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115-577: Born in Paris, Jacq's interest in Egyptology began when he was thirteen, when he read History of Ancient Egyptian Civilization by Jacques Pirenne . This inspired him to write his first novel. By the time he was eighteen, he had written eight books. His first commercially successful book was Champollion the Egyptian , published in 1987. As of 2004, he has written over fifty books, including several non-fiction books on

230-598: A Communist takeover of the country in 1948. Socialist voters were divided; in a February 1968 survey a majority had favored allying with the Communists, but 44% believed that Communists would attempt to seize power once in government (30% of Communist voters agreed). On Bastille Day , there were resurgent street demonstrations in the Latin Quarter, led by socialist students, leftists and communists wearing red armbands and anarchists wearing black armbands. The Paris police and

345-551: A Bull of 1231 to the masters and scholars of Paris. Not only did he settle the dispute, he empowered the university to frame statutes concerning the discipline of the schools, the method of instruction, the defence of theses, the costume of the professors, and the obsequies of masters and students (expanding upon Robert de Courçon's statutes). Most importantly, the pope granted the university the right to suspend its courses, if justice were denied it, until it should receive full satisfaction. The pope authorized Pierre Le Mangeur to collect

460-648: A century, people recognized that the new system was less favourable to study. The defeat of 1870 at the hands of Prussia was partially blamed on the growth of the superiority of the German university system of the 19th century, and led to another serious reform of the French university. In the 1880s, the "licence" (bachelor) degree is divided into, for the Faculty of Letters: Letters, Philosophy, History, Modern Languages, with French, Latin and Greek being requirements for all of them; and for

575-404: A chair in theology, the candidate had to be thirty years of age, with eight years of theological studies, of which the last three years were devoted to special courses of lectures in preparation for the mastership. These studies had to be made in the local schools under the direction of a master. In Paris, one was regarded as a scholar only by studies with particular masters. Lastly, purity of morals

690-402: A government, claims that the "moderate, nonviolent and essentially antirevolutionary" Communists opposed revolution because they sincerely believed that the party must come to power through legal elections, not armed conflict that might provoke harsh repression from political opponents. Not knowing that the Communists did not intend to seize power, officials prepared to position police forces at

805-456: A key role in avoiding revolution by both speaking to and spying on the revolutionaries, and by avoiding the use of force. While Communist leaders later denied that they had planned an armed uprising, and extreme militants only comprised 2% of the populace, they had overestimated de Gaulle's strength, as shown by his escape to Germany. Historian Arthur P. Mendel, otherwise skeptical of French Communists' willingness to maintain democracy after forming

920-484: A mandate from an ecclesiastical authority. His action followed a violent incident between students and officers outside the city walls at a pub. In 1215, the Apostolic legate, Robert de Courçon , issued new rules governing who could become a professor. To teach the arts, a candidate had to be at least twenty-one, to have studied these arts at least six years, and to take an engagement as professor for at least two years. For

1035-482: A march. The strikes spread to all sectors of the French economy, including state-owned jobs, manufacturing and service industries, management, and administration. Across France, students occupied university structures and up to one-third of the country's workforce was on strike. These strikes were not led by the union movement; on the contrary, the CGT tried to contain this spontaneous outbreak of militancy by channeling it into

1150-426: A meeting in the university council room about class discrimination in French society and the political bureaucracy that controlled the university's funding. The university's administration called the police, who surrounded the university. After the publication of their wishes, the students left the building without any trouble. After this, some leaders of what was named the " Movement of 22 March " were called together by

1265-418: A moderate fee for the conferring of the license of professorship. Also, for the first time, the scholars had to pay tuition fees for their education: two sous weekly, to be deposited in the common fund. The university was organized as follows: at the head of the teaching body was a rector . The office was elective and of short duration; at first it was limited to four or six weeks. Simon de Brion , legate of

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1380-510: A new University of Paris was re-founded as a grouping of the Paris faculties of science, literature , law , medicine, Protestant theology and the École supérieure de pharmacie de Paris. It was inaugurated on November 19, 1896, by French President Félix Faure . In 1970, after the civil unrest of May 1968 , the university was divided into 13 autonomous universities, which today are the Sorbonne University , Panthéon-Sorbonne University ,

1495-406: A period of civil unrest occurred throughout France, lasting seven weeks and punctuated by demonstrations, general strikes , and the occupation of universities and factories . At the height of events, which have since become known as May 68 ( French : Mai 68 ), the economy of France came to a halt. The protests reached a point that made political leaders fear civil war or revolution ;

1610-493: A rally in the Charléty stadium with about 22,000 attendees. Its range of speakers reflected the divide between student and Communist factions. While the rally was held in the stadium partly for security, the speakers' insurrectionist messages were dissonant with the relative amenities of the sports venue. The Socialists saw an opportunity to act as a compromise between de Gaulle and the Communists. On 28 May, François Mitterrand of

1725-510: A result of being forced to pursue their studies in such shabby conditions. In 1966, after a student revolt in Paris, Christian Fouchet , minister of education, proposed "the reorganisation of university studies into separate two- and four-year degrees, alongside the introduction of selective admission criteria" as a response to overcrowding in lecture halls. Dissatisfied with these educational reforms, students began protesting in November 1967, at

1840-496: A revolution, with the military moving from the provinces to retake Paris as in 1871 . Minister of Defence Pierre Messmer and Chief of the Defence Staff Michel Fourquet prepared for such an action, and Pompidou had ordered tanks to Issy-les-Moulineaux . While the military was free of revolutionary sentiment, using an army mostly of conscripts the same age as the revolutionaries would have been very dangerous for

1955-427: A struggle for higher wages and other economic demands. Workers put forward a broader, more political and more radical agenda, demanding an ouster of de Gaulle's government and attempting, in some cases, to run their factories. When the trade union leadership negotiated a 35% increase in the minimum wage, a 7% wage increase for other workers, and half normal pay for the time on strike with the major employers' associations,

2070-662: A tentative appearance on television at 8 p.m. The national government had effectively ceased to function. Édouard Balladur later wrote that as prime minister, Pompidou "by himself was the whole government", as most officials were "an incoherent group of confabulators" who believed that revolution would soon occur. A friend of Pompidou offered him a weapon, saying, "You will need it"; Pompidou advised him to go home. One official reportedly began burning documents, while another asked an aide how far they could flee by automobile should revolutionaries seize fuel supplies. Withdrawing money from banks became difficult, gasoline for private automobiles

2185-473: Is known as a soixante-huitard (a "68-er")—a term that has entered the English language. Sous les pavés, la plage! ("Under the paving stones, the beach!") is a slogan coined by student activist Bernard Cousin in collaboration with public relations expert Bernard Fritsch. The phrase became an emblem of the events and movement of the spring of 1968, when the revolutionary students began to build barricades in

2300-533: Is mentioned as early as 1345, the Scots college or Collegium scoticum was founded in 1325. The Lombard college or Collegium lombardicum was founded in the 1330s. The Collegium constantinopolitanum was, according to a tradition, founded in the 13th century to facilitate a merging of the eastern and western churches. It was later reorganized as a French institution, the Collège de la Marche-Winville . The Collège de Montaigu

2415-444: Is shown by a Bull of Innocent III. Consequently, the schools of Saint-Victor might well have contributed to its formation. Secondly, Denifle excludes the schools of Ste-Geneviève because there had been no interruption in the teaching of the liberal arts. This is debatable and through the period, theology was taught. The chancellor of Ste-Geneviève continued to give degrees in arts, something he would have ceased if his abbey had no part in

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2530-527: The Decretum Gratiani brought about a division of the theology department. Hitherto the discipline of the Church had not been separate from so-called theology; they were studied together under the same professor. But this vast collection necessitated a special course, which was undertaken first at Bologna, where Roman law was taught. In France, first Orléans and then Paris erected chairs of canon law. Before

2645-453: The Abbey of Fontevrault etc. Three other men who added prestige to the schools of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève were William of Champeaux , Abélard , and Peter Lombard . Humanistic instruction comprised grammar , rhetoric , dialectics , arithmetic , geometry , music, and astronomy ( trivium and quadrivium ). To the higher instruction belonged dogmatic and moral theology , whose source

2760-524: The April 1969 referendum would show, the country was ready for " Gaullism without de Gaulle". May 1968 is an important reference point in French politics, representing for some the possibility of liberation and for others the dangers of anarchy. For some, May 1968 meant the end of traditional collective action and the beginning of a new era to be dominated mainly by the so-called new social movements . Someone who took part in or supported this period of unrest

2875-471: The Arc de Triomphe to demand that (1) all criminal charges against arrested students be dropped, (2) the police leave the university, and (3) the authorities reopen Nanterre and Sorbonne. Negotiations broke down, and students returned to their campuses after a false report that the government had agreed to reopen them, only to discover the police still occupying the schools. This led to near revolutionary fervor among

2990-1065: The Assas University , the Sorbonne Nouvelle University , the Paris Cité University , the PSL University , the Saclay University , the Nanterre University , the Sorbonne Paris North University , the Paris-East Créteil University and the Paris 8 University . The Chancellerie des Universités de Paris inherited the heritage assets of the University of Paris, including the Sorbonne building,

3105-562: The Federation of the Democratic and Socialist Left declared that "there is no more state" and said he was ready to form a new government. He had received a surprisingly high 45% of the vote in the 1965 presidential election . On 29 May, Pierre Mendès France also said he was ready to form a new government; unlike Mitterrand, he was willing to include the Communists. Although the Socialists lacked

3220-589: The French Section of the Workers' International formed an electoral alliance. Communists had long supported Socialist candidates in elections, but in the "February Declaration" the two parties agreed to attempt to form a joint government to replace President Charles de Gaulle and his Gaullist Party. On 22 March, far-left groups, a small number of prominent poets and musicians, and 150 students occupied an administration building at Paris University at Nanterre and held

3335-578: The Holy See in France, realizing that such frequent changes caused serious inconvenience, decided that the rectorate should last three months, and this rule was observed for three years. Then the term was lengthened to one, two, and sometimes three years. The right of election belonged to the procurators of the four nations . Henry of Unna was proctor of the University of Paris in the 14th century, beginning his term on January 13, 1340. The "nations" appeared in

3450-587: The National Assembly , as he believed that their party, the Gaullists, would lose the resulting election. At 11:00 am, he told Pompidou, "I am the past; you are the future; I embrace you." The government announced that de Gaulle was going to his country home in Colombey-les-Deux-Églises before returning the next day, and rumors spread that he would prepare his resignation speech there. However,

3565-527: The Sorbonne ( French: [sɔʁbɔn] ), was the leading university in Paris , France, from 1150 to 1970, except for 1793–1806 during the French Revolution . Emerging around 1150 as a corporation associated with the cathedral school of Paris, it was considered the second-oldest university in Europe . Officially chartered in 1200 by King Philip II and recognised in 1215 by Pope Innocent III , it

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3680-467: The Sorbonne the next day, and many students were arrested in the following week. Barricades were erected throughout the Latin Quarter , and a massive demonstration took place on 13 May, gathering students and workers on strike. The number of workers on strike reached about nine million by 22 May. As explained by Bill Readings: De Gaulle responded on May 24 by calling for a referendum, and [...]

3795-569: The University of Bologna ) became the model for all later medieval universities. Under the governance of the Church, students wore robes and shaved the tops of their heads in tonsure , to signify they were under the protection of the church. Students followed the rules and laws of the Church and were not subject to the king's laws or courts. This presented problems for the city of Paris, as students ran wild, and its official had to appeal to Church courts for justice. Students were often very young, entering

3910-400: The faculty of arts or letters . The territories covered by the four nations were: To classify professors' knowledge, the schools of Paris gradually divided into faculties. Professors of the same science were brought into closer contact until the community of rights and interests cemented the union and made them distinct groups. The faculty of medicine seems to have been the last to form. But

4025-513: The " La Sorbonne " brand, control of the inter-university libraries, and management of the staff of the Paris universities (until 2007). In 1150, the future University of Paris was a student-teacher corporation operating as an annex of the cathedral school of Paris . The earliest historical reference to it is found in Matthew Paris 's reference to the studies of his own teacher (an abbot of St Albans ) and his acceptance into "the fellowship of

4140-640: The "Island" and on the "Mount". "Whoever", says Crevier "had the right to teach might open a school where he pleased, provided it was not in the vicinity of a principal school." Thus a certain Adam , who was of English origin, kept his "near the Petit Pont "; another Adam, Parisian by birth, "taught at the Grand Pont which is called the Pont-au-Change " ( Hist. de l'Univers. de Paris, I, 272). The number of students in

4255-510: The 'consumer society ' ". Nonetheless, in the weeks that followed, approximately 401 popular action committees were set up in Paris and elsewhere to take up grievances against the government and French society, including the Sorbonne Occupation Committee . By the middle of May, demonstrations extended to factories, though workers' demands significantly varied from students'. A union-led general strike on 13 May included 200,000 in

4370-403: The 13th, including Collège d'Harcourt (1280) and the Collège de Sorbonne (1257). Thus the University of Paris assumed its basic form. It was composed of seven groups, the four nations of the faculty of arts, and the three superior faculties of theology, law, and medicine. Men who had studied at Paris became an increasing presence in the high ranks of the Church hierarchy; eventually, students at

4485-598: The 1962–63 academic year to 500,000 in 1967–68, but at the start of the decade, there were only 16 public universities in the entire country. To accommodate this rapid growth, the government hastily developed bare-bones off-site faculties as annexes of existing universities (roughly equivalent to American satellite campuses ). These faculties did not have university status of their own and lacked academic traditions and amenities to support student life or resident professors. One-third of all French university students ended up in these new faculties, and were ripe for radicalization as

4600-602: The Champs-Élysées waving the national flag ; the Gaullists had planned the rally for several days, which attracted a crowd of diverse ages, occupations, and politics. The Communists agreed to the election, and the threat of revolution was over. From that point, the revolutionary feeling of the students and workers faded away. Workers gradually returned to work or were ousted from their plants by police. The national student union called off street demonstrations. The government banned several leftist organizations. The police retook

4715-543: The Collège de Navarre; in 1677 it was awarded possession of the Collège des Lombards. A new Irish College was built in 1769 in rue du Cheval Vert (now rue des Irlandais), which exists today as the Irish Chaplaincy and Cultural centre. In the fifteenth century, Guillaume d'Estouteville , a cardinal and Apostolic legate , reformed the university, correcting its perceived abuses and introducing various modifications. This reform

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4830-618: The Communists' ability to form large street demonstrations, they had more than 20% of the country's support. On the morning of 29 May, de Gaulle postponed the meeting of the Council of Ministers scheduled for that day and secretly removed his personal papers from Élysée Palace . He told his son-in-law Alain de Boissieu : "I do not want to give them a chance to attack the Élysée. It would be regrettable if blood were shed in my personal defense. I have decided to leave: nobody attacks an empty palace." De Gaulle refused Pompidou's request that he dissolve

4945-538: The Compagnies Républicaines de Sécurité (CRS) harshly responded starting around 10 pm and continuing through the night, on the streets, in police vans, at police stations, and in hospitals where many wounded were taken. There was, as a result, much bloodshed among students and tourists there for the evening's festivities. No charges were filed against police or demonstrators, but the governments of Britain and West Germany filed formal protests, including for

5060-672: The Dominican Republic, Gabon, Guinea, Iraq, Jordan, Kosovo, Tunisia, and Niger among others. May 68 [REDACTED] Opposition: Students: Unions: [REDACTED] Government [REDACTED] Non-centralised leadership Some notable people participating: [REDACTED] François Mitterrand [REDACTED] Pierre Mendès France [REDACTED] Charles de Gaulle ( President of France ) [REDACTED] Georges Pompidou ( Prime Minister of France ) Incidents Beginning in May 1968,

5175-584: The Faculty of Science, into: Mathematics, Physical Sciences and Natural Sciences; the Faculty of Theology is abolished by the Republic. At this time, the building of the Sorbonne was fully renovated. The student revolts of the late 1960s were caused in part by the French government's failure to plan for a sudden explosion in the number of university students as a result of the postwar baby boom . The number of French university students skyrocketed from only 280,000 during

5290-622: The French Revolution, the university was closed and, by Item 27 of the Revolutionary Convention, the college endowments and buildings were sold. A new University of France replaced it in 1806 with four independent faculties: the Faculty of Humanities ( French : Faculté des Lettres ), the Faculty of Law (later including Economics), the Faculty of Science, the Faculty of Medicine and the Faculty of Theology (closed in 1885). In 1896,

5405-467: The French government to produce the Grenelle agreements , which would increase the minimum wage 35% and all salaries 10%, and granted employee protections and a shortened working day. The unions were forced to reject the agreement, based on opposition from their members, underscoring a disconnect in organizations that claimed to reflect working class interests. The UNEF student union and CFDT trade union held

5520-587: The June elections, the Gaullists emerged stronger than before. The events of May 1968 continue to influence French society. The period is considered a cultural, social and moral turning point in the nation's history. Alain Geismar , who was one of the student leaders at the time, later said the movement had succeeded "as a social revolution, not as a political one". In February 1968, the French Communist Party and

5635-487: The National Assembly and call a new election by threatening to resign. At 4:30 pm, de Gaulle broadcast his refusal to resign. He announced an election, scheduled for 23 June, and ordered workers to return to work, threatening to institute a state of emergency if they did not. The government had leaked to the media that the army was outside Paris. Immediately after the speech, about 800,000 supporters marched through

5750-409: The Republic three progressive degrees of instruction; the first for the knowledge indispensable to artisans and workmen of all kinds; the second for further knowledge necessary to those intending to embrace the other professions of society; and the third for those branches of instruction the study of which is not within the reach of all men". Measures were to be taken immediately: "For means of execution

5865-531: The Sorbonne on 16 June. Contrary to de Gaulle's fears, his party won the greatest victory in French parliamentary history in the legislative election held in June , taking 353 of 486 seats to the Communists' 34 and the Socialists' 57. The February Declaration and its promise to include Communists in government likely hurt the Socialists in the election. Their opponents cited the example of the Czechoslovak National Front government of 1945, which led to

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5980-409: The Sorbonne. However, the surge of strikes did not recede. Instead, the protesters became even more active. When the Sorbonne reopened, students occupied it and declared it an autonomous "people's university". Public opinion at first supported the students, but turned against them after their leaders, invited to appear on national television, "behaved like irresponsible utopianists who wanted to destroy

6095-433: The University of Paris saw it as a right that they would be eligible to benefices. Church officials such as St. Louis and Clement IV lavishly praised the university. Besides the famous Collège de Sorbonne, other collegia provided housing and meals to students, sometimes for those of the same geographical origin in a more restricted sense than that represented by the nations. There were 8 or 9 collegia for foreign students:

6210-467: The University of Paris. A few of the colleges of the time are still visible close to the Panthéon and Jardin du Luxembourg : Collège des Bernardins (18 rue de Poissy, 5th arr. ), Hôtel de Cluny (6 Place Paul Painlevé, 5th arr.), Collège Sainte-Barbe (4 rue Valette, 5th arr.), Collège d'Harcourt (44 Boulevard Saint-Michel, 6th arr. ), and Cordeliers (21 rue École de Médecine, 6th arr.). In 1793, during

6325-435: The aftermath shown on television the next day. It was alleged that the police had participated in the riots, through agents provocateurs , by burning cars and throwing Molotov cocktails . The government's heavy-handed reaction brought on a wave of sympathy for the strikers. Many of the nation's more mainstream singers and poets joined after the police brutality came to light. American artists also began voicing support of

6440-450: The applicant deserved it. The school of Saint-Victor, under the abbey, conferred the licence in its own right; the school of Notre-Dame depended on the diocese, that of Ste-Geneviève on the abbey or chapter. The diocese and the abbey or chapter, through their chancellor , gave professorial investiture in their respective territories where they had jurisdiction. Besides Notre-Dame, Ste-Geneviève, and Saint-Victor, there were several schools on

6555-545: The army (Jourdain, Hist. de l'Univers. de Paris au XVIIe et XVIIIe siècle , 132–34; Archiv. du ministère de l'instruction publique ). The ancient university disappeared with the ancien régime in the French Revolution . On 15 September 1793, petitioned by the Department of Paris and several departmental groups, the National Convention decided that independently of the primary schools, "there should be established in

6670-418: The assurance of military support, announced [general] elections [within] forty days. [...] Over the next two months, the strikes were broken (or broke up) while the election was won by the Gaullists with an increased majority. Following the disruption, de Gaulle appointed Edgar Faure as minister of education; Faure was assigned to prepare a legislative proposal for reform of the French university system, with

6785-509: The campus of the University of Paris in Nanterre ; indeed, according to James Marshall, these reforms were seen "as the manifestations of the technocratic-capitalist state by some, and by others as attempts to destroy the liberal university". After student activists protested against the Vietnam War , the campus was closed by authorities on 22 March and again on 2 May 1968. Agitation spread to

6900-658: The case of the Flagellants . Its patriotism was especially manifested on two occasions. During the captivity of King John, when Paris was given over to factions, the university sought to restore peace; and under Louis   XIV, when the Spaniards crossed the Somme and threatened the capital, it placed two hundred men at the king's disposal and offered the Master of Arts degree gratuitously to scholars who should present certificates of service in

7015-483: The corporation to operate under ecclesiastic law which would be governed by the elders of the Notre-Dame Cathedral school , and assured all those completing courses there that they would be granted a diploma. The university had four faculties : Arts , Medicine, Law, and Theology. The Faculty of Arts was the lowest in rank, but also the largest, as students had to graduate there in order to be admitted to one of

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7130-520: The department and the municipality of Paris are authorized to consult with the Committee of Public Instruction of the National Convention, in order that these establishments shall be put in action by 1 November next, and consequently colleges now in operation and the faculties of theology, medicine, arts, and law are suppressed throughout the Republic". This was the death-sentence of the university. It

7245-494: The disciplinary committee of the university. After months of conflicts between students and authorities at the Nanterre campus of the University of Paris (now Paris Nanterre University ), the administration shut the university down on 2 May 1968. Students at the University of Paris's Sorbonne campus (today Sorbonne University ) met on 3 May to protest the closure and the threatened expulsion of several Nanterre students. On 6 May,

7360-496: The elect Masters" there in about 1170, and it is known that Lotario dei Conti di Segni, the future Pope Innocent III , completed his studies there in 1182 at the age of 21. Its first college was the Collège des Dix-Huit , established in 1180 by an Englishman named Josse and endowed for 18 poor scholars. The corporation was formally recognised as an " Universitas " in an edict by King Philippe-Auguste in 1200: in it, among other accommodations granted to future students, he allowed

7475-572: The end of the twelfth century, the Decretals of Gerard La Pucelle , Mathieu d'Angers , and Anselm (or Anselle) of Paris , were added to the Decretum Gratiani. However, civil law was not included at Paris. In the twelfth century, medicine began to be publicly taught at Paris: the first professor of medicine in Paris records is Hugo, physicus excellens qui quadrivium docuit . Professors were required to have measurable knowledge and be appointed by

7590-514: The flow of events had changed. The Grenelle accords , concluded on 27 May between the government, trade unions and employers, won significant wage gains for workers. A counter-demonstration organised by the Gaullist party on 29 May in central Paris gave De Gaulle the confidence to dissolve the National Assembly and call parliamentary elections for 23 June 1968. Violence evaporated almost as quickly as it arose. Workers returned to their jobs, and after

7705-433: The four faculties were already formally established by 1254, when the university described in a letter "theology, jurisprudence, medicine, and rational, natural, and moral philosophy". The masters of theology often set the example for the other faculties—e.g., they were the first to adopt an official seal. The faculties of theology, canon law, and medicine, were called "superior faculties". The title of " Dean " as designating

7820-441: The government. A survey conducted immediately after the crisis found that 20% of Frenchmen would have supported a revolution, 23% would have opposed it, and 57% would have avoided physical participation in the conflict. 33% would have fought a military intervention, while only 5% would have supported it and a majority of the country would have avoided any action. At 2:30 p.m. on 30 May, Pompidou persuaded de Gaulle to dissolve

7935-586: The greatest Pharaoh in history The tale of Queen Ahhotep and her crusade to liberate her nation from the Hyksos oppressors In the Age of Ramses, Egypt's power is unchallenged. However, a dark conspiracy seeks to strike at the Pharaoh ... only an idealistic judge and a young doctor stand between Egypt and oblivion. University of Paris The University of Paris (French: Université de Paris ), known metonymically as

8050-455: The head of a faculty, came into use by 1268 in the faculties of law and medicine, and by 1296 in the faculty of theology. It seems that at first the deans were the oldest masters. The faculty of arts continued to have four procurators of its four nations and its head was the rector. As the faculties became more fully organized, the division into four nations partially disappeared for theology, law and medicine, though it continued in arts. Eventually

8165-403: The help of academics. Their proposal was adopted on 12 November 1968; in accordance with the new law, the faculties of the University of Paris were to reorganize themselves. This led to the division of the University of Paris into 13 universities. In 2017, Paris 4 and Paris 6 universities merged to form the Sorbonne University . In 2019, Paris 5 and Paris 7 universities merged to form

8280-549: The higher faculties. The students were divided into four nationes according to language or regional origin: France, Normandy, Picardy, and England. The last came to be known as the Alemannian (German) nation. Recruitment to each nation was wider than the names might imply: the English–German nation included students from Scandinavia and Eastern Europe. The faculty and nation system of the University of Paris (along with that of

8395-445: The indecent assault of two English schoolgirls by police in a police station. Despite the size of de Gaulle's triumph, it was not a personal one. A post-crisis survey conducted by Mattei Dogan showed that a majority of the country saw de Gaulle as "'too sure of himself' (70%), 'too old to govern' (59%), 'too authoritarian' (64%), 'too concerned with his personal prestige' (69%), 'too conservative' (63%), and 'too anti-American' (69%)"; as

8510-531: The injury. Besides its teaching, the University of Paris played an important part in several disputes: in the Church, during the Great Schism ; in the councils, in dealing with heresies and divisions; in the State, during national crises. Under the domination of England it played a role in the trial of Joan of Arc . Proud of its rights and privileges, the University of Paris fought energetically to maintain them, hence

8625-610: The links between the crowns of France and Navarre, it quickly accepted students from other nations. The establishment of the College of Navarre was a turning point in the university's history: Navarra was the first college to offer teaching to its students, which at the time set it apart from all previous colleges, founded as charitable institutions that provided lodging, but no tuition. Navarre's model combining lodging and tuition would be reproduced by other colleges, both in Paris and other universities . The German College, Collegium alemanicum

8740-478: The long struggle against the mendicant orders on academic as well as on religious grounds. Hence also the shorter conflict against the Jesuits , who claimed by word and action a share in its teaching. It made extensive use of its right to decide administratively according to occasion and necessity. In some instances it openly endorsed the censures of the faculty of theology and pronounced condemnation in its own name, as in

8855-469: The marchers approached. While the crowd dispersed, some began to create barricades out of whatever was at hand, while others threw paving stones, forcing the police to retreat for a time. The police then responded with tear gas and charged the crowd again. Hundreds more students were arrested. High school student unions spoke in support of the riots on 6 May. The next day, they joined the students, teachers and increasing numbers of young workers who gathered at

8970-625: The military's support, de Gaulle rescheduled the meeting of the Council of Ministers for the next day, 30 May, and returned to Colombey by 6:00 pm. However, his wife Yvonne gave the family jewels to their son and daughter-in-law —who stayed in Baden for a few more days—for safekeeping, indicating that the de Gaulles still considered Germany a possible refuge. Massu kept as a state secret de Gaulle's loss of confidence until others disclosed it in 1982; until then most observers believed that his disappearance

9085-433: The name University . Henry Denifle and some others hold that this honour is exclusive to the school of Notre-Dame (Chartularium Universitatis Parisiensis), but the reasons do not seem convincing. He excludes Saint-Victor because, at the request of the abbot and the religious of Saint-Victor, Gregory IX in 1237 authorized them to resume the interrupted teaching of theology. But the university was largely founded about 1208, as

9200-531: The national government briefly ceased to function after President Charles de Gaulle secretly fled France to West Germany on the 29th. The protests are sometimes linked to similar movements around the same time worldwide that inspired a generation of protest art in the form of songs, imaginative graffiti, posters, and slogans. The unrest began with a series of far-left student occupation protests against capitalism , consumerism , American imperialism and traditional institutions. Heavy police repression of

9315-538: The national student union, the Union Nationale des Étudiants de France (UNEF, the National Union of Students of France)—still France's largest student union today—and the union of university teachers called a march to protest the police invasion of the Sorbonne. More than 20,000 students, teachers and supporters marched toward the Sorbonne, still sealed off by the police, who charged, wielding their batons, as soon as

9430-625: The new Paris Cité University , leaving the number of successor universities at 11. The successor universities to the University of Paris are now split over of the Île-de-France region. Most of these successor universities have joined several groups of universities and higher education institutions in the Paris region, created in the 2010s. The Sorbonne has educated 11 French presidents , almost 50 French heads of government, three Popes ( Innocent III , Celestine II , and Adrian IV ), and many other political and social figures. The Sorbonne has also educated leaders of Albania, Canada,

9545-812: The oldest one was the Danish college, the Collegium danicum or dacicum , founded in 1257. Swedish students could, during the 13th and 14th centuries, live in one of three Swedish colleges, the Collegium Upsaliense , the Collegium Scarense or the Collegium Lincopense , named after the Swedish dioceses of Uppsala , Skara and Linköping . The Collège de Navarre was founded in 1305, originally aimed at students from Navarre , but due to its size, wealth, and

9660-410: The owners nor the dangers of the world. Thus were founded the colleges (colligere, to assemble); meaning not centers of instruction, but simple student boarding-houses. Each had a special goal, being established for students of the same nationality or the same science. Often, masters lived in each college and oversaw its activities. Four colleges appeared in the 12th century; they became more numerous in

9775-498: The presidential helicopter did not arrive in Colombey, and de Gaulle had told no one in the government where he was going. For more than six hours the world did not know where he was. The canceling of the ministerial meeting and de Gaulle's mysterious disappearance stunned the French, including Pompidou, who shouted, "He has fled the country!" With de Gaulle's closest advisors saying they did not know what he intended, Pompidou scheduled

9890-400: The protesters led France's trade union confederations to call for sympathy strikes , which spread far more quickly than expected to involve 11 million workers, more than 22% of France's population at the time. The movement was characterized by spontaneous and decentralized wildcat disposition; this created contrast and at times even conflict among the trade unions and leftist parties. It

10005-616: The queen led to suspension of the courses. The pope intervened with a bull that began with lavish praise of the university: "Paris", said Gregory IX , "mother of the sciences, is another Cariath-Sepher, city of letters". He commissioned the Bishops of Le Mans and Senlis and the Archdeacon of Châlons to negotiate with the French Court for the restoration of the university, but by the end of 1230 they had accomplished nothing. Gregory IX then addressed

10120-543: The revolutionaries, led by informal action committees, attacked and burned the Paris Stock Exchange in response. The Gaullist government then held talks with union leaders, who agreed to a package of wage-rises and increases in union rights. The strikers, however, simply refused the plan. With the French state tottering, de Gaulle fled France on May 29 for a French military base in Germany. He later returned and, with

10235-464: The school at 13 or 14 years of age and staying for six to 12 years. Three schools were especially famous in Paris: the palatine or palace school , the school of Notre-Dame , and that of Sainte-Geneviève Abbey . The latter two, although ancient, were initially eclipsed by the palatine school, until the decline of royalty brought about its decline. The first renowned professor at the school of Ste-Geneviève

10350-596: The school of the capital grew constantly, so that lodgings were insufficient. French students included princes of the blood , sons of the nobility, and ranking gentry. The courses at Paris were considered so necessary as a completion of studies that many foreigners flocked to them. Popes Celestine II , Adrian IV and Innocent III studied at Paris, and Alexander III sent his nephews there. Noted German and English students included Otto of Freisingen , Cardinal Conrad, Archbishop of Mainz , St. Thomas of Canterbury , and John of Salisbury ; while Ste-Geneviève became practically

10465-582: The second half of the twelfth century. They were mentioned in the Bull of Honorius III in 1222. Later, they formed a distinct body. By 1249, the four nations existed with their procurators, their rights (more or less well-defined), and their keen rivalries: the nations were the French, English, Normans, and Picards. After the Hundred Years' War, the English nation was replaced by the Germanic. The four nations constituted

10580-435: The seminary for Denmark . The chroniclers of the time called Paris the city of letters par excellence, placing it above Athens , Alexandria , Rome, and other cities: "At that time, there flourished at Paris philosophy and all branches of learning, and there the seven arts were studied and held in such esteem as they never were at Athens, Egypt, Rome, or elsewhere in the world." ("Les gestes de Philippe-Auguste"). Poets extolled

10695-524: The strikers. The major left union federations, the Confédération Générale du Travail (CGT) and the Force Ouvrière (CGT-FO), called a one-day general strike and demonstration for Monday, 13 May. Well over a million people marched through Paris that day; the police stayed largely out of sight. Prime Minister Georges Pompidou personally announced the release of the prisoners and the reopening of

10810-401: The students demanded lower. This tension between scholars and citizens would have developed into a sort of civil war if Robert de Courçon had not found the remedy of taxation. It was upheld in the Bull of Gregory IX of 1231, but with an important modification: its exercise was to be shared with the citizens. The aim was to offer the students a shelter where they would fear neither annoyance from

10925-556: The students. On 10 May, another huge crowd congregated on the Rive Gauche . When the Compagnies Républicaines de Sécurité again blocked them from crossing the river, the crowd again threw up barricades, which the police then attacked at 2:15 a.m. after negotiations once again floundered. The confrontation, which produced hundreds of arrests and injuries, lasted until dawn. The events were broadcast on radio as they occurred and

11040-539: The subject of Egyptology. Jacq has a doctorate in Egyptian Studies from the Sorbonne . He and his wife later founded the Ramses Institute , which is dedicated to creating a photographic description of Egypt for the preservation of endangered archaeological sites. Between 1995 and 1997, he published his best-selling five book suite Ramsès , which is today published in over twenty-five countries. The story of

11155-500: The superior faculties included only doctors, leaving the bachelors to the faculty of arts. At this period, therefore, the university had two principal degrees , the baccalaureate and the doctorate. It was not until much later that the licentiate and the DEA became intermediate degrees. The scattered condition of the scholars in Paris often made lodging difficult. Some students rented rooms from townspeople, who often exacted high rates while

11270-528: The university in their verses, comparing it to all that was greatest, noblest, and most valuable in the world. To allow poor students to study the first college des dix-Huit was founded by a knight returning from Jerusalem called Josse of London for 18 scholars who received lodgings and 12 pence or denarii a month. As the university developed, it became more institutionalized. First, the professors formed an association, for according to Matthew Paris , John of Celles , twenty-first Abbot of St Albans , England,

11385-402: The university organization. In 1200, King Philip II issued a diploma "for the security of the scholars of Paris," which affirmed that students were subject only to ecclesiastical jurisdiction. The provost and other officers were forbidden to arrest a student for any offence, unless to transfer him to ecclesiastical authority. The king's officers could not intervene with any member unless having

11500-403: The university. Applicants had to be assessed by examination ; if successful, the examiner, who was the head of the school, and known as scholasticus , capiscol , and chancellor, appointed an individual to teach. This was called the licence or faculty to teach. The licence had to be granted freely. No one could teach without it; on the other hand, the examiner could not refuse to award it when

11615-499: The workers occupying their factories refused to return to work and jeered their union leaders. On 24 May, two people died at the hands of out-of-control rioters. In Lyon, Police Inspector Rene Lacroix died when he was crushed by a driverless truck rioters sent careering into police lines. In Paris, Phillipe Metherion, 26, was stabbed to death during an argument among demonstrators. As the upheaval reached its apogee in late May, major trade unions met with employers' organizations and

11730-436: The Élysée with orders to shoot if necessary. That it did not also guard Paris City Hall despite reports that it was the Communists' target was evidence of governmental chaos. The Communist movement largely centered around the Paris metropolitan area , and not elsewhere. Had the rebellion occupied key public buildings in Paris, the government would have had to use force to retake them. The resulting casualties could have incited

11845-685: Was Hubold , who lived in the tenth century. Not content with the courses at Liège , he continued his studies at Paris, entered or allied himself with the chapter of Ste-Geneviève, and attracted many pupils via his teaching. Distinguished professors from the school of Notre-Dame in the eleventh century include Lambert, disciple of Fulbert of Chartres ; Drogo of Paris ; Manegold of Germany ; and Anselm of Laon . These two schools attracted scholars from every country and produced many illustrious men, among whom were: St. Stanislaus of Szczepanów , Bishop of Kraków; Gebbard, Archbishop of Salzburg ; St. Stephen, third Abbot of Cîteaux ; Robert d'Arbrissel , founder of

11960-460: Was admitted as a member of the teaching corps of Paris after he had followed the courses ( Vita Joannis I, XXI, abbat. S. Alban ). The masters, as well as the students, were divided according to national origin,. Alban wrote that Henry II, King of England , in his difficulties with St. Thomas of Canterbury, wanted to submit his cause to a tribunal composed of professors of Paris, chosen from various provinces (Hist. major, Henry II, to end of 1169). This

12075-404: Was as important as reading. The licence was granted, according to custom, gratuitously, without oath or condition. Masters and students were permitted to unite, even by oath, in defence of their rights, when they could not otherwise obtain justice in serious matters. No mention is made either of law or of medicine, probably because these sciences were less prominent. In 1229, a denial of justice by

12190-657: Was founded by the Archbishop of Rouen in the 14th century, and reformed in the 15th century by the humanist Jan Standonck , when it attracted reformers from within the Roman Catholic Church (such as Erasmus and Ignatius of Loyola ) and those who subsequently became Protestants ( John Calvin and John Knox ). At this time, the university also went the controversy of the condemnations of 1210–1277 . The Irish College in Paris originated in 1578 with students dispersed between Collège Montaigu, Collège de Boncourt, and

12305-421: Was intended to remind the French people of what they might lose. Although the disappearance was real and not intended as motivation, it indeed had such an effect on France. On 30 May, 400,000 to 500,000 protesters (many more than the 50,000 the police were expecting) led by the CGT marched through Paris, chanting: " Adieu, de Gaulle! " ("Farewell, de Gaulle!"). Maurice Grimaud , head of the Paris police , played

12420-446: Was less an innovation than a recall to observance of the old rules, as was the reform of 1600, undertaken by the royal government with regard to the three higher faculties. Nonetheless, and as to the faculty of arts, the reform of 1600 introduced the study of Greek, of French poets and orators, and of additional classical figures like Hesiod , Plato , Demosthenes , Cicero , Virgil , and Sallust . The prohibition from teaching civil law

12535-501: Was likely the start of the division according to "nations," which was later to play an important part in the university. Celestine III ruled that both professors and students had the privilege of being subject only to the ecclesiastical courts, not to civil courts. The three schools: Notre-Dame, Sainte-Geneviève, and Saint-Victor, may be regarded as the triple cradle of the Universitas scholarium , which included masters and students; hence

12650-421: Was never well observed at Paris, but in 1679 Louis XIV officially authorized the teaching of civil law in the faculty of decretals . The "faculty of law" hence replaced the "faculty of decretals". The colleges meantime had multiplied; those of Cardinal Le-Moine and Navarre were founded in the fourteenth century. The Hundred Years' War was fatal to these establishments, but the university set about remedying

12765-550: Was nicknamed after its theological College of Sorbonne , founded by Robert de Sorbon and chartered by King Louis IX around 1257. Highly reputed internationally for its academic performance in the humanities ever since the Middle Ages – particularly in theology and philosophy – it introduced academic standards and traditions that have endured and spread, such as doctoral degrees and student nations . Notable popes , royalty , scientists, and intellectuals were educated at

12880-514: Was not to be restored after the Revolution had subsided, no more than those of the provinces. The university was re-established by Napoleon on 1 May 1806. All the faculties were replaced by a single centre, the University of France . The decree of 17 March 1808 created five distinct faculties: Law, Medicine, Letters/Humanities, Sciences, and Theology; traditionally, Letters and Sciences had been grouped together into one faculty, that of "Arts". After

12995-622: Was the Scriptures and the Patristic Fathers. It was completed by the study of Canon law . The School of Saint-Victor arose to rival those of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève. It was founded by William of Champeaux when he withdrew to the Abbey of Saint-Victor. Its most famous professors are Hugh of St. Victor and Richard of St. Victor . The plan of studies expanded in the schools of Paris, as it did elsewhere. A Bolognese compendium of canon law called

13110-482: Was the largest general strike ever attempted in France, and the first nationwide wildcat general strike. The student occupations and general strikes across France met with forceful confrontation by university administrators and police. The de Gaulle administration's attempts to quell the strikes by police action only inflamed the situation, leading to street battles with the police in Paris's Latin Quarter . By late May

13225-537: Was unavailable, and some people tried to obtain private planes or fake national identity cards . Pompidou unsuccessfully requested that military radar be used to follow de Gaulle's two helicopters, but soon learned that he had gone to the headquarters of the French Forces in Germany , in Baden-Baden , to meet General Jacques Massu . Massu persuaded the discouraged de Gaulle to return to France; now knowing that he had

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