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34-462: The Cinematograph Films Act 1927 ( 17 & 18 Geo. 5 . c. 29) was an act of the UK Parliament designed to stimulate the declining British film industry . It received royal assent on 22 December 1927 and came into force on 1 April 1928. The act introduced a requirement for British cinemas to show a quota of British films for a duration of 10 years. Its supporters believed that it would promote

68-562: A positional notation using the numerals, as well as the use of a decimal base, in particular when contrasted with other systems such as Roman numerals . However, the symbols are also used to write numbers in other bases such as octal , as well as for writing non-numerical information such as trademarks or license plate identifiers. They are also called Western Arabic numerals , Western digits , European digits , Ghubār numerals or Hindu–Arabic numerals . The Oxford English Dictionary uses lowercase Arabic numerals for it, while using

102-554: A few texts using Arabic numerals appeared outside of Italy. This suggests that the use of Arabic numerals in commercial practice, and the significant advantage they conferred, remained a virtual Italian monopoly until the late 15th century. This may in part have been due to language barriers: although Fibonacci's Liber Abaci was written in Latin, the Italian abacus traditions were predominantly written in Italian vernaculars that circulated in

136-578: A placeholder known as sipos , represented as a circle or wheel, reminiscent of the eventual symbol for zero . The Arabic term for zero is ṣifr ( صفر ), transliterated into Latin as cifra , which became the English word cipher . From the 980s, Gerbert of Aurillac (later Pope Sylvester II ) used his position to spread knowledge of the numerals in Europe. Gerbert studied in Barcelona in his youth. He

170-452: Is cited as "39 & 40 Geo. 3 c. 67", meaning the 67th act passed during the session that started in the 39th year of the reign of George III and which finished in the 40th year of that reign. Note that the modern convention is to use Arabic numerals in citations (thus "41 Geo. 3" rather than "41 Geo. III"). Acts of the last session of the Parliament of Great Britain and the first session of

204-510: Is no contemporary evidence of this, and the myth is difficult to reconcile with any digits past 4. The first mentions of the numerals from 1 to 9 in the West are found in the 976 Codex Vigilanus , an illuminated collection of various historical documents covering a period from antiquity to the 10th century in Hispania . Other texts show that numbers from 1 to 9 were occasionally supplemented by

238-523: The list of acts of the Parliament of England and the list of acts of the Parliament of Scotland . For acts passed from 1707 to 1800, see the list of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain . See also the list of acts of the Parliament of Ireland . For acts of the devolved parliaments and assemblies in the United Kingdom, see the list of acts of the Scottish Parliament , the list of acts of

272-519: The Northern Ireland Assembly , and the list of acts and measures of Senedd Cymru ; see also the list of acts of the Parliament of Northern Ireland . The number shown after each act's title is its chapter number. Acts passed before 1963 are cited using this number, preceded by the year(s) of the reign during which the relevant parliamentary session was held; thus the Union with Ireland Act 1800

306-449: The Parliament of the United Kingdom are both cited as "41 Geo. 3". Acts passed from 1963 onwards are simply cited by calendar year and chapter number. The third session of the 34th Parliament of the United Kingdom , which met from 8 February 1927 until 22 December 1927. Arabic numeral The ten Arabic numerals 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 are the most commonly used symbols for writing numbers. The term often also implies

340-908: The Shang dynasty numeral system was also decimal based and positional . While positional Chinese numeral systems such as the counting rod system and Suzhou numerals had been in use prior to the introduction of modern Arabic numerals, the externally-developed system was eventually introduced to medieval China by the Hui people . In the early 17th century, European-style Arabic numerals were introduced by Spanish and Portuguese Jesuits . The ten Arabic numerals are encoded in virtually every character set designed for electric, radio, and digital communication, such as Morse code . They are encoded in ASCII (and therefore in Unicode encodings ) at positions 0x30 to 0x39. Masking all but

374-425: The West and became familiar with the communal use of Arabic numerals. Peter also covertly travelled throughout Northern Europe from 1697 to 1698 during his Grand Embassy and was likely informally exposed to Western mathematics during this time. The Cyrillic system was found to be inferior for calculating practical kinematic values, such as the trajectories and parabolic flight patterns of artillery. With its use, it

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408-578: The Western Arabic numerals. The Western Arabic numerals came to be used in the Maghreb and Al-Andalus from the 10th century onward. Some amount of consistency in the Western Arabic numeral forms endured from the 10th century, found in a Latin manuscript of Isidore of Seville 's Etymologiae from 976 and the Gerbertian abacus, into the 12th and 13th centuries, in early manuscripts of translations from

442-566: The advantages of positional notation was widely influential. Likewise, Fibonacci's use of the Béjaïa digits in his exposition ultimately led to their widespread adoption in Europe. Fibonacci's work coincided with the European commercial revolution of the 12th and 13th centuries centered in Italy. Positional notation facilitated complex calculations (such as currency conversion) to be completed more quickly than

476-451: The city of Toledo . Calculations were originally performed using a dust board ( takht , Latin: tabula ), which involved writing symbols with a stylus and erasing them. The use of the dust board appears to have introduced a divergence in terminology as well: whereas the Hindu reckoning was called ḥisāb al-hindī in the east, it was called ḥisāb al-ghubār 'calculation with dust' in

510-525: The contemporary spread of the Latin alphabet —and have become common in the writing systems where other numeral systems existed previously, such as Chinese and Japanese numerals. Positional decimal notation including a zero symbol was developed in India , using symbols visually distinct from those that would eventually enter into international use. As the concept spread, the sets of symbols used in different regions diverged over time. The immediate ancestors of

544-603: The customs at Bugia acting for the Pisan merchants going there, was in charge, he summoned me to him while I was still a child, and having an eye to usefulness and future convenience, desired me to stay there and receive instruction in the school of accounting. There, when I had been introduced to the art of the Indians' nine symbols through remarkable teaching, knowledge of the art very soon pleased me above all else and I came to understand it. The Liber Abaci ' s analysis highlighting

578-613: The digits now commonly called "Arabic numerals" were introduced to Europe in the 10th century by Arabic speakers of Spain and North Africa, with digits at the time in wide use from Libya to Morocco. In the east from Egypt to Iraq and the Arabian Peninsula, the Arabs were using the Eastern Arabic numerals or "Mashriki" numerals: ٠, ١, ٢, ٣, ٤, ٥, ٦, ٧, ٨, ٩ . Al-Nasawi wrote in the early 11th century that mathematicians had not agreed on

612-618: The domestic market, and it was criticised for the emergence of the inferior "quota quickies". The act was modified by the Cinematograph Films Act 1938 , which removed films shot in British Empire countries from the quota. It was, in turn, amended by further acts, and it was eventually repealed by the Films Act 1960. In recent years, an alternative view has arisen among film historians, such as Lawrence Napper, who have argued that

646-524: The emergence of a vertically integrated film industry, with production, distribution and exhibition infrastructure controlled by the same companies. As the vertically integrated American film industry had rapid growth in the years immediately following the end of World War I , the intention was to counter Hollywood's perceived economic and cultural dominance by promoting similar business practices among British studios, distributors and cinema chains. By creating an obligatory market-section for British films, it

680-515: The first time in a royal document of 1456. By the mid-16th century, they had been widely adopted in Europe, and by 1800 had almost completely replaced the use of counting boards and Roman numerals in accounting. Roman numerals were mostly relegated to niche uses such as years and numbers on clock faces. Prior to the introduction of Arabic numerals, Cyrillic numerals , derived from the Cyrillic alphabet , were used by South and East Slavs . The system

714-465: The form of the numerals, but most of them had agreed to train themselves with the forms now known as Eastern Arabic numerals. The oldest specimens of the written numerals available are from Egypt and date to 873–874 AD. They show three forms of the numeral "2" and two forms of the numeral "3", and these variations indicate the divergence between what later became known as the Eastern Arabic numerals and

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748-406: The fully capitalized term Arabic Numerals for Eastern Arabic numerals . In contemporary society, the terms digits , numbers and numerals often implies only these symbols, although that can only be inferred from context. Europeans first learned of Arabic numerals c.  the 10th century , though their spread was a gradual process. After Italian scholar Fibonacci of Pisa encountered

782-480: The lucrative British market, the studios contracted with British producers to make low-budget features for them, so their American productions could be distributed alongside them in Britain. These cheap, homegrown features became known as quota quickies . The act is generally considered unsuccessful. It fostered speculative investment in lavishly budgeted features for which production costs could not have been recouped on

816-434: The numerals in his calendrical tables to calculate the dates of Easter more easily in his text Computus emendatus . Leonardo Fibonacci was a Pisan mathematician who had studied in the Pisan trading colony of Bugia , in what is now Algeria , and he endeavored to promote the numeral system in Europe with his 1202 book Liber Abaci : When my father, who had been appointed by his country as public notary in

850-488: The numerals in the Algerian city of Béjaïa , his 13th-century work Liber Abaci became crucial in making them known in Europe. However, their use was largely confined to Northern Italy until the invention of the printing press in the 15th century. European trade, books, and colonialism subsequently helped popularize the adoption of Arabic numerals around the world. The numerals are used worldwide—significantly beyond

884-516: The private collections of abacus schools or individuals. The European acceptance of the numerals was accelerated by the invention of the printing press , and they became widely known during the 15th century. Their use grew steadily in other centers of finance and trade such as Lyon. Early evidence of their use in Britain includes: an equal hour horary quadrant from 1396, in England, a 1445 inscription on

918-515: The quota quickie has been too casually dismissed, and is of particular cultural and historical value because such films often contained performances unique to British popular culture, such as music hall and variety acts , that would not have been filmed under normal circumstances. 17 %26 18 Geo. 5 Note that the first parliament of the United Kingdom was held in 1801; parliaments between 1707 and 1800 were either parliaments of Great Britain or of Ireland ). For acts passed up until 1707, see

952-624: The tower of Heathfield Church, Sussex ; a 1448 inscription on a wooden lych-gate of Bray Church, Berkshire ; and a 1487 inscription on the belfry door at Piddletrenthide church, Dorset ; and in Scotland a 1470 inscription on the tomb of the first Earl of Huntly in Elgin Cathedral. In central Europe, the King of Hungary Ladislaus the Posthumous , started the use of Arabic numerals, which appear for

986-445: The west. The numerals themselves were referred to in the west as ashkāl al‐ghubār 'dust figures' or qalam al-ghubår 'dust letters'. Al-Uqlidisi later invented a system of calculations with ink and paper 'without board and erasing' ( bi-ghayr takht wa-lā maḥw bal bi-dawāt wa-qirṭās ). A popular myth claims that the symbols were designed to indicate their numeric value through the number of angles they contained, but there

1020-506: Was difficult to keep pace with Arabic numerals in the growing field of ballistics , whereas Western mathematicians such as John Napier had been publishing on the topic since 1614. The Chinese Shang dynasty numerals from the 14th century B.C. predates the Indian Brahmi numerals by over 1000 years and shows substantial similarity to the Brahmi numerals. Similar to the modern Arabic numerals,

1054-529: Was hoped that the increased economic activity in the production sector would lead to the growth of a self-sustaining industry. The quota was initially set at 7.5% for exhibitors but was raised to 20% in 1935. The films included those shot in British dominions such as Canada and Australia. A British film was defined according to the following criteria: Hollywood studios had to comply with the quota if they wanted their productions shown in Britain. Rather than forfeiting

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1088-511: Was known to have requested mathematical treatises concerning the astrolabe from Lupitus of Barcelona after he had returned to France. The reception of Arabic numerals in the West was gradual and lukewarm, as other numeral systems circulated in addition to the older Roman numbers. As a discipline, the first to adopt Arabic numerals as part of their own writings were astronomers and astrologists, evidenced from manuscripts surviving from mid-12th-century Bavaria. Reinher of Paderborn (1140–1190) used

1122-474: Was possible with the Roman system. In addition, the system could handle larger numbers, did not require a separate reckoning tool, and allowed the user to check their work without repeating the entire procedure. Late medieval Italian merchants did not stop using Roman numerals or other reckoning tools: instead, Arabic numerals were adopted for use in addition to their preexisting methods. By the late 14th century, only

1156-594: Was used in Russia as late as the early 18th century, although it was formally replaced in official use by Peter the Great in 1699. Reasons for Peter's switch from the alphanumerical system are believed to go beyond a surface-level desire to imitate the West. Historian Peter Brown makes arguments for sociological, militaristic, and pedagogical reasons for the change. At a broad, societal level, Russian merchants, soldiers, and officials increasingly came into contact with counterparts from

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