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130-647: A Christmas market is a street market associated with the celebration of Christmas during the four weeks of Advent . These markets originated in Germany, but are now held in many countries. Some in the U.S. have adapted the German name to quasi-English Christkindlmarket , swapping German Markt and market . Christmas markets date to the Late Middle Ages in the German-speaking part of Europe and in many parts of

260-496: A pochteca was a professional merchant who travelled long distances to obtain rare goods or luxury items desired by the nobility. The system supported various levels of pochteca – from very high status through to minor traders who acted as a type of peddler to fill in gaps in the distribution system. Colonial sources also record Mayan market hubs at Acalan , Champotón , Chetumal , Bacalar , Cachi, Conil, Pole, Cozumel , Cochuah , Chauaca, Chichén Itzá , as well as markets marking

390-585: A Neapolitan presepio. The presepio was handcrafted between 1700 and 1830, and re-creates the nativity within a panorama of 18th-century Italian village life. More than 100 human and angelic figures, along with animals, accessories, and architectural elements, cover 250 square feet and create a depiction of the nativity as seen through the eyes of Neapolitan artisans and collectors. The Radio City Christmas Spectacular , an annual musical holiday stage show presented at Radio City Music Hall in New York City, features

520-712: A Living Nativity segment with live animals. In 2005, President of the United States of America, George W. Bush and his wife, First Lady of the United States , Laura Bush displayed an 18th-century Italian presepio . The presepio was donated to the White House in the last decades of the 20th century. The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City and the Carnegie Museum of Art in Pittsburgh annually display Neapolitan Baroque nativity scenes which both originated from

650-501: A charter to local Lords to create markets and fairs for a town or village. A charter protected the town's trading privileges in return for an annual fee. Once a chartered market was granted for specific market days, a nearby rival market could not open on the same days. Fairs, which were usually held annually, and almost always associated with a religious festival, traded in high value goods, while regular weekly or bi-weekly markets primarily traded in fresh produce and necessities. Although

780-516: A donkey, however. Another source for the tradition might be the extracanonical text the Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew of the 7th century. Christmas is celebrated by Australians in a number of ways. In Australia, it is summer season and is very hot during Christmas time. During the Christmas time, locals and visitors visit places around their towns and suburbs to view the outdoor and indoor displays. All over

910-408: A fair's primary purpose was trade, it typically included some elements of entertainment, such as dance, music, or tournaments. As the number of markets increased, market towns situated themselves sufficiently far apart so as to avoid competition, but close enough to permit local producers a round trip within one day (about 10 km). Some British open-air markets have been operating continuously since

1040-713: A festival known as "Belenismo sa Tarlac". Perhaps the best known nativity scene in America is the Neapolitan Baroque Crèche displayed annually in the Medieval Sculpture Hall of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City. Its backdrop is a 1763 choir screen from the Cathedral of Valladolid and a twenty-foot blue spruce decorated with a host of 18th-century angels. The nativity figures are placed at

1170-623: A few days and the quantity supplied is relatively inelastic. The second group is the short period market where the time in which the quantity supplied can be increased by improving the scale of production (adding labor and other inputs but not by adding capital). Many non-perishable goods fall into this category. The third category is the long-period market where the length of time can be improved by capital investment. Other ways to classify markets include its trading area (local, national or international); its physical format or its produce. Major physical formats of markets are: Markets may feature

1300-434: A lengthy description which paints a picture of a highly organised, vibrant operation which attracted large number of visitors from some distance away. "As for the people in the fair, they all universally eat, drink and sleep in their booths, and tents; and the said booths are so intermingled with taverns, coffee-houses, drinking-houses, eating-houses, cookshops &c, and all tents too, and so many butchers and higglers from all

1430-405: A market tax for the right to trade on market days. Some archaeological evidence suggests that markets and street vendors were controlled by local government. A graffito on the outside of a large shop documents a seven-day cycle of markets: "Saturn's day at Pompeii and Nuceria, Sun's day at Atella and Nola, Moon's day at Cumae", etc. The presence of an official commercial calendar suggests something of

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1560-750: A particular type of produce – such as the silversmith's street or the textile district. In Tangiers , a sprawling market fills the many streets of the medina and this area is divided into two sections, known as the Grand Socco and the Petit Socco . The term ' socco ' is a Spanish corruption of the Arabic word for souk , meaning marketplace. These markets sell a large variety of goods: fresh produce, cooking equipment, pottery, silverware, rugs and carpets, leather goods, clothing, accessories, electronics, alongside cafes, restaurants and take-away food stalls. The medina at Fez

1690-516: A range of merchandise for sale, or they may be one of many specialist markets, such as: Markets generally have featured prominently in artworks, especially amongst the Dutch painters of Antwerp from the middle of the 16th century. Pieter Aertsen was known as the "great painter of the market". Both he and his nephew, Joachim Beuckelaer , painted market scenes, street vendors and merchants extensively. Elizabeth Honig argues that painters' interest in markets

1820-400: A reputation for quality produce, efficient market regulation and good amenities for visitors such as covered accommodation. By the thirteenth century, counties with important textile industries were investing in purpose built halls for the sale of cloth. London's Blackwell Hall became a centre for cloth, Bristol became associated with a particular type of cloth known as Bristol red , Stroud

1950-732: A shot of brandy ), or Eierpunsch (an egg-based warm alcoholic drink) - both a highlight of the market for many visitors. Both help stave off the cold winter air which sometimes dips below freezing. More regional food specialties include Christstollen ( Stollen ), a sort of bread with candied fruit in Saxony, and hot Apfelwein and Frankfurter Bethmännchen in Hesse. Christmas markets are popular traditions in Austria, and are held in Vienna , Salzburg , Innsbruck , Linz , and Graz . The first "December Market"

2080-644: A sort of pleasant and wholesome, and very refreshing beer. Palm wine, acqua vita and spirits which they get from the Europeans, are kept in other shops, with restrictions on sale to prevent drunkenness and riots. Here slaves of both sexes are bought and sold, also oxen, sheep, dogs, hogs, shish and birds of all kind. Woollen cloths, linen, silks and calicoes of European and Indian manufacture, they have it in great abundance, likewise hard-ware, china and glass of all sorts; gold in dust and ingots, iron in bars, lead in sheets and everything of European, Asiatic or African production

2210-581: A success that they are becoming a major pull factor to increase trade and visitor numbers to towns and cities. Birmingham's Christmas Market , primarily located on New Street between the Bullring shopping centre and the Council House , is the "largest outdoor Christmas market in the UK" as well as the "largest authentic German Christmas market outside of Germany or Austria". The market also offers live entertainment on

2340-618: A system of fresh produce hubs to serve as a platform for producers to market and distribute their produce. It is anticipated that these hubs will assist in curbing the number of sellers who take their produce to South Africa where it is placed on cold storage, only to be imported back into the country at a later date. Fresh produce markets have traditionally dominated the South African food chain, handling more than half of all fresh produce. Although large, vertically integrated food retailers, such as supermarkets, are beginning to make inroads into

2470-583: A system of markets. The Greek historian Herodotus noted that markets did not evolve in ancient Persia. Across the Mediterranean and Aegean, a network of markets emerged from the early Bronze Age. A vast array of goods were traded, including salt, lapis lazuli , dyes, cloth, metals, pots, ceramics, statues, spears, and other implements. Archaeological evidence suggests that Bronze Age traders segmented trade routes according to geographical circuits. Both produce and ideas travelled along these trade routes. In

2600-417: A systematic study of European market towns between the thirteenth and fifteenth century. Their investigation shows that in regional districts markets were held once or twice a week while daily markets were common in larger cities. Over time, permanent shops began opening daily and gradually supplanted the periodic markets, while peddlers or itinerant sellers continued to fill in any gaps in distribution. During

2730-650: A town's or nation's cultural assets. For these reasons, they are often popular tourist destinations. The term market comes from the Latin mercatus ("market place"). The earliest recorded use of the term market in English is in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle of 963, a work that was created during the reign of Alfred the Great (r. 871–899) and subsequently distributed, copied throughout English monasteries . The exact phrase

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2860-575: Is a representation of the birth of Jesus traditionally set in Naples in the 18th century. The Neapolitan crib art has remained unchanged for centuries, becoming part of the most consolidated and followed Christmas traditions of the city. Famous in Naples, in fact, is the well-known via dei presepi (via San Gregorio Armeno) which offers a showcase of all the local crafts concerning the nativity scene. Moreover, there are numerous city and non-city museums (such as

2990-548: Is also a very large market with over 1500 stalls and covering 4.5 ha. In Morocco , markets are known as souks , and are normally found in a city's Medina (old city or old quarter). Shopping at a produce market is a standard feature of daily life in Morocco. In the larger cities, Medinas are typically made up of a collection of souks built amid a maze of narrow streets and laneways where independent vendors and artisans tend to cluster in sections which subsequently become known for

3120-655: Is also held daily in the Jemaa el-Fnaa (main square) where roaming performers and musicians entertain the large crowds that gather there. Marrakesh has the largest traditional Berber market in Morocco. Namibia has been almost entirely dependent on South Africa for its fresh produce. Dominated by rolling plains and long sand dunes and an unpredictable rainfall, many parts of Namibia are unsuited to growing fruit and vegetables. Government sponsored initiatives have encouraged producers to grow fresh fruit, vegetables, legumes and grains The Namibian Ministry of Agriculture has recently launched

3250-453: Is an article to mark the celebration - ‘Back in time’: Australian Nativity Scene celebrates 20 years Bethlehem Live is an all-volunteer living nativity produced by Gateway Christian Community Church in Winnipeg , Manitoba, Canada. The production includes a reconstruction of the ancient town of Bethlehem and seven individual vignettes. There is also an annual, highly publicized nativity scene at

3380-476: Is appointed by the King for the inspection of goods, to hear and determine all grievances, complaints and disputes ... The market place is surrounded by butlers and booths, and places of refreshment for the conveniency of the people. They are only permitted to sell certain sorts of meats, pork, goats, beef and dog flesh. Other booths are kept by women who sell maize, millet, rice and corn bread. Other shops sell Pito ,

3510-562: Is commemorated on the calendars of the Catholic, Lutheran and Anglican liturgical calendars, and its creation is described by Saint Bonaventure in his Life of Saint Francis of Assisi c.  1260 . Saint Francis' manger scene is said to have been enacted at Christmas 1223 in a cave near the Sanctuary of Greccio in the Central Italy town of Greccio . The very small chapel where it

3640-466: Is common. Today, markets can also be accessed electronically or on the internet through e-commerce or matching platforms. In many countries, shopping at a local market is a standard feature of daily life. Given the market's role in ensuring food supply for a population, markets are often highly regulated by a central authority. In many places, designated marketplaces have become listed sites of historic and architectural significance and represent part of

3770-564: Is here found at reasonable prices. In the Kingdom of Benin (modern Benin City ), he commented on the exotic foods available for sale at a market there: Besides the dry merchandise of which the markets of Benin abound, they are also well stocked with eatables, a little particular in kind. Here they expose dogs to sale for eating, of which the negroes are very fond. Roasted monkeys, apes and baboons are every where to be seen. Bats, rats and lizards dried in

3900-452: Is often cited as the world's oldest continuously operating, purpose-built market; its construction began in 1455. Dating the emergence of marketplaces in China is difficult. According to tradition, the first market was established by the legendary Shennong or the "Divine Farmer" who arranged for markets to be held at midday. In other ancient sayings, markets originally developed around wells in

4030-485: Is on display in southern Bohemian town Jindřichův Hradec . It figures as the largest mechanical nativity scene in the world in the Guinness Book of World Records . Gingerbread nativity scenes and cribs in the church of St. Matthew in Šárka (Prague 6 Dejvice ) have around 200 figures and houses, the tradition dates from since 1972; every year new ones are baked and after holidays eaten. The Neapolitan nativity scene

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4160-652: Is organised by Associazione Amici di Lancianovecchia Museums dedicated specifically to paper nativity scenes exist in Pečky (Czech Republic). Nativity scenes have not escaped controversy . A life-sized scene in the United Kingdom featuring waxwork celebrities provoked outrage in 2004, and, in Spain, a city council forbade the exhibition of a traditional toilet humor character in a public nativity scene. Nativity scenes have been involved in controversies and lawsuits surrounding

4290-1361: Is renowned in Trentino . In Naples , where the tradition of the Neapolitan nativity scene has been famous for centuries, the exhibition of the nativity scenes made in the city's artisan shops is held every year in via San Gregorio Armeno. Noteworthy are the Christmas markets at Piazza Navona in Rome , in Verona , in Gubbio , in Alberobello , in Aosta , in Torino , in Asti , in Arezzo , in Florence , in Trieste , in Livigno , in Santa Maria Maggiore , Arco and in Cison di Valmarino . In 1982, Lincoln , England, established an annual Christmas market in early December. This remains one of

4420-634: Is said to have taken place survives. The painting over its altar, and others before 1400, by Giotto at the Assisi Lower Church, and by Antonio Vite in Pistoia , depict Saint Francis kneeling and placing a small baby into a chest-like manger. Giotto adds a miniature ox and ass. A substantial set of stone figures by Arnolfo di Cambio , a leading sculptor of the day, was made for Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome around 1290. The surviving portion includes figures for

4550-415: Is the oldest, having been founded in the 9th century. The medina at Fez has been named a UNESCO World Heritage site. Today it is the main fresh produce market and is noted for its narrow laneways and for a total ban on motorized traffic. All produce is brought in and out of the marketplace by donkey or hand-cart. In Marrakesh , the main produce markets are also to be found in the medina and a colourful market

4680-421: Is usually ushered in with the opening of the Christmas market or Weihnachtsmarkt . In southern Germany, Switzerland and Austria, it is called a Christkind(e)l(s)(i)markt (German language, literally meaning "Christ child market"). Traditionally held in the town square, the market offers food, drinks and seasonal items for sale from open-air stalls, accompanied by traditional singing and dancing. On opening night at

4810-796: The Adventzauber with workshops and cultural performances that cater to families and young children. Visitors to the Vienna Christmas World can also ice skate on a 3,000-square-metre (32,000 sq ft) ice rink and on frozen paths that run through the Rathausplatz Park. Other famous Christmas markets include the Christmas Market at Schönbrunn Palace , the Art Advent on Karlsplatz , the Christmas Village at Belvedere Palace , and

4940-869: The Arsi zone , Bahir Dar and Bure in the Gojjam zone, Dessie and Kombolcha in the Wollo zone, Mekele in the Tigray region , Dire Dawa and Harar in the Oromia region , and Addis Ababa. Some of the major retail markets in Ethiopia include: Addis Mercato in Addis Ababa, the largest open air market in the country; Gulalle and Galan, both in Addis Ababa; Awasa Lake Fish Market in Awasa, the Saturday market Harar , and

5070-590: The Bourbon period. Families competed with each other to produce the most elegant and elaborate scenes and so, next to the Child Jesus , to the Holy Family and the shepherds, were placed ladies and gentlemen of the nobility, representatives of the bourgeoisie of the time, vendors with their banks and miniatures of cheese, bread, sheep, pigs, ducks or geese, and typical figures of the time like Roma fortune tellers predicting

5200-584: The Catholic, commercial-free, 24/7, HD family entertainment channel, reached out to the world with a live telecast on Australian Nativity Scene on 24 December 2022. On 2 December 2023, Australian Nativity Scene marked its 20 years—a great moment for St Elizabeth’s Parish in Dandenong. To mark this occasion, Archbishop Peter A Comensoli celebrated the Vigil Mass on the first Sunday of Advent (Saturday 2 December). Here

5330-571: The Christkindlesmarkt in Nuremberg , and in some other towns, onlookers welcome the Christkind (originally boy Jesus , but often depicted as an angel-like girl), acted by a local child. The first traces of Christmas markets in the German-speaking part of Europe and in many parts of the former Holy Roman Empire go back to late medieval sales fairs and—often one-day—markets, which gave citizens

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5460-557: The European West and the East or Orient ; us and the other . Europeans often saw Orientals as the photographic negative of Western civilisation; the peoples could be threatening – they were "despotic, static and irrational whereas Europe was viewed as democratic, dynamic and rational". At the same time, the Orient was seen as exotic, mysterious, a place of fables and beauty. This fascination with

5590-621: The Holy Family , the Three Kings , and the ox and ass from the neck up. The scene's popularity inspired much imitation throughout Christian countries , and in the early modern period sculpted cribs, often exported from Italy, were set up in many Christian churches and homes. These elaborate scenes reached their artistic apogee in the Papal State , in Emilia , in the Kingdom of Naples and in Genoa . In

5720-551: The Holy Land , where he had been shown Jesus's traditional birthplace . Distinctive nativity scenes and traditions have been created around the world, and are displayed during the Christmas season in churches, homes, shopping malls, and other venues, and occasionally on public lands and in public buildings. Nativity scenes have not escaped controversy, and in the United States of America their inclusion on public lands or in public buildings has provoked court challenges. The tradition of

5850-538: The Middle East - respectively extending to Northern Africa - as regards to numerous areas from retail towards resources, with trade amongst merchants commonplace, likewise with bartering amongst participants. They are often described as economic and cultural hubs within cities across the Islamic world , and are generally the most bustling areas within urban localities. Given such dense activity, bazaars became an attraction for foreigners in exchanging resources, such as spices , textiles , labour , et cetera, drawing

5980-449: The Nativity of Jesus in art , it has a more specialized sense referring to seasonal displays, in particular sets of individual sculptural figures and props that are arranged for display. Other characters from the nativity story, such as shepherds, sheep, and angels may be displayed near the manger in a barn (or cave) intended to accommodate farm animals, as described in the Gospel of Luke . A donkey and an ox are typically depicted in

6110-502: The Red Square in Moscow , Russia in 2013. It's been running ever since from December to the end of October and is the biggest and most popular christmas market in Russia. A traditional Christmas market was held for the first time in Sibiu , Romania, in 2007. This new, non-traditional type was inaugurated with the Munich "Pink Christmas Market" in 2005. Subsequently the idea spread out through other German cities (such as Berlin and Hamburg) and worldwide (e.g. in Greater Vancouver ,

6240-444: The St. Patrick's Basilica, Ottawa in Ottawa, Ontario. The Czech Republic , and the cultures represented in its predecessors i.e. Czechoslovakia and the lands of former Bohemia , have a long tradition regarding betlémy (literally "Bethlehems"), crèches. The tradition of home nativity scenes is often traced to the 1782 ban of church and institutional crèches by emperor Joseph II , officially responding to public disturbances and

6370-483: The caravanserai typically situated just outside the city walls. However, when the marketplace began to become integrated into city structures, it was transformed into a covered area where traders could buy and sell with some protection from the elements. Markets at Mecca and Medina were known to be significant trade centres in the 3rd century (CE) and the nomadic communities were highly dependent on them for both trade and social interactions. The Grand Bazaar in Istanbul

6500-451: The museum of San Martino or the Royal Palace of Caserta ) in which historical pieces or entire scenes set during the birth of Jesus are exhibited. In the majority- Catholic Philippines , miniature, full-scale, or giant dioramas or tableaus of the nativity scene are known as Belén (from the Spanish name for Bethlehem ). They were introduced by the Spanish since the 16th century. They are an iconic and ubiquitous Christmas symbol in

6630-534: The "Belly of Paris", and was so named by author, Émile Zola in his novel Le Ventre de Paris , which is set in the busy 19th century marketplace of central Paris. Les Halles, a complex of market pavilions in Paris, features extensively in both literature and painting. Giuseppe Canella (1788 - 1847) painted Les Halles et la rue de la Tonnellerie. Photographer, Henri Lemoine (1848–1924), also photographed Les Halles de Paris. Markets have been known in parts of Africa for centuries. An 18th century commentator noted

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6760-402: The "Fraser Valley Queer Christmas Market"). Street market Markets have existed for as long as humans have engaged in trade. The earliest bazaars are believed to have originated in Persia, from where they spread to the rest of the Middle East and Europe . Documentary sources suggest that zoning policies confined trading to particular parts of cities from around 3000 BCE, creating

6890-420: The 12th century. A pattern of market trading using mobile stalls under covered arcades was probably established in Italy with the open loggias of Mercato Nuovo (1547) designed and constructed by Giovanni Battista del Tasso (and funded by the Medici family ); Mercato Vecchio , Florence, designed by Giorgio Vasari (1567); and Loggia del Grano (1619) by Giulio Parigi . Braudel and Reynold have made

7020-456: The 19th century, the Christkindelsmärik (in Alsatian ) of Strasbourg was held at the Frohnhof (French: Cour aux Corvées ) between the Cathedral of Our Lady , the Palais Rohan and the Œuvre Notre-Dame Museum (current Place du Château) and took place eight days before Christmas and until midnight mass. Since around the first half of the 20th century, markets have become an integral element of pre-Christmas customs. A revival took place in

7150-420: The Christian tradition, a nativity scene (also known as a manger scene , crib , crèche ( / k r ɛ ʃ / or / k r eɪ ʃ / ), or in Italian presepio or presepe , or Bethlehem ) is the special exhibition, particularly during the Christmas season , of art objects representing the birth of Jesus . While the term "nativity scene" may be used of any representation of the very common subject of

7280-881: The Christmas Village on Maria-Theresien-Platz . The Christmas Market at Schönbrunn Palace, “ Kultur-und-Weihnachtsmarkt ,” takes place in front of the imperial palace. It features Austrian handicrafts and goods as well as a cultural program with activities and workshops. The Art Advent on Karlsplatz offers artisan goods, a children's program, and a petting zoo. Popular food specialities include Kinderpunsch (a non-alcoholic punch), Glühwein , Baumstriezel (a Hungarian pastry coated in cinnamon and sugar), Kartoffelpuffer (potato pancakes), Lángos (savory deep fried dough), Schaumkuss (chocolate covered marshmallows), Stollen (bread with candied fruit), Maroni (roasted chestnuts), Bratkartoffel (roasted potato wedges), Lebkuchen (Austrian gingerbread), and baked potatoes. Christmas markets are traditional in Alsace , France, and most of

7410-560: The Christmas holiday season. The Nuremberg and Dresden markets draw about two million people each year; the Stuttgart and Frankfurt markets attract more than three million visitors. The two most visited Christmas markets in Germany are found in Dortmund , with more than three and a half million visitors of 300 stalls around a gigantic Christmas tree that stands 45 metres (148 ft) tall, and in Cologne with 4 million people. Additionally, Berlin claims more than 70 markets, which open in late November and close just after Christmas. In Italy,

7540-422: The European age of discovery, goods were imported from afar – calico cloth from India, porcelain, silk and tea from China, spices from India and South-East Asia and tobacco, sugar, rum and coffee from the New World. Across the boroughs of England, a network of chartered markets sprang up between the 12th and 16th centuries, giving consumers reasonable choice in the markets they preferred to patronise. A study on

7670-450: The German-speaking world. The first document reporting a Christmas market is dated 1434 during the reign of Frederick II of Saxony , mentioning a Striezelmarkt , which took place in Dresden on the Monday before Christmas. Later, the Reformation continued the tradition by renaming it Christkindlmarkt ("Christ Child market") to combat the cult of saints. The Strasbourg Christmas market dates from 1570, that of Nuremberg from 1628. In

7800-465: The Middle Ages, the physical market was characterised by transactional exchange. Shops had higher overhead costs, but were able to offer regular trading hours and a relationship with customers and may have offered added value services, such as credit terms to reliable customers. The economy was primarily characterised by local trading in which goods were traded across relatively short distances. Beach markets, which were known in north-western Europe, during

7930-414: The Middle East, documentary sources suggest that a form of bazaar first developed around 3000 BCE. Early bazaars occupied a series of alleys along the length of the city, typically stretching from one city gate to a different gate on the other side of the city. The bazaar at Tabriz, for example, stretches along kilometers of street and is the longest vaulted bazaar in the world. Moosavi argues that

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8060-488: The Middle Eastern bazaar evolved in a linear pattern, whereas the market places of the West were more centralised. The Greek historian Herodotus noted that in Egypt, roles were reversed compared with other cultures, and Egyptian women frequented the market and carried on trade, while the men remained at home weaving cloth. He also described the Babylonian marriage market, an account that inspired an 1875 painting by Edwin Long . In antiquity, markets were typically situated in

8190-625: The Philippines, on par with the parol (Christmas lanterns depicting the Star of Bethlehem ) which are often incorporated into the scene as the source of illumination. Both the Belén and the parol were the traditional Christmas decorations in Filipino homes before Americans introduced the Christmas tree . Most churches in the Philippines also transform their altars into a Belén at Christmas. They are also found in schools (which also hold nativity plays ), government buildings, commercial establishments, and in public spaces. The city of Tarlac holds an annual competition of giant Belén in

8320-470: The Roman world, the central market primarily served the local peasantry. Market stall holders were primarily local primary producers who sold small surpluses from their individual farming activities and also artisans who sold leather goods, metalware and pottery. Consumers were made up of several different groups; farmers who purchased minor farm equipment and a few luxuries for their homes and urban dwellers who purchased basic necessities. Major producers such as

8450-409: The Saturday market in Axum . Ghanaian markets have survived in spite of sometimes brutal measures to eradicate them. In the late 1970s, the Ghanaian government used market traders as a scapegoat for its own policy failures which involved food shortages and high inflation. The government blamed traders for failing to observe pricing guidelines and vilified "women merchants". In 1979, the Makola market

8580-543: The Son of God can be welcomed into the hearts of the home at the Christmas." By the end of the 19th century nativity scenes became widely popular in many Christian denominations, and many versions in various sizes and made of various materials, such as terracotta , paper, wood, wax, and ivory , were marketed, often with a backdrop setting of a stable. Different traditions of nativity scenes emerged in different countries. Hand-painted santons are popular in Provence . In southern Germany, Austria and Trentino-Alto Adige ,

8710-476: The Tang Dynasty, a metal market was known. Outside the city walls were sheep and horse markets. Marco Polo 's account of 13th century markets specifically mentions a silk market. He was also impressed by the size of markets. According to his account, the ten markets of Hangzhou , primarily a fish market, attracted 40,000 to 50,000 patrons on each of its three trading days each week. In China, negative attitudes towards mercantile activity developed; merchants were

8840-607: The United States and a list of permanent exhibits of nativity scenes in other parts of the world. The Bavarian National Museum displays a notable collection of nativity scenes from the fifteenth through nineteenth centuries. Every year in Lanciano, Abruzzo (Italy), a nativity scene exhibition (called in Italian "Riscopriamo il presepe") takes place at Auditorium Diocleziano, usually until 6 January. An average of one hundred nativity scenes are shown, coming from every region of Italy. There are also many nativity scenes made by local kindergarten, primary, secondary and high school. The event

8970-403: The United States. It is celebrated in such cities as Chicago , Denver , Salt Lake City , Tulsa , and Grand Rapids . As noted, other countries have also established such markets. The Christmas market of Barcelona starts on 13 December, Saint Lucy's Day , and is called Fira de Santa Llúcia . It has been held in the square of Barcelona Cathedral since 1786. The GUM-fair was opened on

9100-483: The Viking period, were primarily associated with the sale of fish. From around the 11th century, the number and variety of imported goods sold at beach markets began to increase. giving consumers access to a broader range of exotic and luxury goods. Throughout the Medieval period, markets became more international. The historian, Braudel, reports that in 1600, grain moved just 5–10 miles; cattle 40–70 miles; wool and wollen cloth 20–40 miles. However, following

9230-496: The agora. At the agora in Athens, officials were employed by the government to oversee weights, measures, and coinage to ensure that the people were not cheated in market place transactions. The rocky and mountainous terrain in Greece made it difficult for producers to transport goods or surpluses to local markets, giving rise to the kapēlos , a specialised type of retailer who operated as an intermediary purchasing produce from farmers and transporting it over short distances to

9360-536: The attention of Arabs, Turks , Greeks , Persians , Jews as well as Indians , not to mention Westerners since the late-16th to early-17th centuries. In the modern era, bazaars remain a vital economic hub in numerous Arab nations. In Mesoamerica, a tiered system of traders developed independently. Extensive trade networks predated the Aztec empire by at least hundreds of years. Local markets where people purchased their daily necessities were known as tianguis , while

9490-538: The city markets. In ancient Rome , trade took place in the forum . Rome had two forums: the Forum Romanum and Trajan's Forum . Trajan's Market at Trajan's forum, built around 100–110 CE, was a vast expanse, comprising multiple buildings with shops on four levels. The Roman forum was arguably the earliest example of a permanent retail shopfront. In antiquity, exchange involved direct selling via merchants or peddlers and bartering systems were commonplace. In

9620-478: The collection of Eugenio Catello. The Universalis Foederatio Praesepistica , World association of Friends of Cribs was founded in 1952, counting today 20 national associations dedicated to this subject. The Central office is in Austria. In the United States and Canada Friends of the Creche has over 200 members, with a major conference every two years. FotC maintains a list of permanent exhibits of nativity scenes in

9750-483: The conditions necessary for the emergence of a bazaar. Middle Eastern bazaars were typically long strips with stalls on either side and a covered roof designed to protect traders and purchasers from the fierce sun. In Europe, informal, unregulated markets gradually made way for a system of formal, chartered markets from the 12th century. Throughout the medieval period , increased regulation of marketplace practices, especially weights and measures, gave consumers confidence in

9880-499: The edges of Yucatecan canoe trade such as Xicalanco and Ulua . The Spanish conquerors commented on the impressive nature of the local markets in the 15th century. The Mexica ( Aztec ) market of Tlatelolco was the largest in all the Americas and said to be superior to those in Europe. There are many different ways to classify markets. One way is to consider the nature of the buyer and

10010-662: The evening market. The marketplace also became the place were executions were carried out, rewards were published and decrees were read out. During the Qin empire and the Han dynasty which followed it, markets were enclosed with walls and gates and strictly separated from residential areas. Vendors were arranged according to the type of commodity offered, and markets were strictly regulated with departments responsible for security, weights and measures, price-fixing, and certificates. Over time, specialised markets began to emerge. In Luoyang, during

10140-567: The feast of the Baptism of the Lord . The nativity scene may not accurately reflect gospel events. With no basis in the gospels, for example, the shepherds, the Magi, and the ox and ass may be displayed together at the manger. The art form can be traced back to eighteenth-century Naples, Italy . Neapolitan nativity scenes do not represent Palestine at the time of Jesus but the life of the Naples of 1700, during

10270-779: The fish from where it is immediately preserved using traditional methods and prepared for distribution to other West African countries; The Woodcarvers Market in Brikama which boasts the largest concentration of woodcarvers in the country; the Pottery Market in Basse Santa ; the Atlantic Road Craft Market at Bakau and the Senegambia Craft Market at Bakau. Produce markets in Asia are undergoing major changes as supermarkets enter

10400-552: The former Holy Roman Empire , which included many eastern regions of modern France. They became a popular Advent custom during the Reformation era. Dresden 's Striezelmarkt was first held in 1434 and one of the first true Christmas markets; earlier markets of the season were "December markets". Early mentions of these "December markets" can be found in Vienna (1296), Munich (1310), Bautzen (1384), and Frankfurt (1393). In many towns in Germany, Switzerland, and Austria, Advent

10530-437: The future, people playing cards, housewives doing shopping, dogs, cats and chickens. In southern Italy, living nativity scenes ( presepe vivente ) are extremely popular. They may be elaborate affairs, featuring not only the classic nativity scene but also a mock rural 19th-century village, complete with artisans in traditional costumes working at their trades. These attract many visitors and have been televised on RAI . In 2010,

10660-417: The great estates were sufficiently attractive for merchants to call directly at their farm gates, obviating the producers' need to attend local markets. The very wealthy landowners managed their own distribution, which may have involved importing and exporting. The nature of export markets in antiquity is well documented in ancient sources and archaeological case studies. At Pompeii , multiple markets served

10790-474: The growth of the town. The Domesday Book of 1086 lists 50 markets in England; however, many historians believe this figure underestimates the actual number of markets in operation at the time. In England, some 2,000 new markets were established between 1200 and 1349. By 1516, England had some 2,464 markets and 2,767 fairs, while Wales had 138 markets and 166 fairs. From the 12th century, English monarchs awarded

10920-758: The large outdoor Christmas displays sponsored by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints . Each holiday season, from Light Up Night in November through Epiphany in January, the Pittsburgh Crèche is on display in downtown Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania. The Pittsburgh Creche is the world's only authorized replica of the Vatican's Christmas crèche, on display in St. Peter's Square in Rome. Pittsburgh's Carnegie Museum of Art also displays

11050-743: The larger towns. Notable markets include: the Serekunda Market in Gambia's largest city, Serekunda , which opens from early morning to late at night 7 days a week and trades in produce, live animals, clothing, accessories, jewellery, crafts, second hand goods and souvenirs; The Albert Market in the capital, Banjul , which sells fresh produce, colourful, locally designed fabrics, musical instruments, carved wooden masks and other local products. Other interesting markets include: Bakau Fish Market in Bakau ; Tanji Fish Market, Tanji, where brightly painted fishing boats bring in

11180-459: The little things that children received as Christmas gifts. There were also stands selling roasted chestnuts, nuts and almonds. A Saint Nicholas market in Munich was first mentioned in a document in 1310. In 1384, King Wenceslas granted the town of Bautzen the right to hold a free meat market on Saturdays from St. Michael's Day (29 September) until Christmas. Over time, the tradition spread throughout

11310-609: The local level. The Charter of Worcester, written between 884 and 901 provided for fines for dishonest trading, amongst other things. Such local regulations were codified in 13th century England in what became known as the Statute of Winchester . This document outlined the assizes for 16 different trades, most of which were associated with markets – miller, baker, fisher, brewer, inn-keeper, tallow-chandler, weaver, cordwainer, etc. For each trade, regulations covered such issues as fraud, prices, quality, weights, and measures and so on. The assize

11440-427: The lowest class of society. High officials carefully distanced themselves from merchant classes. In 627, an edict prohibited those of rank five or higher from entering markets. One anecdote from the time of Empress Wu relates the tale of a fourth rank official who missed out on the opportunity for promotion after he was seen purchasing a steamed pancake from a market. Since circa 3000 BCE, bazaars have dominated

11570-524: The main stage. The market is held for approximately six weeks every year and usually closes around 23 December. Manchester's Christmas Markets have also been successful, with 300 stalls over eight city locations, with each location being themed to create a different atmosphere such as French, World, and German, with European-themed stalls on the Albert Square , Manchester proving to be the most popular. German immigrants carried Christmas market celebrations to

11700-650: The many markets he visited in West Africa . He provided a detailed description of market activities at Sabi, in the Wydah (now the part of the Republic of Benin): Their fairs and markets are regulated with so much care and prudence, that nothing contrary to law is ever committed. All sorts of merchandise here are collected, and those who have brought goods are permitted to take what time they please to dispose of them, but without fraud or noise. A judge, attended by four officers armed,

11830-454: The market's importance to community life and trade. Markets were also important centres of social life. In early Western Europe, markets developed close to monasteries, castles or royal residences. Priories and aristocratic manorial households created considerable demand for goods and services, both luxuries and necessities, and also afforded some protection to merchants and traders. These centres of trade attracted sellers which would stimulate

11960-461: The market's place within the distribution system. This leads to two broad classes of market, namely retail market or wholesale markets . The economist, Alfred Marshall classified markets according to time period. In this classification, there are three types of market; the very short period market where the supply of a commodity remains fixed. Perishables, such as fruit, vegetables, meat, and fish fall into this group since goods must be sold within

12090-515: The markets. Some of these early markets have been the subject of archaeological surveys. For instance, the market at Yong, the capital of the Qi state, measured 3,000 square metres and was an outdoor market. According to the Rites of Zhou , markets were highly organized and served different groups at different times of day; merchants at the morning market, every day people at the afternoon market and peddlers at

12220-663: The mid-1990s. Many cities in Europe have established their own Christmas market with chalets and sometimes attractions (ephemeral ice rink , Ferris wheel , etc.), thus offering a more commercial market. Popular attractions at the markets include the Nativity Scene (a crèche or crib), Zwetschgenmännle (figures made of decorated dried plums), Nussknacker (carved Nutcrackers ), Gebrannte Mandeln (candied, toasted almonds), traditional Christmas cookies such as Lebkuchen and Magenbrot (both forms of soft gingerbread ), Bratwurst , and Glühwein , hot mulled wine (with or without

12350-547: The most extensive such market by area in the United Kingdom, with a claimed total of over 300 stalls attracting more than 100,000 visitors over its four days. Starting in 1997, Frankfurt Christmas Markets were established with support from Frankfurt in Birmingham , Edinburgh , Leeds , and Manchester . Other large Christmas markets have been held in England in Bath (since 2000) and Liverpool (since 2006). The Christmas markets are such

12480-505: The nativity scene comes from Italy. One of the earliest representation in art of the nativity was found in the early Christian Roman catacomb of Saint Valentine . It dates to about AD 380. Another, of similar date, is beneath the pulpit in Sant'Ambrogio, Milan . The first seasonal nativity scene, which seems to have been a dramatic rather than sculptural rendition, is attributed to Saint Francis of Assisi . Francis' 1223 living nativity scene

12610-493: The neighbouring counties come in to the fair every morning, with beef, mutton, fowls, bread, cheese, eggs, and such things; and go with them from tent to tent and from door to door, that there is no want of provision of any kind, either dress'd or undress'd." In the Asia Minor, prior to the 10th century, market places were situated on the perimeter of the city. Along established trade routes, markets were most often associated with

12740-511: The north of the country, but that was largely unsuccessful and most commercial buyers travel to Johannesburg or Tshwane for supplies. Ethiopia is a major producer and exporter of grains and a number of wholesale markets assist with the distribution and export of such products. Important wholesale markets include: Nekemte in the East Welega zone , Jimma in the Jimma zone , Assela and Sagure in

12870-597: The old city of Matera in Basilicata hosted the world's largest living nativity scene of the time, which was performed in the historic center, Sassi . A donkey (or ass) and an ox typically appear in nativity scenes. Besides the necessity of animals for an operating manger, this is an allusion to the Book of Isaiah : "the ox knoweth his owner, and the ass his master's crib; but Israel doth not know, my people doth not consider" ( Isaiah 1:3 ). The Gospels mention neither an ox and nor

13000-633: The oldest Christmas market is considered to be that of Bologna , held for the first time in the 18th century and linked to the feast of Saint Lucia. The tradition of the markets has however spread in Italy predominantly especially since the 1990s, with the birth of the first modern markets: among these, the first ever was that of Bolzano , born in 1991, which was followed by others in the area of Alto Adige , in particular in Merano , Bressanone , Vipiteno and Brunico . The Trento Christmas market, established in 1993,

13130-470: The opportunity to stock up on meat and winter necessities at the beginning of the cold season. In 1296, Duke Albert I of Austria granted the Viennese traders the privilege of holding a "December market" to supply the local population. In the 14th century, the custom arose of allowing craftsmen such as toy makers, basket weavers and confectioners to set up stalls under the name " Saint Nicholas market" to sell

13260-399: The other gave rise to a genre of painting known as Orientalism . Artists focussed on the exotic beauty of the land – the markets and bazaars, caravans and snake charmers. Islamic architecture also became favourite subject matter, and the high vaulted market places features in numerous paintings and sketches. Individual markets have also attracted literary attention. Les Halles was known as

13390-509: The poor", became one major expression, as well as wood-carved ones, some of them complex and detailed. Many major Czech artists, sculptors and illustrators have as a significant part of their legacy the crèches that they created. The following people are known for creating Czech paper crèches: Tomáš Krýza (1838–1918) built in a period of over 60 years a nativity scene covering 60 m (length 17 m, size and height 2 m) which contains 1,398 figures of humans and animals, of which 133 are moveable. It

13520-460: The population of approximately 12,000. Produce markets were located in the vicinity of the Forum, while livestock markets were situated on the city's perimeter, near the amphitheatre. A long narrow building at the north-west corner of the Forum was some type of market, possibly a cereal market. On the opposite corner stood the macellum , thought to have been a meat and fish market. Market stall-holders paid

13650-708: The principle of accommodationism . In 1969, the American Civil Liberties Union did not want a nativity scene at The Ellipse . After the matter was resolved by the United States Court of Appeals , the nativity scene was not displayed in 1973. In 1985, the United States Supreme Court ruled in ACLU v. Scarsdale, New York that nativity scenes on public lands were unconstitutional unless they also displayed non-religious symbols. This principle

13780-536: The purchasing habits of the monks and other individuals in medieval England suggests that consumers of the period were relatively discerning. Purchase decisions were based on purchase criteria such as the consumer's perceptions of the range, quality, and price of goods. Such considerations informed decisions about where to make purchases and which markets to patronise. As the number of charters granted increased, competition between market towns also increased. In response to competitive pressures, towns invested in developing

13910-500: The quality of market goods and the fairness of prices. Around the globe, markets have evolved in different ways depending on local ambient conditions, especially weather, tradition, and culture. In the Middle East, markets tend to be covered, to protect traders and shoppers from the sun. In milder climates, markets are often open air. In Asia , a system of morning markets trading in fresh produce and night markets trading in non-perishables

14040-642: The resulting "loss of dignity" of such displays. As this followed the Edict of Toleration proclaimed the previous year, it reduced State support of the Catholic church in this multi-confessional land. The Museum of Nativity Scenes in Třebechovice pod Orebem has over 400 examples dated from the 18th until early 20th century, including the Probošt's mechanical Christmas crib , so called Třebechovice's Bethlehem . The issue of cost arose, and paper-cut crèches, "the crèche of

14170-410: The retail scene and the growing middle classes acquire preferences for branded goods. Many supermarkets purchase directly from producers, supplanting the traditional role of both wholesale and retail markets. In order to survive, produce markets have been forced to consider value adding opportunities and many retail markets now focus on ready-to-eat food and take-away food. Nativity Scene In

14300-558: The scene, and the Magi and their camels, described in the Gospel of Matthew , are also included. Many also include a representation of the Star of Bethlehem . Several cultures add other characters and objects that may or may not be Biblical. The first living nativity scene, attributed to Saint Francis of Assisi , occurred in 1223 in the Italian town of Greccio . Francis had been inspired by his visit to

14430-569: The sun, palm wine and fruit, form the must luxurious entertainments, and stand continually for sale in the streets. In Botswana , the sale of agricultural produce to the formal market is largely controlled by large corporations. Most small, local farmers sell their produce to the informal market, local communities and street vendors. The main wholesale market is the Horticultural market in Gaborone . The government made some attempts to build markets in

14560-522: The supply chain, traditional hawkers and produce markets have shown remarkable resilience. The main markets in Johannesburg are: Jozi Real Food Market, Bryanston Organic Market, Pretoria Boeremark specialising in South African delicacies, Hazel Food Market, Panorama Flea Market, Rosebank Sunday Market, Market on Main (a periodic arts market), and neighbourhood markets. The " Gambia is Good" initiative

14690-482: The town or village centre. Scholars, however, question the reliability of traditional narratives unless backed by archaeological evidence. The earliest written references to markets dates to the time of Qi Huanggong (ruled 685 to 643 BCE). Qi's Prime Minister, the great reformer, Guan Zhong , divided the capital into 21 districts ( xiang ) of which three were dedicated to farmers, three to hand-workers and three to businessmen, who were instructed to settle near

14820-476: The town's centre. The market was surrounded by alleyways inhabited by skilled artisans, such as metal workers, leather workers, and carpenters. These artisans may have sold wares directly from their premises, but also prepared goods for sale on market days. Across ancient Greece , market places were to be found in most city states, where they operated within the agora (open space). Between 550 and 350 BCE, Greek stallholders clustered together according to

14950-520: The towns there have their local Christmas market. Strasbourg has been holding a Christmas market, " Christkindelsmärik ," around its cathedral since 1570, when the city was part of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation. Famous Christmas markets are held in the cities of Augsburg , Dresden , Erfurt , Frankfurt , Nuremberg , and Stuttgart , making them popular tourist attractions during

15080-420: The towns, the places are lit with colorful and modern spectacular lighting displays. The displays of nativity scenes with Aussie featured native animals like kangaroos and koalas are also evident. In Melbourne, a traditional and authentic nativity Scene is on display at St. Elizabeth's Parish, Dandenong North. This annual Australian Nativity Scene creator and artist Wilson Fernandez has been building and creating

15210-693: The tradition of the Moravian Church , nativity scenes have been the center of the Christmas putz , which is "built to tell the Good News of the coming of the Christ Child" and "is the Gospel in miniature from Isaiah’s prophecy and Mary’s annunciation to the visit of the wisemen and the flight into Egypt." For Moravian Christians, the nativity scene serves to celebrate "the story of the wonder of Christ’s birth so that

15340-545: The traditional nativity scenes since 2003 at St. Elizabeth's Parish. To mark this special event, Most Reverend Denis Hart Archbishop of Melbourne celebrated the Vigil Mass and blessed the nativity scene on Saturday, 14 December 2013. Australian Nativity Scene (ANS) gained popularity and recognition over the years and in December 2016, the Australian Channel 7 captured the news of this famous creativity. Shalom World ,

15470-458: The tree's base. The crèche was the gift of Loretta Hines Howard in 1964, and the choir screen was the gift of The William Randolph Hearst Foundation in 1956. Both this presepio and the one displayed in Pittsburgh originated from the collection of Eugenio Catello. A life-size nativity scene has been displayed annually at Temple Square in Salt Lake City, Utah for several decades as part of

15600-444: The type of goods carried – fish-sellers were in one place, clothing in another, and sellers of more expensive goods such as perfumes, bottles, and jars were located in a separate building. The Greeks organised trade into separate zones, all located near the city centre and known as stoa . A freestanding colonnade with a covered walkway, the stoa was both a place of commerce and a public promenade, situated within or adjacent to

15730-400: The types of goods, their quality and their region of origin. In this way, markets helped to provide an early form of product branding. Gradually, certain market towns earned a reputation for providing quality produce. Today, traders and showmen jealously guard the reputation of these historic chartered markets. The 18th century commentator Daniel Defoe visited Sturbridge fair in 1723 and wrote

15860-544: The wooden figurines are handcut. Colorful szopki are typical in Poland . In the United States, the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City annually displays a Neapolitan Baroque nativity scene before a 20 feet (6.1 m) blue spruce . Static nativity scenes depict Jesus, Mary, Joseph, farm animals, and sometimes other characters. While most home nativity scenes are packed away at Christmas or shortly thereafter, nativity scenes in churches usually remain on display until

15990-546: Was " Ic wille þæt markete beo in þe selue tun ", meaning "I desire that there be a market in the same town". Markets have existed since ancient times. Some historians have argued that a type of market has existed since humans first began to engage in trade. Open air and public markets were known in ancient Babylonia, Assyria, Phoenicia , the Land of Israel, Greece, Egypt, and the Arabian peninsula. However, not all societies developed

16120-609: Was a formal codification of prior informal codes which had been practised for many years. The courts of assize were granted the power to enforce these regulations. The process of standardizing quality, prices and measures assisted markets to gain the confidence of buyers and made them more attractive to the public. A sixteenth century commentator, John Leland , described particular markets as "celebrate", "very good", "quik", and conversely as "poore", "meane", and "of no price". Over time, some products became associated with particular places, providing customers with valuable information about

16250-468: Was dynamited and bulldozed, but within a week the traders were back selling fruit, vegetables and fish, albeit without a roof over their head. Kenya 's capital, Nairobi , has several major markets. Wakulima market is one of the region's largest markets, situated on Haile Selassie Avenue in Nairobi. Other markets in Nairobi are: Kariakor Market, Gikomba Market, and Muthurwa Market. In Mombasa, Kongowea market

16380-462: Was established in 2004 with a view to encouraging a market for locally grown fresh produce rather than imported ones. The plan was designed to "stimulate local livelihoods, inspire entrepreneurship and reduce the environmental and social cost of imported produce". A great deal of the produce trade is carried out informally on street corners and many shops are little more than market booths. However, dedicated open air and covered markets can be found in

16510-768: Was held in Vienna in 1298. Vienna holds 20 different Christmas markets around the city. Most Christmas markets open in late November and last through December, closing between Christmas Day and New Year's Day, with a few staying open for New Year's. The largest Christmas market and one of the most well known is the Vienna Christmas World on Rathausplatz , near the Rathaus , Vienna's historic city hall. The market draws 3 million people each year and includes 150 unique stalls that offer traditional Austrian foods, Christmas decorations and ornaments, handicrafts, and drinks. The Vienna Christmas World on Rathausplatz also features an advent theme park called

16640-441: Was in part due to the changing nature of the market system at that time. The public began to distinguish between two types of merchant, the meerseniers which referred to local merchants including bakers, grocers, sellers of dairy products and stall-holders, and the koopman , which described a new, emergent class of trader who dealt in goods or credit on a large scale. With the rise of a European merchant class, this distinction

16770-490: Was known for producing fine woollen cloth, the town of Worsted became synonymous with a type of yarn; Banbury and Essex were strongly associated with cheeses. In the market economy, goods are ungraded and unbranded, so that consumers have relatively few opportunities to evaluate quality prior to consumption. Consequently, supervision of weights, measures, food quality, and prices was a key consideration. In medieval society, regulations for such matters appeared initially at

16900-487: Was necessary to separate the daily trade that the general population understood from the rising ranks of traders who operated on a world stage and were seen as quite distant from everyday experience. During the 17th and 18th centuries, as Europeans conquered parts of North Africa and the Levant, European artists began to visit the Orient and painted scenes of everyday life. Europeans sharply divided peoples into two broad groups –

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