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83-785: The Chukchi , or Chukchee ( Chukot : Ԓыгъоравэтԓьэт, О'равэтԓьэт , Ḷygʺoravètḷʹèt, O'ravètḷʹèt ), are a Siberian ethnic group native to the Chukchi Peninsula , the shores of the Chukchi Sea and the Bering Sea region of the Arctic Ocean all within modern Russia . They speak the Chukchi language . The Chukchi originated from the people living around the Okhotsk Sea . According to several studies on genomic research conducted from 2014 to 2018,

166-527: A by-catch for reindeer herders and was conducted seasonally by small groups of hunters in river crossings. Nomadism is of key importance to the Evenk culture. As a result of Soviet collectivization, the nomads forcibly became sedentary, which resulted in the disintegration of social structures and cultural identity. Deer are used for riding and transporting loads and are grazed without dogs. Modern vehicles only partially replaced deer. Evenk reindeer herding serves as

249-519: A formal cosmic hierarchy. In Chukchi religion, every object, whether animate or inanimate, is assigned a spirit. This spirit can be either harmful or benevolent. Some of Chukchi myths reveal a dualistic cosmology . A Chukchi shaman once explained to the ethnographer Vladimir Bogoraz that "The lamp walks around. The walls of the house have voices of their own. ... Even the shadows on the wall constitute definite tribes and have their own country, where they live in huts and subsist by hunting." After

332-468: A joint company for the reindeer owners. The district reports all incomes and costs within the district. The vast majority of reindeer owners in Finland practise reindeer husbandry as a supplement to agriculture and forestry. With regard to ethnic groups in Finland, reindeer herding is from the economic point of view the most important for Sámi people. The annual total revenue from reindeer husbandry in Finland

415-578: A language often proves difficult to categorize. This is primarily due to the fact that it does not always follow a typical linguistic and syntactical pattern. These exceptions allow Chukchi to fit into more than one linguistic type. Chukchi has periodic tense: it can incorporate the noun nәki- to build a nocturnal verb form. мын-ныки-урэ-ӄэпл-увичвэн-мык myn-nyki-urè-ḳèpḷ-uvičvèn-myk 1PL - NOCT -long.time-ball-play- IMP : 1PL мын-ныки-урэ-ӄэпл-увичвэн-мык myn-nyki-urè-ḳèpḷ-uvičvèn-myk 1PL-NOCT-long.time-ball-play-IMP:1PL ‘Let’s spend

498-504: A lot of time playing ball at night.’ (Skorik 1977: 241) A large number of words in the Chukchi language are reduplicated in their singular forms, i.e. Chukchi Э’ръэр ("iceberg") and Утуут ("tree"). There is also significant influence from the Russian language , especially in formal vocabulary and modern concepts, i.e. Chukchi Чайпат , from Russian Чай (tea). The extent to which Chukchi and

581-419: A maximum. The number of reindeer in Finland was about 207,000 reindeer in 2004/2005. The Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (Finnish: Maa- ja metsätalousministeriö ) regulates the number of reindeer by confirming the largest permissible numbers of living reindeer for each district. If the number of reindeer in a district exceeds the permitted level, the district must reduce the number of its reindeer to below

664-451: A model for small-scale reindeer herding where deer are used as vehicles for milk production. Traditionally, the number of deer varied from several head to two or three dozen head per family. Relations with the deer were close, deer were saddled and milked, and the process of domestication continued through the use of millennial techniques, such as the use of salt, smoke to control insects and protection from predators . Evenk reindeer herding

747-508: A naive way. Chukot language Chukchi and Chukchee are anglicized versions of the Russian exonym Chukcha (plural Chukchi ). This came into Russian from Čävča , the term used by the Chukchis' Tungusic -speaking neighbors, itself a rendering of the Chukchi word чавчыв [tʃawtʃəw] , which in Chukchi means "[a man who is] rich in reindeer," referring to any successful reindeer herder,

830-415: A sentence. Verbs distinguish three persons, two numbers, three moods (declarative, imperative and conditional), two voices (active and antipassive ) and six tenses: present I (progressive), present II (stative), past I ( aorist ), past II ( perfect ), future I (perfective future), future II (imperfective future). Past II is formed with a construction meaning possession (literally "to be with"), similar to

913-519: A typologically normal manner. The language of Chukchi also uses a specific verb system. The basic locative construction of a sentence in Chukchi contains a single locative verb, unlike many other languages. In the nominals , there are two numbers and about 13 morphological cases: absolutive, ergative/instrumental, equative (copula), locative, allative, ablative, orientative, inessive, perlative, sublative, comitative, associative, and privative. Nouns are split into three declensions influenced by animacy :

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996-600: A wealthy man by local standards. Although Chukchi language is taught in 28 elementary schools in Chukotka Autonomous Region to 1616 children (according to 2015-2016 data), and there are several hours of daily TV and radio broadcasts in the Chukchi language, the everyday use and proficiency in the language is declining among native Chukchis. According to the 2020 census , 8,526 of the 16,200 Chukchi people speak Chukchi; and most Chukchi now speak Russian (fewer than 100 report not speaking Russian at all). The language

1079-453: A wide variety of changes in the local, regional and national economy. Reindeer herding is in terms of taxation seen as a for-profit-business and for a reindeer herder a common tax form is as a private entrepreneur . Today, the income of individual reindeer herders consists of the production of meat and raw materials such as skins, bones and horns. Additional sources of income include financial subsidies and compensation . More than 50% of

1162-418: Is a largely polysynthetic , agglutinative , direct-inverse language and has ergative–absolutive alignment . It also has very pervasive incorporation . In particular, the incorporation is productive and often interacts with other linguistic processes. Chukchi allows free incorporation of adjuncts, such as when a noun incorporates its modifier. However, besides the unusual use of adjuncts, Chukchi behaves in

1245-683: Is a result of the Norwegian authorities’ views on reindeer herding and especially in relation to the support of the Sámi culture and reindeer husbandry as a Sámi industry. The agreement reflects the political objectives and guidelines for reindeer husbandry. The economic support for the years 2008–2009 amounted to 97 million NOK (10.1 M Euro). The financial support agreement includes activity supports, production bonuses, early slaughter supplements, calf slaughter payments, district support, special transition assistance and other payments. In Sweden, reindeer herding

1328-549: Is a total of about 4,600 people. According to figures from 2005, 77% of the country's reindeer are owned by men. The Sámi village (Sámi: siida , Swedish: Sameby ), the structural unit of Sámi reindeer herding in Sweden, is divided into 51 Sámi reindeer herding villages which are both economic associations and geographical areas. Of those are 33 mountain and 10 forest Sámi reindeer herding villages, and eight concession Sámi reindeer herding villages. Contemporary reindeer husbandry

1411-400: Is also a group of Chukchi that do not herd reindeer and instead live along the coast, trading more with tribes who live along the pacific coast. Some Chukchi people even choose to go back and forth between the two divisions, trading with both. These people tend to control more of the trade and have been called Kavrálît or “Rangers”. Notably, Chukchi men and women use different pronunciation for

1494-443: Is approximately 33% of the surface of the country or about 122,936 km . Reindeer herding in Finland is not the prerogative of only ethnic Sámi, and any European Union citizen can engage in this type of farm. However, there are some conditions. The owner of the reindeer must be approved as a member by a reindeer herding district (Finnish: paliskunta , Swedish: renbeteslag , Sámi: bálggos ) and must permanently reside in

1577-400: Is because whenever a "dominant" vowel is present anywhere in a word, all "recessive" vowels in the word change into their "dominant" counterpart. The schwa vowel /ə/ does not alternate but may trigger harmony as if it belonged to the dominant group. Initial and final consonant clusters are not tolerated, and schwa epenthesis is pervasive. Stress tends to: 1. be penultimate; 2. stay within

1660-514: Is called a reindeer herder and approximately 100,000 people are engaged in reindeer herding today around the circumpolar North. The domestication of the reindeer does not lend itself to a simple explanation. There is no doubt that when the glaciers retreated at the end of the last Ice Age , people followed reindeer to the North, using traps during the reindeer hunt. Modern archaeological data ( rock art ) suggest that domestication may have taken place for

1743-576: Is closely connected with the Sayan reindeer herding (Todzhans, Tofalars , Czataans). On the reindeer Evenks traveled along the whole Eastern Siberia , spread out on 7 million square kilometers. As a result, there are about 20 clearly defined Evenk subgroups, and reindeer herding has become an important indicator of the Evenk identity. The industrial development of certain parts of Siberia had catastrophic consequences for some groups of Evenks, and recently this process

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1826-426: Is comparable to that of other peoples in the south of Siberia: The small number of reindeer that were owned by the families were milked and used as a means of transport. Deer were highly valued and were not slaughtered for meat. Improving the health status and diversity of the herd, as well as the economic situation of reindeer herders, are the top priorities for this region. The production of antlers for marketing on

1909-552: Is conducted in nine countries: Norway , Finland , Sweden , Russia , Greenland , Alaska (the United States), Mongolia , China and Canada . A small herd is also maintained in Scotland 's Cairngorms National Park . Reindeer herding is conducted by individuals within some kind of cooperation, in forms such as families, districts, Sámi and Yakut villages and sovkhozy (collective farms). A person who conducts reindeer herding

1992-516: Is counted after slaughtered reindeer are withdrawn from the herd, and before the calving starts, which is usually in May. For each Sámi village, the maximum number of reindeer is decided by the County Administrative Board and the reindeer are counted each year by the reindeer herders themselves. On the individual level there are no maximum numbers for reindeer. In Finland, reindeer husbandry

2075-447: Is derived from the Chukchi word Chauchu ("rich in reindeer"), which was used by the 'Reindeer Chukchi' to distinguish themselves from the 'Maritime Chukchi,' called Anqallyt ("the sea people"). Their name for a member of the Chukchi ethnic group as a whole is Luoravetlan (literally 'genuine person'). The anthropologist Marshall Sahlins called the Chukchi "tribes without rulers". They often lacked formal political structures, but had

2158-411: Is estimated to be 60 million Euro with the main product being meat. In 1999–2000, 93,000 reindeer were slaughtered, producing 2.1 million kilograms of meat. In addition to meat production, reindeer are also an extremely valuable resource for both summer and winter tourism , as they are one of the main attractions for foreign tourists. Numbers from 1994 to 2000 show that 60-80% of reindeer herders' income

2241-457: Is expressed in a way that is far from always straightforward. Besides the finite forms , there are also infinitive, supine (purposive), numerous gerund forms, and a present and past participle, and these are all used with auxiliary verbs to produce further analytic constructions. The word order is rather free, though SOV is basic. The possessor normally precedes the possessed, and postpositions rather than prepositions are used. Chukchi as

2324-405: Is from meat and about 10% from compensation and 10% from aid. Only a small part comes from investments and other incomes. Numbers from the same years show that about 40% of the costs are related to herding activities, about 20% of costs to cross country traffic and the rest to damages caused by reindeer, administrative costs, office supplies and equipment and other utilities. Reindeer breeding of

2407-579: Is gaining momentum due to accelerated extraction of minerals , construction of pipelines and development of the timber industry complex. The fate of the Evenk reindeer herders in the Upper Bureysky District of the Amur Oblast serves as a reminder that reindeer husbandry in these regions may come to an end. Reindeer husbandry in China is limited to the territory of one small area in the northeast of

2490-496: Is hindered by legislative acts, and the lack of pastures and economic opportunities hamper the growth of the industry. The total number of reindeer in the Sámi territory, with the exception of Russia , is privately owned, despite the fact that in many aspects the reindeer grazing is carried out collectively within the framework of the Siid. In Norway, there are six pasture territories, divided into 77 pasture areas. Only ethnic Sámi have

2573-457: Is increasing, consists of word borrowing and pressure on surface syntax ; the latter is primarily seen in written communication (translated texts) and is not apparent in day-to-day speech. Reindeer herding Reindeer herding is when reindeer are herded by people in a limited area. Currently, reindeer are the only semi-domesticated animal which naturally belong to the North . Reindeer herding

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2656-639: Is managed by the Norwegian Reindeer Husbandry Administration , which is directly subordinate to the Ministry of Agriculture of Norway . 2936 reindeer herders graze about 240 thousands deer, most of which are based in the province of Finnmark . Reindeer herding is regulated by the New Norwegian Reindeer Herding Act of 2007. Only specified persons have the right to a reindeer earmark and to conduct reindeer husbandry in

2739-536: Is on the list of endangered languages in the UNESCO Red Book . The Chukchi people have a rich history and culture, which have traditionally centered around war. The Chukchi prize warriors and the fighting spirit that they embody. This emphasis on conflict can be seen in the interactions between the Chukchi and the Russians, which date back to the middle of the seventeenth century and tell of glorious battles between

2822-556: Is practiced through a system of reindeer herding districts (in Finnish: paliskunta , Sámi: bálgosat ). There are 56 districts in the reindeer husbandry area, 41 of which are in the Province of Lapland and the remaining 15 are in the Province of Oulu . 13 of the districts are so-called Sámi districts. The districts have strictly defined boundaries and they vary in size and number of reindeer. The total area of reindeer husbandry in Finland

2905-408: Is practised almost everywhere in the provinces of Norrbotten , Västerbotten , and Jämtland , and in parts of the provinces of Dalarna , Västernorrland , and Gävleborg . The herding area stretches from the border with Finland to the province of Dalarna, covering an area of 226 000 km about 55% of Sweden. Reindeer herding employs about 2,500 people in Sweden and the number of reindeer owners

2988-514: Is probably 50,000 people, most of whom live on the territory of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), a federal subject of the Russian Federation. Being traditional nomads, they practice traditional types of economy, including reindeer herding and hunting. Summer pastures are located on watersheds , while winter pastures are located in river basins. Hunting for wild deer has traditionally served as

3071-565: Is regulated by the Swedish reindeer husbandry act. According to this Act, the right to pursue reindeer herding only belongs to the Sámi people. Only a person who is member of Sámi reindeer herding village ( Sameby ) has reindeer herding rights, in other words, may engage in reindeer husbandry in the Sámi reindeer herding village to which she/he belongs. The only exception are concession villages, as they engage in reindeer husbandry with special permission from

3154-521: The Asian pharmacological market is the main source of income, and attempts are being made to develop small-scale tourism in the tribal communities located near the largest city in the region, Genhe . The Tsaatan people live in the remote, deep forest of northern Mongolia. They are one of the few remaining tribes of their kind left as modern development makes its way into their remote area; their ancient traditions are now at risk of dying out. Nowadays, there

3237-612: The Cossacks and the Chukchi. As the annual trade fairs where goods were exchanged continued, a common language between the two peoples was spoken. The natives, however, never paid yasak , or tributes, and their status as subjects was little more than a formality. The formal annexation of the Chukotka Peninsula did not happen until much later, during the time of the Soviet Union. Apart from four Orthodox schools, there were no schools in

3320-549: The Eskimo languages borrowed vocabulary between one another, or a relationship between the two, has not been studied in detail. The numeral system was originally purely vigesimal and went up to 400, but a decimal system was introduced for numerals above 100 via Russian influence. Many of the names of the basic numbers can be traced etymologically to words referring to the human body ("finger", "hand" etc.) or to arithmetic operations (6 = "1 + 5" etc.). Ordinary numbers are formed with

3403-458: The Kola Sámi in the northwest of Russia underwent a transformation in the 19th century with the arrival of 65 Komi reindeer herders with their 600 deer. Reindeer herding on the basis of semi-grazing was transformed into large-scale farms with a focus on productivity. Collectivization in the 1930s continued the further transformation of reindeer husbandry as the size of the herds increased. After

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3486-513: The Latin script : In 1937, this alphabet, along with all of the other alphabets of the non-Slavic peoples of the USSR, was replaced by a Cyrillic alphabet. At first it was the Russian alphabet with the addition of the digraphs Кʼ кʼ and Нʼ нʼ . In the 1950s the additional letters were replaced by Ӄ ӄ and Ӈ ӈ . These newer letters were mainly used in educational texts, while the press continued to use

3569-545: The collapse of the Soviet Union , the state-run farms were reorganized and nominally privatized. This process was ultimately destructive to the village-based economy in Chukotka. The region has still not fully recovered. Many rural Chukchi, as well as Russians in Chukotka's villages, have survived in recent years only with the help of direct humanitarian aid. Some Chukchi have attained university degrees, becoming poets, writers, politicians, teachers and doctors. In prehistoric times,

3652-401: The 1900s, Vladimir Bogoraz discovered specimens of pictographic/logographic writing by the Chukchi herdsman Tenevil (see ru:File:Luoravetl.jpg ). Tenevil's writing system was entirely his own invention. It was nearly lost during the initial period of Soviet contact and subsequent Russian Arctic expeditions. The first official Chukchi alphabet was devised by Bogoraz in 1931 and was based on

3735-504: The 1920s, the Soviets organized the economic activities of both coastal and inland Chukchi and eventually established 28 collectively run, state-owned enterprises in Chukotka. All of these were based on reindeer herding, with the addition of sea mammal hunting and walrus ivory carving in the coastal areas. Chukchi were educated in Soviet schools and today are almost 100% literate and fluent in

3818-525: The Chukchi and Koryak . The first attempt to conquer them was made in 1701. Other expeditions were sent out in 1708, 1709 and 1711 with considerable bloodshed but little success and unable to eliminate the local population on the large territory. War was renewed in 1729, when the Chukchi defeated an expedition from Okhotsk and killed its commander. Command passed to Major Dmitry Pavlutsky , who adopted very destructive tactics , burning, driving off reindeer, killing men and capturing women and children. In 1742,

3901-701: The Chukchi are the closest Asian relatives of the indigenous peoples of the Americas as well as of the Ainu people , being the descendants of settlers who neither crossed the Bering Strait nor settled the Japanese archipelago. The majority of Chukchi reside within Chukotka Autonomous Okrug , but some also reside in the neighboring Sakha Republic to the west, Magadan Oblast to the southwest, and Kamchatka Krai to

3984-470: The Chukchi engaged in nomadic hunter gatherer modes of existence. In current times, there continue to be some elements of subsistence hunting, including that of polar bears , seals , walruses , whales , and reindeer . There are some differences between the traditional lifestyles of the coastal and inland Chukchi. The coastal Chukchi were largely settled fishers and hunters, mainly of sea mammals. The inland Chukchi were partial reindeer herders. Beginning in

4067-421: The Chukchi land until the late 1920s. In 1926, there were 72 literate Chukchis. The Soviets introduced a Latin alphabet in 1932 to transcribe their language, replacing it with Cyrillic in 1937. In 1934, 71% of the Chukchis were nomadic . In 1941, 90% of the reindeer were still privately owned. So-called kulaks roamed with their private herds up into the 1950s. After 1990 and the fall of the Soviet Union, there

4150-569: The County Administrative Board (in Swedish: Länsstyrelsen ). The reindeer in the concession villages are owned by non-Sámi who also often own the land on which their reindeer graze. However, according to the Reindeer Husbandry Act, the actual reindeer herding in a concession village must be conducted by a Sámi. A reindeer owner in a concession village is not allowed to own more than 30 reindeer. Concession villages exist only in

4233-645: The Russian Empire, began to trade peacefully with the Russians. From 1788, they participated in an annual trade fair on the lower Kolyma. Another was established in 1775 on the Angarka, a tributary of the Bolshoy Anyuy River . This trade declined in the late 19th century when American whalers and others began landing goods on the coast. The first Orthodox missionaries entered Chukchi territory some time after 1815. The strategy worked, trade began to flourish between

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4316-582: The Russian language. Only a portion of them today work directly in reindeer herding or sea mammal hunting , and continue to live a nomadic lifestyle in yaranga tents. The warlike Chukchi waged frequent wars against neighboring tribes, especially the Koryaks . Russians first began contacting the Chukchi when they reached the Kolyma River (1643) and the Anadyr River (1649). The route from Nizhnekolymsk to

4399-756: The Sámi reindeer herding area. Only a person who is a Sámi and themselves, their parents or their grandparents have or had reindeer herding as their primary occupation qualifies for an earmark. The number of reindeer in Norway is calculated after slaughtering but before the calving starts in May, and it fluctuates around 200,000. In Norway, the reindeer numbers were 242,000 in 1990, 172,000 in 2000 and 241,000 in 2007. The most common reasons for these fluctuations include difficult climatic situations during several winters, increasing predation levels and poor pasture conditions. The economic situation for reindeer herders in Norway varies greatly. Modern reindeer herders have to adapt to

4482-469: The Sámi reindeer husbandry area are marked with the owner's registered earmark by 31 October in the year of its birth. Before an earmark is implemented, it must be approved by the earmark committee consisting of three to five members. The number of reindeer in Sweden fluctuates and during the 1900s it has varied between 150,000 and 300,000 reindeer. In Sweden the reindeer numbers were 253,000 in 1995, 221,000 in 2000 and 220,000 in 2007. The number of reindeer

4565-515: The Torne Valley (the area on the Swedish side of the river which marks the border between Sweden and Finland). Any reindeer has to be marked in the ears. A reindeer earmark is a combination of one to many cuts in a reindeer's ears which all together tells who the reindeer owner is. There are around 20 different approved cuts and in addition some 30 different combinations of cuts, and all those cuts and combinations have their own name. All reindeer in

4648-586: The collapse of the Soviet Union, reindeer husbandry was neglected. Reindeer husbandry is managed by two state farms and reindeer herders are hired workers of these farms, as in the Soviet period. In total, about 200 people are employed in Sámi reindeer herding, still mostly Komi by nationality. The remaining smaller part of reindeer herders are Sámi, Russians and Ukrainians. Nowadays in Russia about 1,555,300 reindeer graze. The share of private property in reindeer husbandry in

4731-541: The costs in the industry in all the six areas of reindeer husbandry are related to the costs of running and maintaining mechanical equipment. Other high costs are related to other equipment and constructions. Norway has since 1976, an agreement for reindeer husbandry which is called the Reindeer Husbandry Agreement (Norwegian: Reindriftsavtalen ) and the main purpose of this is to preserve and develop reindeer husbandry based on its traditions. The agreement

4814-579: The country between 50° and 53° N. Currently 234 Evenk are employed in reindeer husbandry, distributed among 20 families, and about 1,000 deer grazing. These Evenk reindeer herders are what remained of the once large group of Evenk hunters who freely crossed the Russian-Chinese border. When military operations broke out on the Soviet-Chinese border in the 1960s, this group found itself in the territory of China. Intending to put an end to free migration across

4897-404: The expanses of Eurasia . The Sámi people lived and worked in so-called siiddat (reindeer herding groups) and reindeer were used for transport, milk and meat production. The siida is an ancient Sámi community system within a designated area but it can also be defined as a working partnership where the members had individual rights to resources but helped each other with the management of

4980-444: The first declension, which contains non-humans, has plural marking only in the absolutive case; the second one, which contains personal names and certain words for mainly older relatives, has obligatory plural marking in all forms; the third one, which contains other humans than those in the second declension, has optional plural marking. These nominal cases are used to identify the number of nouns, as well as their purpose and function in

5063-529: The first time in the Sayan Mountains between Russia and Mongolia , possibly 2–3 thousand years ago. According to another theory, the Tungus (the ancestors of the present Evenks and Evens ) independently domesticated reindeer to the east of Lake Baikal , and that reindeer herding originated in several places simultaneously. Reindeer herders have their own stories about how reindeer were domesticated, and about

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5146-528: The fort at Anadyrsk along the southwest of the main Chukchi area became a major trade route. The overland journey from Yakutsk to Anadyrsk took about six months. The Chukchi were generally ignored for the next fifty years because they were warlike and did not provide furs or other valuable commodities to tax. Armed skirmishes flared up around 1700 when the Russians began operating in the Kamchatka Peninsula and needed to protect their communications from

5229-461: The government at Saint Petersburg ordered another war in which the Chukchi and Koryak were to be "totally extirpated". The war (1744–7) was conducted with similar brutality and ended when Pavlutsky was killed in March 1747. It is said that the Chukchi kept his head as a trophy for a number of years. The Russians waged war again in the 1750s, but a part of Chukchi people did survive this extermination plans on

5312-487: The herds, or when hunting and fishing. The siida could consist of several families and their herds. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the traditional regions of Sámi reindeer husbandry were divided by state borders between four states: Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Russia, which led to the destabilization of traditional reindeer husbandry practices. The state borders (in 1852 between Norway and Russia and in 1889 between Sweden and Finland, then owned by Russia) have divided

5395-410: The largest permissible number. The largest permissible number of reindeer owned by a reindeer husbandry entrepreneur is 300 animals in the southern region of the reindeer husbandry area and 500 animals in the northern parts of the area. In Finland, reindeer husbandry at the individual level in terms of taxation is not treated as a for-profit-business . Instead the reindeer herding district serves as

5478-698: The last decade has grown significantly. Evenki are the most widespread of the Tungus speaking people and can be found in various regions of the Russian Federation: through the Lower Yenisey valley through the Evenk Autonomous Okrug , Irkutskaya and Amur Oblast to Khabarovsk Krai , Buryatia , North-West and South Sakha (Yakutia); they also live in China and a small group in Mongolia . Their number

5561-434: The municipality to which the district belongs. In total, there are about 5,600 reindeer herders, most of whom are Finnish by nationality. The number of reindeer owners in Finland is about 6,700. In the beginning of the 20th century, the number of reindeer in Finland was slightly over 100,000, and by 1959–1960 it had reached 140,000. During the 1970s and 1980s the number increased rapidly and reached over 250,000 reindeer at

5644-465: The older versions. At the end of the 1980s, the letter Ԯ ԯ ( Ԓ ԓ ) was introduced as a replacement for Л л . This was intended to reduce confusion with the pronunciation of the Russian letter of the same form. The Chukchi alphabet now stands as follows: The romanization of Chukchi is the representation of the Chukchi language using Latin letters. The following is the ISO 9 system of Romanization: Chukchi

5727-514: The phonology. (Cf. the two kinds of /i/ in Inuit Eskimo , whose known cause is the merger of two vowels /i/ and /ə/ , which are still separate in Yup'ik Eskimo .) A notable feature of Chukchi is its vowel harmony system largely based on vowel height . /i, u, e₁/ alternate with /e₂, o, a/ , respectively. The second group is known as "dominant vowels" and the first group as "recessive vowels"; that

5810-456: The primary means of business and administrative communication, in addition to behaving as a lingua franca in territories inhabited by non-Chukchis such as Koryaks and Yakuts. Over the past few decades, fewer and fewer Chukchi children have been learning Chukchi as a native language. Almost all Chukchis speak Russian, although some have a lesser command than others. Chukchi language is used as a primary language of instruction in elementary school ;

5893-427: The reindeer siids . In Scandinavia , about 6,500 Sámi are engaged in reindeer herding. In Norway and Sweden reindeer herding is characterized by large herds and a high degree of mechanization in all regions. The main product of reindeer herding is meat . However, skins , bones , and horns are important raw materials for making clothes and handicrafts . The involvement of young people in Norway and Sweden

5976-401: The relationship between wild and domestic reindeer. Whatever the debate, the very fact of domination of a reindeer led to a reindeer revolution that spread to the North, East, and West. Sleds pulled by reindeer appeared later than dog sleds . The reindeer sleds made accessible areas of the tundra and mountains, which can only be accessed by helicopter. Reindeer became the preferred vehicle on

6059-570: The rest of secondary education is done in Russian with Chukchi taught as a subject. A Chukchi writer, Yuri Rytkheu (1930–2008), has earned a measure of renown in both Russia and Western Europe, although much of his published work was written in Russian, rather than Chukchi. Chukchi poet Antonina Kymytval wrote in her native language. There are no voiced stops in the language; these are only found in loanwords . The vowels are /i/ , /u/ , /e₁/ , /e₂/ , /o/ , /a/ , and /ə/ . /e₁/ and /e₂/ are pronounced identically but behave differently in

6142-404: The right to reindeer husbandry in these areas. The reindeer is also bred in southern Norway in special concession areas. There, reindeer herding can also be practiced by non-Sámi Norwegians . The reindeer graze on pastures with an area of approximately 146 thousand km in the provinces of Finnmark , Troms , Nordland and Trøndelag , which is 40% of the mainland part of Norway. Reindeer herding

6225-419: The same words. While men say "r" or "rk", women say "ts" or "tsts" in the same word. Many Chukchis use the language as their primary means of communication both within the family and while engaged in their traditional pastoral economic activity (reindeer herding). The language is also used in media (including radio and TV translations) and some business activities. However, Russian is increasingly used as

6308-650: The south. Some Chukchi also reside in other parts of Russia, as well as in Europe and North America . The total number of Chukchi in the world slightly exceeds 16,000. The Chukchi are traditionally divided into the Maritime Chukchi , who had settled homes on the coast and lived primarily from sea mammal hunting, and the Reindeer Chukchi , who lived as nomads in the inland tundra region, migrating seasonally with their herds of reindeer . The Russian name "Chukchi"

6391-464: The state border, the Chinese authorities moved these people deep into the country: first to Alonsohn, then to Monkey, and finally to the settlement of Alougoya. The deer were collectivized in 1967. The state bought out all deer from the reindeer herders and began to pay the shepherds wages despite the fact that the deer continued to be under the care of their former owners and shepherds. Grazing of these deer

6474-409: The stem; 3. avoid schwas . Chukchi is one of few languages to have autonomously produced its own written script, and the northernmost language in the world to have done so. The script was invented by a man named Tenevil , but never saw widespread use. Until 1931, the Chukchi language had no official orthography, in spite of attempts in the 1800s to write religious texts in it. At the beginning of

6557-454: The suffix -ӄeв (after close vowels) or -ӄaв (after open vowels). The external influences of Chukchi have not been well-studied. In particular, the degree of contacts between the Chukchi and Eskimo languages remains an open question. Research into this area is problematic in part because of the lack of written evidence. (Cf. de Reuse in the Bibliography.) Contact influence of Russian, which

6640-584: The two groups. The Chukchi have also been known to battle nearby tribes, particularly the Tánñit, which comprise fellow Siberian peoples known as the Koryaks. However, over the last century, the Chukchi people have engaged in far fewer conflicts and have focused more on trading. Today, the Chukchi economy relies heavily on trade, particularly with Russia. Besides trading with Russia, the Chukchi make their living off of herding reindeer and bartering with other tribes. There

6723-483: The use of "have" in the perfect in English and other Western European languages. Both subject and direct object are cross-referenced in the verbal chain, and person agreement is very different in intransitive and transitive verbs. Person agreement is expressed with a complex system involving both prefixes and suffixes; despite the agglutinative nature of the language, each individual combination of person, number, tense etc.

6806-468: The very far North East (see on the right a map for population territories during the extermination activity by the Russian Empire). In 1762, with a new ruler , Saint Petersburg adopted a different policy. Maintaining the fort at Anadyrsk had cost some 1,380,000 rubles, but the area had returned only 29,150 rubles in taxes, so the government abandoned Anadyrsk in 1764. The Chukchi, no longer attacked by

6889-445: Was a major exodus of Russians from the area because of the underfunding of the local industry. Population estimates from Forsyth: In the context of the Russian invasion of Ukraine since 2022, the Chukchis have been reported as one of Russia's ethnic minority groups suffering from a disproportionally large casualty rate among Russian forces. Chukchi jokes are a form of ethnic humor . They are portrayed as primitive yet clever in

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