

5112-597: Was in the Russian Empire in March 1872. It was the first foreign publication with the French edition beginning publication in August 1872 and the English edition appearing 15 years later in 1887. It was even published before the first modern Russian translation of the whole Bible in 1876. Despite Russian censorship proscribing "the harmful doctrines of socialism and communism ", the Russian censors considered Das Kapital as

5184-449: Was published on 14 September 1867, dedicated to Wilhelm Wolff and was the sole volume published in Marx's lifetime. Das Kapital, Volume II , subtitled The Process of Circulation of Capital , was prepared by Engels from notes left by Marx and published in 1885. It is divided into three parts: In Volume II , the main ideas behind the marketplace are to be found, namely how value and surplus-value are realized. Its focuses aren't so much

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