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120-577: In practice, members coalesced around shared theological concepts such as an Arminian theological anthropology (doctrine of human nature), a rejection of the Calvinist doctrine of election , and an autonomous church government. The Connection's periodical, the Herald of Gospel Liberty (first published on September 1, 1808), was among the first religious journals published in the United States. James O'Kelly

240-594: A traditionalist form of Arminianism which includes a belief in eternal security , though many see Calvinism as growing in acceptance. Certain proponents of Arminianism may be found within the Restoration movement in the Christian Churches and Churches of Christ . Additionally, it is found in the Seventh-day Adventist Church . Arminianism (specifically Wesleyan–Arminian theology ) is taught in

360-635: A Baptist preacher who wrote several books promoting the universal salvation of all souls after a period in Purgatory , who founded the first Universalist church in Philadelphia, and founded a church that ministered to enslaved African Americans in South Carolina; Hosea Ballou , a Universalist preacher and writer in New England; and Hannah Whitall Smith , a writer and evangelist from a Quaker background who

480-449: A beginning and an end, and complete in itself. Aristotle (peri ouranou, i. 9,15) says: "The period which includes the whole time of one's life is called the aeon of each one." Hence it often means the life of a man, as in Homer , where one's life ( aion ) is said to leave him or to consume away (Iliad v. 685; Odyssey v. 160). It is not, however, limited to human life; it signifies any period in

600-562: A believer to fall, especially sin motivated by malice. In 1605 Arminius wrote: “But it is possible for a believer to fall into a mortal sin, as is seen in David. Therefore, he can fall at that moment in which if he were to die, he would be condemned". Scholars observe that Arminius clearly identifies two paths to apostasy 1. "rejection", or 2. "malicious sinning". He suggested that, strictly speaking, believers could not directly lose their faith but could cease to believe and thus fall away. After

720-517: A closely related variation shaped primarily by John Wesley. Classical Arminianism is a protestant theological view, that asserts God's prevenient grace for regeneration is universal and that the grace allowing regeneration and ongoing sanctification is resistible. This theological system was presented by Jacobus Arminius and maintained by some of the Remonstrants, such as Simon Episcopius and Hugo Grotius . Arminian theology incorporates

840-617: A form of Universalism and his subsequent excommunication by the Joint College of African-American Pentecostal Bishops in 2004 caused Christian Universalism to gain increased media attention because of Pearson's popularity and celebrity status. Since 2007, the Christian Universalist Association has ordained more than 30 ministers in the United States and other countries who believe in Christian universalism. A proponent of

960-458: A given point of time in Jude 6. Aionios means enduring through or pertaining to a period of time. Both the noun and the adjective are applied to limited periods. Words which are habitually applied to things temporal or material cannot carry in themselves the sense of endlessness. Even when applied to God, we are not forced to render aionios everlasting. Of course the life of God is endless; but

1080-521: A key paradigm for understanding the theological and historical legacy of Arminianism. Before Augustine (354–430), the synergistic view of salvation was almost universally endorsed. Pelagius (c. 354–418), however, argued that humans could perfectly obey God by their own will. The Pelagian view is therefore referred to as "humanistic monergism ". This view was condemned at the Council of Carthage (418) and Ephesus (431). In response, Augustine proposed

1200-501: A lack of voluntary sin . This state involves embodying the love of God and neighbor. It does not mean freedom from all mistakes or temptations, as perfected Christians still need to seek forgiveness and strive for holiness . Ultimately, perfection in this context is about love, not absolute perfection. Wesley believed that genuine Christians could apostatize . He emphasized that sin alone does not lead to this loss; instead, prolonged unconfessed sin and deliberate apostasy can result in

1320-476: A large part of their beliefs from Evangelicalism and Reformed theology . Many of them come from an Evangelical Christian background, but they may or may not identify with this movement and seek to remain with it. Some Evangelical Universalists avoid using the word "Universalism" to describe their beliefs, perhaps because of the negative connotations of this word among conservative Christians. Alternative terms that are in use among Evangelical Universalists include

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1440-542: A level of openness to Arminian theology. Anabaptist denominations, such as the Mennonites , Hutterites , Amish and Schwarzenau Brethren , adhere to Anabaptist theology , which espouses a soteriology that is similar to Arminianism "in some respects". Arminianism is found within the General Baptists , including the subset of General Baptists known as Free Will Baptists . The majority of Southern Baptists embrace

1560-648: A more stable form of inter-congregational relationship. Both, at differing times, were editors of the Christian Palladium , a New York State-based religious newspaper that vied with the Herald of Gospel Liberty as the movement's leading periodical. Many of the movement's publications were produced by the Christian Publishing Association , based in Dayton, Ohio . A disproportionate number of Christian Connection preachers in New England were involved in

1680-572: A movement espousing views similar to those of O’Kelly. They believed that members could, by looking to scripture alone, simply be Christians without being bound to human traditions and the denominations that had been brought over from Europe. Working independently at first, Jones and Smith joined together in their efforts and began exclusively using the name Christian . In 1801, the Cane Ridge Revival led by Barton W. Stone in Kentucky would plant

1800-483: A permanent fall from grace. However, he believed that such apostasy was not irremediable. The majority Arminian view is that election is individual and based on God's foreknowledge of faith. In the corporate election view, God chose the believing church collectively for salvation, rather than selecting individuals. Jesus is seen as the only person elected, and individuals join the elect through faith "in Christ". This view

1920-466: A resolution calling for the establishment of Antioch College . The college opened in 1852. Notable for its time, the Christian Connection decided that the college "shall afford equal privileges to students of both sexes." The Christian Connection sect wanted the new college to be sectarian, but the planning committee decided otherwise. Antioch College was one of the nation's first colleges to offer

2040-466: A unique flavor to the movement, placing them distinctly on the fringe of early nineteenth-century North American spirituality. Elias Smith had heard of the Stone movement by 1804, and the O'Kelly movement by 1808. Although not formally merged, the three groups were cooperating and fellowshiping by 1810. At that time the combined movement had a membership of approximately 20,000. This loose fellowship of churches

2160-510: A view in which God is the ultimate cause of all human actions, a stance that aligns with soft determinism . The Augustinian view is therefore referred to as "divine monergism". However, Augustinian soteriology implied double predestination , which was condemned by the Council of Arles (475). During this period, a moderate form of Pelagianism emerged, later termed Semi-Pelagianism . This view asserted that human will initiates salvation, rather than divine grace . The Semi-Pelagian view

2280-428: A way to reconcile these seeming differences. There are three general types of Christian Universalism today – Evangelical Universalism, Charismatic Universalism, and Liberal Christian Universalism – which by themselves or in combination with one another describe the vast majority of currently existing and identifiable versions of Christian Universalist belief and practice. The type of Christian Universalism that departs

2400-412: Is omnipresent , omnipotent , and omniscient . In that view, God's power, knowledge, and presence have no external limitations, that is, outside of his divine nature and character. Besides, Arminianism view on God's sovereignty is based on postulates stemming from God's character. On the first hand, divine election must be defined in such a way that God is not in any case, and even in a secondary way,

2520-728: Is God who unconditionally elects some for salvation . Instead Arminius proposed that the election of God was of believers , thereby making it conditional on faith . Arminius's views were challenged by the Dutch Calvinists, especially Franciscus Gomarus . In his Declaration of Sentiments (1608) Arminius presented his theology to magistrates of the States General of the Netherlands in The Hague. After his death, Arminius's followers continued to advance his theological vision, crafting

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2640-474: Is Love and Power and Truth and Light; that perfect justice rules the world; that all His sons shall one day reach His feet, however far they stray." Prior to his death in November 2023, former Pentecostal Bishop Carlton Pearson promoted his "Gospel of Inclusion" with his teachings and beliefs being a hybrid between Charismatic and Liberal Christian Universalism. A minister in the liberal Christian denomination of

2760-472: Is a merger of classical Arminianism and Wesleyan perfectionism . Wesley’s view of atonement is either understood as a hybrid of penal substitution and the governmental theory, or it is viewed solely as penal substitution. Historically, Wesleyan Arminians adopted either the penal or governmental theory of atonement. In Wesleyan theology, justification is understood as the forgiveness of sins rather than being made inherently righteous. Righteousness

2880-465: Is a school of Christian theology focused around the doctrine of universal reconciliation – the view that all human beings will ultimately be saved and restored to a right relationship with God . "Christian universalism" and "the belief or hope in the universal reconciliation through Christ" can be understood as synonyms. Opponents of this school hold that eternal damnation is the ultimate fate of some or most people. The term Christian universalism

3000-525: Is achieved through sanctification , which involves the pursuit of holiness in one's life. Wesley taught that imputed righteousness , which refers to the righteousness credited to a believer through faith, must transform into imparted righteousness , where this righteousness becomes evident in the believer’s life. Wesley taught that through the Holy Spirit , Christians can achieve a state of practical perfection, or " entire sanctification ", characterized by

3120-428: Is conditional : Arminius defined election as "the decree of God by which, of Himself, from eternity, He decreed to justify in Christ, believers, and to accept them unto eternal life." God alone determines who will be saved and his determination is that all who believe Jesus through faith will be justified. According to Arminius, "God regards no one in Christ unless they are engrafted in him by faith." God predestines

3240-406: Is incapable of choosing the spiritual good. Humans are therefore in a state of total depravity , possessing a corrupted spiritual nature inherited from original sin . Like Augustine , Luther , and Calvin , Arminius agreed that human free will is spiritually captive and enslaved. However, through the action of prevenient grace , human free will can be "freed", meaning it can be restored with

3360-580: Is known to have influenced both the Mennonites and certain theologians within Arminius’s circle. Early critics of Arminians even cited Castellio as a primary inspiration behind the Arminian movement. Jacobus Arminius (1560-1609) was a Dutch pastor and theologian. He was taught by Theodore Beza , Calvin's hand-picked successor, but after examination of the scriptures, he rejected his teacher's theology that it

3480-413: Is marked by its emphasis on theosis; the idea that the return of Christ is a body of perfected human beings who are the "Manifested Sons of God" instead of a literal return of the person of Jesus; the idea that these Sons will reign on the earth and transform all other human beings from sin to perfection during an age that is coming soon (a version of millennialism ); and the absolute sovereignty of God,

3600-409: Is seen by some as a return to early church theological consensus. Moreover, Arminianism can also be seen as a soteriological diversification of Calvinism or more specifically, as a theological middle ground between Calvinism and semi-Pelagianism. Arminian theology generally divides into two main variations: Classical Arminianism, based on the teachings of Jacobus Arminius, and Wesleyan Arminianism,

3720-556: Is supported by Old Testament and Jewish concepts, where identity is rooted more in group membership than individuality. Pelagianism is a doctrine denying original sin and total depravity . No system of Arminianism founded on Arminius or Wesley denies original sin or total depravity; both Arminius and Wesley strongly affirmed that man's basic condition is one in which he cannot be righteous, understand God, or seek God. Arminius referred to Pelagianism as "the grand falsehood" and stated that he "must confess that I detest, from my heart,

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3840-547: Is therefore described as "human-initiated synergism". In 529, the Second Council of Orange addressed Semi-Pelagianism and declared that even the inception of faith is a result of God’s grace. This highlights the role of prevenient grace enabling human belief. This view, often referred to as "Semi-Augustinian," is therefore described as "God-initiated synergism". The Council also rejected predestination to evil . As Arminianism aligns with key aspects of this view, it

3960-540: The Five articles of Remonstrance (1610), in which they express their points of divergence from the stricter Calvinism of the Belgic Confession . This is how Arminius's followers were called Remonstrants , and following a Counter Remonstrance in 1611, Gomarus' followers were called Counter-Remonstrants. After some political maneuvering, the Dutch Calvinists were able to convince Prince Maurice of Nassau to deal with

4080-516: The Charismatic tradition was the Home Missions Church, a loosely organized network of ministers and house churches founded in 1944. In 2007, the Christian Universalist Association was founded by thirteen ministers from diverse denominational backgrounds as an ecumenical organization promoting a revival of Christian universalism. Yale Professor of Philosophy Keith DeRose points out that in

4200-620: The Christian Churches in Kentucky and Tennessee led by Stone united with the churches led by Alexander Campbell . A minority continued to operate within the orbit of the Connection. Of the majority of churches that aligned with the Stone-Campbell movement, many continued to use the name Christian Church, even though they no longer considered themselves part of the Christian Connection. The confusion over names which this created continues. Much of

4320-463: The Five points of Calvinism . Arminians across Holland were removed from office, imprisoned, banished, and sworn to silence. Twelve years later, Holland officially granted Arminianism protection as a religion, although animosity between Arminians and Calvinists continued. Most of the early Remonstrants followed a classical version of Arminianism. However, some of them such as Philipp van Limborch , moved in

4440-1358: The Methodist churches, inclusive of those denominations aligned with the holiness movement such as the Evangelical Methodist Church , Church of the Nazarene , the Free Methodist Church , the Wesleyan Church , and the Salvation Army . It is also found in a part of the Charismatics , including the Pentecostals . Arminian theology has found support among theologians, Bible scholars, and apologists spanning various historical periods and theological circles. Noteworthy historical figures include Jacobus Arminius , Simon Episcopius , Hugo Grotius , John Goodwin , Thomas Grantham , John Wesley , Richard Watson , Thomas Osmond Summers , John Miley , William Burt Pope and Henry Orton Wiley . In contemporary Baptist traditions, advocates of Arminian theology include Roger E. Olson , F. Leroy Forlines, Robert Picirilli and J. Matthew Pinson. Within

4560-465: The New Age and New Thought movements, some people in the emerging church movement, some Unitarian Universalists who continue to follow Jesus as their primary spiritual teacher, and some Christians from other religious backgrounds. Liberal Christian Universalism emphasizes the all-inclusive love of God and tends to be more open to finding truth and value in non-Christian spiritual traditions compared to

4680-653: The Primitive Baptist Universalists . They are often known as "No Hellers" and believe that temporal punishment and separation from God during life is the only hell. The Universalist Church of America gradually declined in the early to mid 20th century and merged with the American Unitarian Association in 1961, creating the modern-day Unitarian Universalist Association , which does not officially subscribe to exclusively Christian theology. Christian Universalism largely passed into obscurity for

4800-548: The Reformation , groups like the Waldensians similarly affirmed individual freedom over any predetermined predestination . Anabaptist theologian Balthasar Hubmaier (1480–1528) also promoted much the same view as Arminius nearly a century before him. The soteriological doctrines of Arminianism and Anabaptism are roughly equivalent. In particular, Mennonites have been historically Arminian whether they distinctly espoused

4920-627: The United Church of Christ , Pearson continued to believe in ideas and practices of Pentecostal or Charismatic forms of Christianity. Pearson incorporated New Age and New Thought teachings into his message. Pearson was declared a heretic by his Christian Pentecostal and Charismatic peers in 2004. Brian McLaren is a Christian leader in the emerging church movement who is sympathetic to the idea of Universalism but does not embrace it. A number of ministers and evangelists connected with Restoration Nation conferences are Universalists who draw from both

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5040-656: The preexistence and reincarnation of the soul, and New Thought ideas such as the law of attraction . The Unitarian Universalist Christian Fellowship is an organization for Liberal Christian Universalists, especially those who belong to the Unitarian Universalist Association . The Unity Church is a liberal Christian denomination which teaches some Universalist beliefs. The Liberal Catholic Church believes in Universal Salvation. Within its articles of faith it declares: "We believe that God

5160-588: The substitutionary atonement of Jesus Christ for the sins of all humanity as the basis for their Universalism. In 2006 a mainstream evangelical writer, revealed as Robin Parry in 2009, under the pseudonym of "Gregory MacDonald" (taken from the names, Gregory of Nyssa and George MacDonald ) released a book, The Evangelical Universalist . In 2008 this inspired the creation of a forum, featuring "Gregory MacDonald" and Thomas Talbott , to discuss Evangelical Universalism and related topics. Evangelical Universalists derive

5280-453: The wicked are thrown by God at judgment day . Preservation is conditional : All believers have full assurance of salvation with the condition that they remain in Christ. Salvation is conditioned on faith, therefore perseverance is also conditioned. Arminius believed the Scriptures taught that believers are graciously empowered by Christ and the Holy Spirit "to fight against Satan, sin,

5400-445: The "Larger Hope" or "Blessed Hope" and the "Victorious Gospel". Some Christians with a background in the Charismatic movement or Pentecostalism have developed a version of Universalism which could be called Charismatic (Christian) Universalism. Charismatic Universalists usually do not call their theology "Universalism" but commonly refer to their specific beliefs by the terms "Reconciliation" (shorthand for universal reconciliation,

5520-529: The 17th century such as William Laud fought Calvinist Puritans. They actually saw Arminianism in terms of a state church , an idea that was alien to the views of Arminius. This position became particularly evident under the reign (1625–1649) of Charles I of England . Following the English Civil War (1642–1651) Charles II of England , who tolerated the Presbyterians , re-instituted Arminian thought in

5640-536: The 1830s, during the Second Great Awakening , traces of Pelagian influence surfaced in the American Holiness Movement . Consequently, critics of Wesleyan theology have occasionally unfairly perceived or labeled its broader thought. However, its core is recognized to be Arminianism. Pentecostalism has its background in the activity of Charles Parham (1873–1929). Its origin as a movement

5760-522: The 1940s and 1950s came to believe in the ideas of Christian Universalism on their own, separately from the Universalist Church tradition. They emphasized the teachings of universal reconciliation and theosis . These ideas were spread primarily through newsletters and traveling evangelists from the 1950s to 1980s, and were not typically identified by the term "Universalism". The only significant organization representing these beliefs that emerged within

5880-634: The Arminian viewpoint or not, and rejected Calvinist soteriology . Anabaptist theology seems to have influenced Jacobus Arminius. At least, he was "sympathetic to the Anabaptist point of view, and Anabaptists were commonly in attendance on his preaching." Similarly, Arminius mentions Danish Lutheran theologian Niels Hemmingsen (1513–1600) as holding the basic view of soteriology he held and he may have been influenced by Hemmingsen. Another key figure, Sebastian Castellio (1515–1563), who opposed Calvin's views on predestination and religious intolerance ,

6000-534: The Bible's truths by reason, if they approached it without presuppositions. These truths, in turn, would displace human forms of order, leading to the inevitable result that Christians would start “flowing together” and others would come to faith because of the model of unity. The Connection soon became international, with churches planted in New Brunswick , Nova Scotia , Quebec (1811) and Ontario (1821). In each case,

6120-524: The Christian Scriptures there are verses which point to universal reconciliation and verses which point to destruction or eternal punishment for some. If looking only to scripture, he argues that Universalism is not only based in scripture, but has a stronger scriptural backing than the position of destruction or eternal damnation. Like early Christians, he points to Purgatorial Hell, a temporary place of cleansing of sin that will be necessary for some as

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6240-538: The Church of England. It was dominant there after the Restoration (1660) for some fifty years. The Baptist movement emerged in 17th-century in England. The first Baptists—called " General Baptists " because of their confession of a "general" or unlimited atonement—were Arminians. The Baptist movement originated with Thomas Helwys , who left his mentor John Smyth (who had moved into shared belief and other distinctives of

6360-643: The Connection and the Disciples of Christ also disrupted the former's Canadian growth. Smith proved to be a controversial figure in the Christian Connection, leaving the denomination for several years to become a Universalist . He publicly renounced Universalism in 1823, but was not well received and reverted to it for a couple of years. Smith tried to re-enter the Connection in 1827 by repudiating Universalism. His brethren were understandably hesitant to accept him, but his home congregation of Portsmouth, New Hampshire received him back in fellowship in 1840. In 1832, many of

6480-527: The Dutch Waterlander Mennonites of Amsterdam) and returned to London to start the first English Baptist Church in 1611. Later General Baptists such as John Griffith , Samuel Loveday, and Thomas Grantham defended a Reformed Arminian theology that reflected the Arminianism of Arminius. The General Baptists encapsulated their Arminian views in numerous confessions , the most influential of which

6600-607: The Evangelical and Charismatic traditions. One notable example is Robert Rutherford, a minister from Georgia (USA) who was a finalist on The Learning Channel 's 2006 reality TV series The Messengers . Another example is Dick King, an independent Charismatic Baptist pastor in North Little Rock, Arkansas, whose church left the Southern Baptist Convention in 2004. The conversion of Bishop Carlton Pearson to

6720-486: The Methodist tradition, prominent supporters encompass Thomas Oden , Ben Witherington III , David Pawson , B. J. Oropeza , Thomas H. McCall and Fred Sanders. The Holiness movement boasts theologians like Carl O. Bangs and J. Kenneth Grider . Furthermore, scholars such as Keith D. Stanglin, Craig S. Keener and Grant R. Osborne also support Arminian perspectives. The Pelagian-Augustinian framework can serve as

6840-705: The Philadelphia Baptist Confession), whereas the Standard Confession of 1660 was used by the American heirs of the English General Baptists, who soon came to be known as Free Will Baptists . In the Methodist -Calvinist controversy of the early 1770s involving Anglican ministers John Wesley and George Whitefield , Wesley responded to accusations of semi-Pelagianism by embracing an Arminian identity. Wesley had limited familiarity with

6960-522: The Scriptures taught that a true believer was capable of falling away from faith and perishing eternally as an unbeliever. They formalized their views in "The Opinion of the Remonstrants" (1618) which was their official stand during the Synod of Dort. They later expressed this same view in the Remonstrant Confession (1621). Arminius maintained that if the apostasy came from "malicious" sin, then it

7080-467: The Stone movement. The eastern members had several key differences with the Stone and Campbell group: an emphasis on conversion experience, quarterly observance of communion , and nontrinitarianism . Through the 1830s and 1840s, practical difficulties associated with the movement's attempt at radical reform led to an erosion of the anti-organizational principles developed by Jones, Smith and others. David Millard and Joseph Badger provided leadership towards

7200-775: The Universalist General Convention, later called the Universalist Church of America , adopted the Five Principles: the belief in God, belief in Jesus Christ, the immortality of the human soul, that sinful actions have consequence, and universal reconciliation. Christian Universalists disagree on whether or not hell exists. However, they do agree that if it does exist, the punishment there is corrective and remedial, and does not last forever. Purgatorial universalism

7320-431: The ability to choose the spiritual good, particularly the capacity to accept God's call to salvation . Atonement is intended universally : Jesus's death was for all people, Jesus draws all people to himself, with the opportunity for salvation through faith . Jesus's death satisfies God's justice : The penalty for the sins of the elect is paid in full through the crucifixion of Christ . Thus Christ's death atones for

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7440-538: The attitude of other forms of Christian Universalism, while remaining generally Christ-centered. In contrast to Evangelical Universalism, Liberal Christian Universalism views the Bible as an imperfect human document containing divine revelations, is not necessarily Trinitarian, and often downplays or rejects blood atonement theology in its view of the crucifixion of Jesus . Some Liberal Christian Universalists believe in mystical philosophies such as panentheism and process theology , Gnostic or New Age ideas such as

7560-499: The author of evil . It would not correspond to the character of God, especially as fully revealed in Jesus Christ. On the other hand, man's responsibility for evil must be preserved. Those two postulates require a specific way by which God chooses to manifest his sovereignty when interacting with his creatures. On one hand, it requires for God to operate according to a limited mode of providence . This means that God deliberately exercises sovereignty without determining every event. On

7680-595: The beliefs of Arminius and largely formulated his views without direct reliance on Arminius' teachings. Wesley was notably influenced by 17th-century English Arminianism and by some Remonstrant spokesmen. However, he is recognized as a faithful representative of Arminius' beliefs. Wesley defended his soteriology through the publication of a periodical titled The Arminian (1778) and in articles such as Predestination Calmly Considered . To support his stance, he strongly maintained belief in total depravity while clarifying other doctrines notably prevenient grace . At

7800-412: The case on the basis of the earliest Christian writings, theological tradition, scripture, and logic, that if God is the good creator of all, he is the savior of all, without fail. In his book, That All Shall Be Saved , he calls opponents of the school, who believe that some or all people are condemned to eternal damnation, "infernalists". Christian Universalists assert that the doctrine of eternal Hell

7920-496: The concepts of divine predestination and election. While some perceive these differences as fundamental, others regard them as relatively minor distinctions within the broader spectrum of Christian theology. The doctrine of open theism states that God is omnipresent, omnipotent, and omniscient, but differs on the nature of the future. Open theists claim that the future is not completely determined (or "settled") because people have not made their free decisions yet. God therefore knows

8040-468: The consequences [of that theology]." This association is considered as libelous when attributed to Arminius' or Wesley's doctrine, and Arminians reject all accusations of Pelagianism. Semi-Pelagianism holds that faith begins with human will, while its continuation and fulfillment depend on God's grace, giving it the label "human-initiated synergism ". In contrast, both Classical and Wesleyan Arminianism affirm that prevenient grace from God initiates

8160-447: The course of events, as the period or age before Christ; the period of the millennium; the mythological period before the beginnings of history. The adjective aionios in like manner carries the idea of time. Neither the noun nor the adjective, in themselves, carry the sense of endless or everlasting. They may acquire that sense by their connotation, as, on the other hand, aidios , which means everlasting, has its meaning limited to

8280-549: The death of Arminius in 1609, his followers wrote a Remonstrance (1610) based quite literally on his Declaration of Sentiments (1607) which expressed prudence on the possibility of apostasy. In particular, its fifth article expressed the necessity of further study on the possibility of apostasy. Sometime between 1610 and the official proceeding of the Synod of Dort (1618), the Remonstrants became fully persuaded in their minds that

8400-558: The direction of semi-Pelagianism and rationalism . In England, the so-labelled Arminian doctrines were held, in substance, before and in parallel with those of Arminius. The Thirty-nine Articles of Religion (finalised in 1571), were sufficiently ambiguous that they were compatible with either Arminian or Calvinistic interpretations. Arminianism in the Church of England was fundamentally an expression of negation of Calvinism, and only some theologians held to classical Arminianism , but for

8520-467: The doctrine of apocatastasis ) and "Sonship" (shorthand for "Manifest Sonship" which is a variant of the doctrine of theosis ). The term " Feast of Tabernacles " is used by some Charismatic Universalists as a term for their post-Pentecostal spiritual tradition, reflecting a symbolic interpretation of this Jewish festival as an entrance into a fuller knowledge and relationship with God and understanding of God's plan for humanity. Charismatic Universalism

8640-430: The elect to a glorious future: Predestination is not the predetermination of who will believe, but rather the predetermination of the believer's future inheritance. The elect are therefore predestined to sonship through adoption , glorification , and eternal life . Related to eschatological considerations, Jacobus Arminius and the first Remonstrants, including Simon Episcopius believed in everlasting fire where

8760-648: The eschatological stir fueled by speculations of William Miller . No fewer than seven of the 16 signatories to the 1840 call for an Adventist general conference were Connection preachers. Many members left the Connection in the mid-1840s, populating emerging denominations such as the Seventh-day Adventists and the Advent Christians . In 1850, the General Convention of the Christian Church passed

8880-437: The faith, and perish; yet I will not conceal, that there are passages of scripture which seem to me to wear this aspect." However, elsewhere Arminius expressed certainty about the possibility of falling away: In c. 1602, he noted that a person integrated into the church might resist God's work and that a believer's security rested solely in their choice not to abandon their faith. He argued that God's covenant did not eliminate

9000-528: The future partially in possibilities (human free actions) rather than solely certainties (divinely determined events). Some Arminians, reject open theism, viewing it as a distortion of traditional Arminianism. They believe it shifts away from classical Arminianism toward process theology . Others view it as a valid alternative perspective within Christianity, despite not aligning it with Arminian doctrine. Christian Universalism Christian universalism

9120-532: The historiography of this period is driven by the current needs and issues of the successor denominations. When Stone and Alexander Campbell 's Reformers (also known as Disciples and Christian Baptists) united in 1832, only a minority of Christians from the Smith/Jones and O'Kelly movements participated. Those who did were from congregations west of the Appalachian Mountains that had come into contact with

9240-582: The language and framework of covenant theology . Its core teachings are summarized in the Five Articles of Remonstrance , reflecting Arminius’s views, with some sections directly from his Declaration of Sentiments . Some theologians have referred to this system as "classical Arminianism". Others prefer "Reformation Arminianism" or "Reformed Arminianism", as Arminius upheld the principles of Reformation such as Sola fide and Sola gratia . Arminianism accepts classical theism , which states that God

9360-551: The last taught eternal Hell (in Carthage or Rome ). However, the Encyclopedia also notes that most contemporary scholars would take issue with classifying these early schools as Universalist. An important figure in early American Christian Universalism was George de Benneville , a French Huguenot preacher and physician who was imprisoned for advocating Universalism and later emigrated to Pennsylvania where he continued preaching on

9480-462: The late 18th century with the Universalist Church of America . There is no single denomination uniting Christian universalists, but a few denominations teach some of the principles of Christian universalism or are open to them. Instead, their membership has been consolidated with the American Unitarian Association into the Unitarian Universalist Association in 1961. In his Plain Guide to Universalism ,

9600-399: The least from orthodox or traditional Protestant Christian doctrine is Evangelical (Christian) Universalism, also called Biblical or Trinitarian Universalism . Evangelical Universalists hold to conservative positions on most theological or doctrinal issues except for the doctrine of hell , in which case they assert universal reconciliation instead of eternal torment. They tend to emphasize

9720-543: The magnitude of the mercy to be shown to them." Ilaria Ramelli , a scholar of the early Patristic history writes, "In the minds of some, universal salvation is a heretical idea that was imported into Christianity from pagan philosophies by Origen" ( c.  185–253/54 ). Ramelli argues that this view is mistaken and that Christian theologians were the first people to proclaim that all will be saved and that their reasons for doing so were rooted in their faith in Christ. Eastern Orthodox theologian David Bentley Hart makes

9840-741: The many similarities this cluster of once fringe bodies now shared with the major religious organizations. The Christian Church merged with the National Council of the Congregational Churches of the United States in 1931 to form the Congregational Christian Churches . In 1957 after twenty years of discussion and work, the Congregational Christian Churches and the Evangelical and Reformed Church , itself

9960-514: The missions were extensions of preaching tours from neighboring American states. Thus all of the Canadian congregations were related to the New England movement. The failed Rebellions of 1837 (led principally by Louis-Joseph Papineau and William Lyon Mackenzie ) severely undercut the Connection's Canadian wings. Churches survived solely in Ontario, and mostly north and east of Toronto . Conflict between

10080-630: The name Christian . Ideologically, the New England movement displayed an extreme form of republicanism. Convinced that the American Revolution demanded a thorough and utter break with European modes of operation, members tended to demand radical reform of politics, the legal system, medicine and religion. Elias Smith's career particularly emphasized medical and spiritual reform. All visible forms of church government were to be rejected, he argued, because they were inherently “British”. The movement's nativist approach to theology and church polity imparted

10200-669: The next few decades with the end of the Universalist Church as a separate denomination. However, the Unitarian Universalist Christian Fellowship remains as an organization for Christians from the Unitarian Universalist tradition and liberal Christians interested in Unitarianism and Universalism. Some Christians from a Pentecostal background who were involved in the Latter Rain Movement of

10320-610: The nonexistence or severe limitation of human free will , and the inevitable triumph of God's plan of universal reconciliation. Many Charismatic Universalists meet in house churches or do not belong to a church at all. Most of the evidence of Universalism existing as a school of thought within the Charismatic movement is found in a large number of internet-based ministries that are informally networked with one another. Liberal Christian Universalists include some members of mainline Protestant denominations, some people influenced by

10440-502: The other hand, it requires for God's election to be a " predestination by foreknowledge". Therefore, God's foreknowledge is exhaustive and complete, aligning his certainty with human freedom of action. Arminianism is aligned with classical free-will theism, adopting an incompatibilist position. It asserts that the free will essential for moral responsibility is inherently incompatible with determinism . In Arminian theology, human beings possess libertarian free will , making them

10560-517: The other views of a temporary hell. First Augustine's views of hell were accepted in the early Latin Church, Up until the Reformation Augustine's view of hell as eternal was not questioned. About the word aion as having connotations of "age" or "temporal", the 19th-century theologian Marvin Vincent wrote: Aion , transliterated aeon, is a period of longer or shorter duration, having

10680-410: The possibility of apostasy . However, over the period of time he wrote on this question, he sometimes expressed himself more cautiously out of consideration for the faith of his readers. In 1599, he stated that the question required more scriptural examination. In his "Declaration of Sentiments" (1607), Arminius said, "I never taught that a true believer can, either totally or finally fall away from

10800-414: The possibility of falling away but provided a gift of fear to keep individuals from defecting, as long as it thrived in their hearts. He then taught that had David died in sin, he would have been lost. In 1602, Arminius also wrote: "A believing member of Christ may become slothful, give place to sin, and gradually die altogether, ceasing to be a member". For Arminius, a certain class of sin would cause

10920-709: The postmortem view that God continues to evangelize to people even after they die (1 Chronicles 16:34; Isaiah 9:2; Romans 8:35–39; Ephesians 4:8–9; 1 Peter 3:18–20; 4:6). According to the New Schaff–Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge (1912), over the first five hundred years of Christian history there are records of at least six theological schools: four of these schools were Universalist (one each in Alexandria , Antioch , Caesarea , and Edessa – Nisibis ), one taught conditional immortality (in Ephesus ), and

11040-483: The process of salvation by extending his grace, commonly referred to as prevenient grace , to all people. This grace works within each individual, drawing them toward the Gospel and enabling sincere faith, leading to regeneration . It functions through a dynamic influence-and-response relationship, allowing individuals to freely accept or reject it. Thus, conversion is described as a "God-initiated synergism." Election

11160-464: The process of salvation, a view sometimes referred to as "Semi-Augustinian", or "God-initiated synergism". Following the Reformation , Reformed theologians often categorized both "human-initiated synergism" and "God-initiated synergism" as "Semi-Pelagianism", often leading to mistaken belief that Arminianism aligned with Semi-Pelagianism. Calvinism and Arminianism, while sharing historical roots and many theological doctrines, diverge notably on

11280-614: The product of the merger of two German-American denominations, forged the United Church of Christ . In 1989, the UCC and Disciples of Christ agreed to participate in full communion with each other, while remaining separate denominations. Arminianism Arminianism is a movement of Protestantism initiated in the early 17th century, based on the theological ideas of the Dutch Reformed theologian Jacobus Arminius and his historic supporters known as Remonstrants . Dutch Arminianism

11400-547: The question is whether, in describing God as aionios , it was intended to describe the duration of his being, or whether some different and larger idea was not contemplated. Author Thomas Talbott states that if one believes in the idea of eternal hell or that some souls will be destroyed, one must either let go of the idea that it is God's wish and desire to save all beings, or accept the idea that God wants to, but will not "successfully accomplish his will and satisfy his own desire in this matter". Author David Burnfield defends

11520-448: The rest they were either semi-Pelagian or Pelagian . In this specific context, contemporary historians prefer to use the term "proto-Arminians" rather than "Arminians" to designate the leanings of those divines who generally didn't follow classical Arminianism. English Arminianism was represented by Arminian Puritans such as John Goodwin or High Anglican Arminians such as Jeremy Taylor and Henry Hammond . Anglican Arminians of

11640-478: The righteousness of Christ is attributed to believers, emphasizing that union with Christ (conditioned on faith) transfers his righteousness to them. Christ's atonement has a substitutionary effect which is limited only to the elect. Arminius held that God's justice was satisfied by penal substitution . Hugo Grotius taught that it was satisfied governmentally . Historical and contemporary Arminians have held to one of these views. In Arminianism, God initiates

11760-574: The same curriculum to men and women, as well as to admit blacks and operate on a non-sectarian basis. For the second half of the nineteenth-century, leaders of the Connection pursued a policy of alignment with the mainstream. What had been birthed as a strident protest against staid religiosity was drifting back in that direction. The temperance movement, the Sunday School movement and the Bible societies all served as avenues of service through which Connection members could demonstrate to other denominations

11880-473: The same time, Wesley attacked the determinism that he claimed characterized Calvinist doctrines of predestination. He typically preached the notion of Christian perfection (fully mature, not "sinlessness"). His system of thought has become known as Wesleyan Arminianism , the foundations of which were laid by him and his fellow preacher John William Fletcher . Methodism also navigated its own theological intricacies concerning salvation and human agency. In

12000-689: The seed for a movement in Kentucky and the Ohio River valley to disassociate from denominationalism. Stone and five other ministers published The Last Will and Testament of the Springfield Presbytery in 1804, giving up denominational ties to the Presbyterian Church and preferring to be known simply as Christians . Stone was influenced by his earlier involvement with O'Kelly and knew of the Republican Methodist practice of simply using

12120-434: The sins of all, but requires faith to be effected. Arminius states that "Justification, when used for the act of a Judge, is either purely the imputation of righteousness through mercy [...] or that man is justified before God [...] according to the rigor of justice without any forgiveness." Justification , therefore, is seen through mercy by the imputation of righteousness . While not rigidly defined, this view suggests that

12240-576: The situation. Maurice systematically removed Arminian magistrates from office and called a national synod at Dordrecht . This Synod of Dort was open primarily to Dutch Calvinists (102 people), while the Arminians were excluded (13 people banned from voting), with Calvinist representatives from other countries (28 people), and in 1618 published a condemnation of Arminius and his followers as heretics. The Canons of Dort responded, among other topics, to Arminian doctrines, anticipating their later articulation as

12360-629: The subject. De Benneville was noted for his friendly and respectful relationship with Native Americans and his pluralistic and multicultural view of spiritual truth which was well ahead of his time. One of his most significant accomplishments was helping to produce the Sauer Bible, the first German language Bible printed in America. In this Bible version, passages teaching universal reconciliation were marked in boldface. Other significant early modern Christian Universalist leaders include Elhanan Winchester ,

12480-581: The two main schools of thought. Central Arminian beliefs are that God's preparing ( prevenient ) grace for regeneration is universal, and that God's justifying grace allowing regeneration is resistible. Many Christian denominations have been influenced by Arminian views, notably the Baptists in the 17th century, the Methodists in the 18th century, and the Pentecostals in the 20th century. Arminius' beliefs, i.e. Arminianism, did not begin with him. Before

12600-443: The ultimate source of their choices and granting them the ability to choose otherwise. This philosophical framework upholds the concept of divine providence , allowing God's influence and supervision over creation . However, it permits the idea of God's absolute control over human actions, as long as such control does not involve human responsibility. Arminianism holds that without the assistance of divine grace , human free will

12720-470: The universalist Thomas Wittemore wrote, "The sentiment by which Universalists are distinguished, is this: that at last every individual of the human race shall become holy and happy. This does not comprise the whole of their faith, but, merely that feature of it which is peculiar to them and by which they are distinguished from the rest of the world." The remaining central beliefs of Christian universalism are compatible with Christianity in general: In 1899

12840-423: The wicked there are punishments, not perpetual, however, lest the immortality prepared for them should be a disadvantage, but they are to be purified for a brief period according to the amount of malice in their works. They shall therefore suffer punishment for a short space, but immortal blessedness having no end awaits them ... the penalties to be inflicted for their many and grave sins are very far surpassed by

12960-464: The world and their own flesh, and to gain the victory over these enemies." Furthermore, Christ and the Spirit are ever present to aid and assist believers through various temptations. But this security was not unconditional but conditional—"provided they [believers] stand prepared for the battle, implore his help, and be not wanting to themselves, Christ preserves them from falling ." Arminius believed in

13080-637: Was active in the Holiness movement as well as the women's suffrage and temperance movements. The Unity School of Christianity , founded in 1889 by Charles and Myrtle Fillmore , has taught some Universalist beliefs such as God's total goodness, the divine nature of human beings, and the rejection of the traditional Christian belief that God condemns people to Hell. In the early 20th century, some Primitive Baptists in Appalachia started espousing Universalist ideas. By 1924, these churches branched off to form

13200-650: Was an early advocate of seeking unity through a return to New Testament Christianity. In 1792, dissatisfied with the role of bishops in the Methodist Episcopal Church , he separated from that body. O'Kelly's movement, centering in Virginia and North Carolina , was originally called the Republican Methodist Church. In 1794 they adopted the name Christian Church. During the same period, Elias Smith of Vermont and Abner Jones of New Hampshire led

13320-431: Was called by the names "Christian Connection/Connexion" or "Christian Church." By 1808, O'Kelly's followers and the Smith/Jones movement were cooperating closely, and Stone's Christians in Kentucky would soon follow suit. Adherents' anti-organizational commitments prevent one from referring to “union” per se, at least before the middle of the century. Stone's concept of unity grew from a belief that Christians could extract

13440-459: Was forgivable. If it came from "rejection" it was not. Following Arminius, the Remonstrants believed that, though possible, apostasy was not in general irremediable. However, other classical Arminians, including the Free Will Baptists , have taught that apostasy is irremediable. John Wesley thoroughly agreed with the vast majority of what Arminius himself taught. Wesleyan Arminianism

13560-611: Was fully Arminian. Today, Pentecostal denominations such as the Assemblies of God hold to Arminian views such as resistible grace , conditional election , and conditional security of the believer . Advocates of Arminianism find a home in many Protestant denominations, and sometimes other beliefs such as Calvinism exist within the same denomination. The Lutheran theological tradition bears certain similarities to Arminianism and there may be some Lutheran churches that are open to it. Newer Evangelical Anglican denominations also show

13680-671: Was in the Azusa Street Revival in Los Angeles in 1906. This revival was led by William J. Seymour (1870–1922). Due to the Methodist and Holiness background of many early Pentecostal preachers, the Pentecostal churches usually possessed practices that arose from the Wesleyan Arminianism. During the 20th century, as Pentecostal churches began to settle and incorporate more standard forms, they started to formulate theology that

13800-511: Was not a part of Christ's teachings nor even the early church, and that it was added in. According to theologian Edward Beecher , in the first four centuries there were six main theological schools and only one of them advocated the idea of eternal hell. Christian universalists point towards mistranslations of the Greek word αιών ( aion – an epoch of time), as giving rise to the idea of eternal hell. Dr. Ken Vincent writes "When it ( aion )

13920-457: Was originally articulated in the Remonstrance (1610), a theological statement submitted to the States General of the Netherlands . This expressed an attempt to moderate the doctrines of Calvinism related to its interpretation of predestination . Classical Arminianism , to which Arminius is the main contributor, and Wesleyan Arminianism , to which John Wesley is the main contributor, are

14040-742: Was the Standard Confession of 1660. In the 1640s the Particular Baptists were formed, diverging from Arminian doctrine and embracing the strong Calvinism of the Presbyterians and Independents . Their robust Calvinism was publicized in such confessions as the London Baptist Confession of 1644 and the Second London Confession of 1689. The London Confession of 1689 was later used by Calvinistic Baptists in America (called

14160-445: Was the belief of some of the early church fathers, especially Greek-speaking ones such as Clement of Alexandria , Origen , and Gregory of Nyssa . It asserts that the unsaved will undergo hell, but that hell is remedial (neither everlasting nor purely retributive) according to key scriptures and that after purification or conversion all will enter heaven. Fourth-century Christian theologian and Bishop Diodorus of Tarsus wrote: "For

14280-543: Was translated into Latin Vulgate, aion became aeternam which means 'eternal'." He also states that the first written record of the idea of an eternal hell comes from Tertullian, who wrote in Latin. The second major source of the idea of hell as eternal was the 4th-century theologian Augustine . According to author Steve Gregg, it was Tertullian's writings, plus Augustine's views and writings on eternal hell, which "overwhelmed"

14400-546: Was used in the Christian Intelligencer in the 1820s by Russell Streeter—a descendant of Adams Streeter who had founded one of the first Universalist Churches on September 14, 1785. Some Christian universalists claim that in Early Christianity (prior to the 6th century ), this was the most common interpretation of Christianity . As a formal Christian denomination , Christian universalism originated in

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