Misplaced Pages

#262737

105-566: The Chola dynasty ( Tamil: [t͡ʃoːɻɐr] ) was a Tamil dynasty originating from southern India . At its height, it ruled over the Chola Empire , an expansive maritime empire. The earliest datable references to the Chola are from inscriptions dated to the 3rd century BCE during the reign of Ashoka of the Maurya Empire . The Chola empire was at its peak and achieved imperialism under

210-557: A "kinship-based redistributive economies" largely shaped by "pastoral-cum-agrarian subsistence" and "predatory politics". Tamil Brahmi cave label inscriptions, describe Ilam Kadungo, son of Perum Kadungo , and the grandson of Ko Athan Cheral of the Irumporai clan. Inscribed portrait coins with Brahmi legends give a number of Chera names. Reverse of these coins often contained the Chera bow and arrow symbol. The anthologies of early Tamil texts are

315-692: A confederation of five Pandya princes, and kept the control of Rajarata under Chola rule. His successor, the last great Chola monarch Kulottunga Chola III reinforced the hold of the Chola territories by quelling further rebellions and disturbances in the Rajarata area of Sri Lanka and Madurai. He also defeated Hoysala generals who fought under Veera Ballala II at Karuvur. Furthermore, he also continued holding on to traditional territories in Tamil country, Eastern Gangavadi, Draksharama, Vengi, and Kalinga. However, after defeating Veera Ballala II, Kulottunga Chola III entered into

420-513: A fertile country. Sembiyan is generally taken to mean a descendant of Shibi  – a legendary hero whose self-sacrifice in saving a dove from the pursuit of a falcon figures among the early Chola legends and forms the subject matter of the Sibi Jataka among the Jataka stories of Buddhism . In Tamil lexicon Chola means Soazhi or Saei denoting a newly formed kingdom, in the lines of Pandya or

525-656: A few glimpses of the transformations that came over this line of kings during this long interval. It is certain that when the power of the Cholas fell to its lowest ebb and that of the Pandyas and Pallavas rose to the north and south of them, this dynasty was compelled to seek refuge and patronage under their more successful rivals. Despite their reduced powers, the Pandyas and Pallavas accepted Chola princesses in marriage, possibly out of regard for their reputation. Numerous Pallava inscriptions of this period mention their having fought rulers of

630-517: A fort in Avur, which was being besieged by Mavalattan, Nalankilli's younger brother. The poet chided Nedunkilli to come out and fight like a man instead of causing untold misery to the people of the city. In another poem, the poet begs both the princes to give up the civil war as whoever wins, the loser will be a Chola. Kalavali by Poygayar mentions the Chola King Kocengannan and his battle with

735-404: A lost wax process they pioneered; that continues (to a certain extent) to this day. They established a centralized form of government and a disciplined bureaucracy. The Chola school of art spread to Southeast Asia and influenced the architecture and art of Southeast Asia. The medieval Cholas are best known for the construction of the magnificent Brihadisvara temple at Thanjavur, commissioned by

840-749: A major source of information about the early Cheras. Chenguttuvan, or the Good Chera , is famous for the traditions surrounding Kannaki , the principal female character of the Tamil epic poem Chilapathikaram . After the end of the early historical period, around the 3rd–5th century CE, there seems to be a period where the Cheras' power declined considerably. Cheras of the Kongu country are known to have controlled western Tamil Nadu and central Kerala in early medieval period. Present-day central Kerala probably detached from Kongu Chera kingdom around 8th–9th century AD to form

945-507: A marital alliance with him through Ballala's marriage to a Chola princess, which improved Kulottunga Chola III's relationship with the Hoysalas. During the reign of Rajaraja Chola I and his successors Rajendra Chola I, Virarajendra Chola and Kulothunga Chola I the Chola armies invaded Sri Lanka, the Maldives and parts of Southeast Asia like Malaysia, Indonesia and Southern Thailand of

1050-681: A marital alliance with him through Ballala's marriage to a Chola princess, which improved the Kulottunga Chola III's relationship with Hoysalas. According to Tamil tradition, the Chola country comprised the region that includes the modern-day Tiruchirapalli District , Tiruvarur District , Nagapattinam District , Ariyalur District , Perambalur district , Pudukkottai district , Thanjavur District in Tamil Nadu and Karaikal District . The river Kaveri and its tributaries dominate this landscape of generally flat country that gradually slopes towards

1155-518: A series of wars with Someshvara IV between 1185 and 1190. The last Chalukya king's territories did not even include the erstwhile Chalukyan capitals Badami, Manyakheta or Kalyani. That was the final dissolution of Chalukyan power though the Chalukyas existed only in name since 1135–1140. But the Cholas remained stable until 1215, were absorbed by the Pandyan empire and ceased to exist by 1279. His successor,

SECTION 10

#1732845598263

1260-452: A work by an anonymous Alexandrian merchant, written in the time of Domitian (81–96 CE) and contains precious information of the Chola country. Writing half a century later, the geographer Ptolemy has more to tell us about the Chola country, its port and its inland cities. Mahavamsa , a Buddhist text, also recounts a number of conflicts between the inhabitants of Ceylon and the Tamil immigrants from Chola Country. Chronicles such as

1365-576: Is one of the kavitrayam who translated Mahabharata into Telugu language. Of the devotional literature, the arrangement of the Shaivite canon into eleven books was the work of Nambi Andar Nambi, who lived close to the end of the 10th century. However, relatively few Vaishnavite works were composed during the Later Chola period, possibly because of the rulers' apparent animosity towards them. In general, Cholas were followers of Hinduism . They were not swayed by

1470-637: Is one of the most distinguished normative grammars of literary Tamil. The Telugu Choda period was in particular significant for the development of Telugu literature under the patronage of the rulers. It was the age in which the great Telugu poets Tikkana , Ketana , Marana and Somana enriched the literature with their contributions. Tikkana Somayaji wrote Nirvachanottara Ramayanamu and Andhra Mahabharatamu. Abhinava Dandi Ketana wrote Dasakumaracharitramu, Vijnaneswaramu and Andhra Bhashabhushanamu. Marana wrote Markandeya Purana in Telugu. Somana wrote Basava Purana. Tikkana

1575-495: Is portrayed as a pious Siva devotee who built many fine temples for Siva along the banks of the river Kaveri . Sangam literature gives an unusually complete and true picture of the social and economic conditions during the early Chola period. The land of the Cholas was fertile and there was ample food. Sangam poems say that in the Chola country watered by the river Kaveri, in a space in which an elephant could lie, one can produce enough grain to feed seven. Hereditary monarchy

1680-461: Is tangible evidence are mentioned in the Sangam literature. Scholars generally agree that this literature belongs to the late centuries before the common era and the early centuries of the common era. The internal chronology of this literature is still far from settled, and at present a connected account of the history of the period cannot be derived. It records the names of the kings and the princes, and of

1785-496: Is the popular Ponniyin Selvan (The son of Ponni ), a historical novel in Tamil written by Kalki Krishnamurthy . Written in five volumes, this narrates the story of Rajaraja Chola, dealing with the events leading up to the ascension of Uttama Chola to the Chola throne. Kalki had used the confusion in the succession to the Chola throne after the demise of Parantaka Chola II. The book

1890-525: Is very little written evidence for the Cholas before the 7th century CE. The main sources of information about the early Cholas are ancient Tamil literature of the Sangam period ( c. 600 BCE), oral traditions, religious texts, temple and copperplate inscriptions . Later medieval Cholas also claimed a long and ancient lineage. The Cholas are mentioned in Ashokan Edicts (inscribed 273 BCE–232 BCE) as one of

1995-589: The Yalpana Vaipava Malai and stone inscriptions like Konesar Kalvettu recount that Kulakkottan , an early Chola king and descendant of Manu Needhi Cholan , was the restorer of the ruined Koneswaram temple and tank at Trincomalee in 438 CE, the Munneswaram temple of the west coast, and as the royal who settled ancient Vanniar. The inscriptions of the Medieval Cholas are replete with history about

2100-537: The Chera Perumal kingdom (c. 9th- 12th century AD). The exact nature of the relationships between the various branches of Chera rulers is somewhat unclear. Some of the major dynasties of medieval south India – Chalukya, Pallava, Pandya, Rashtrakuta, and Chola – seems to have conquered the Chera or Kerala country. Kongu Cheras appear to have been absorbed into the Pandya political system by 10th/11th century AD. Even after

2205-686: The Chinese Empire , enabled them to influence the local cultures. Examples of the Hindu cultural influence found today throughout Southeast Asia owe much to the legacy of the Cholas. For example, the great temple complex at Prambanan in Indonesia exhibits several similarities with South Indian architecture. According to the Malay chronicle Sejarah Melayu , the rulers of the Malacca sultanate claimed to be descendants of

SECTION 20

#1732845598263

2310-503: The Hoysalas . Jatavarman I ( c.  1251) successfully expanded the kingdom into the Telugu country (as far north as Nellore ), south Kerala, and conquered northern Sri Lanka . The city of Kanchi became a secondary capital of the Pandyas. Maravarman Kulasekhara I (1268) defeated an alliance of the Hoysalas and the Cholas (1279) and invaded Sri Lanka . The venerable Tooth Relic of the Buddha

2415-508: The Kalabhras spurred the construction of numerous temples and these in turn generated Shaiva and Vaishnava devotional literature. Jain and Buddhist authors flourished as well, although in fewer numbers than in previous centuries. Jivaka-chintamani by Tirutakkatevar and Sulamani by Tolamoli are among notable works by non-Hindu authors. The grammarian Buddhamitra wrote a text on Tamil grammar called Virasoliyam . Commentaries were written on

2520-667: The Madurai sultanate (1334). The Pandyas of Ucchangi (9th–13th century), in the Tungabhadra Valley were related to the Pandyas of Madurai. According to tradition, the legendary Sangams ("the Academies") were held in Madurai under the patronage of the Pandyas, and some of the Pandya rulers claimed to be poets themselves. Pandya Nadu was home to a number of renowned temples, including the Meenakshi Temple in Madurai . The revival of

2625-580: The Medieval Cholas in the mid-9th century CE . As one of the Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam , along with the Chera and Pandya , the dynasty continued to govern over varying territories until the 13th century CE . The heartland of the Cholas was the fertile valley of the Kaveri River . They ruled a significantly larger area at the height of their power from the latter half of the 9th century till

2730-589: The Pala ruler of Pataliputra , Mahipala . In 1025, he also successfully invaded cities of Srivijaya of Malaysia and Indonesia . Chola invasion ultimately failed to install direct administration over Srivijaya, since the invasion was short and only meant to plunder the wealth of Srivijaya. Chola rule or influence on Srivijava would last until 1070 when the Cholas began to lose almost all of its overseas territories. The Later Cholas (1070–1279) would still rule portions of Southern India. The Chola dynasty went into decline at

2835-698: The Pandyas of Madurai , was an ancient dynasty of South India , and among the three great kingdoms of Tamilakam , the other two being the Cholas and the Cheras . Extant since at least the 4th to 3rd centuries BCE, the dynasty passed through two periods of imperial dominance, the 6th to 10th centuries CE, and under the 'Later Pandyas' (13th to 14th centuries CE). The Pandyas ruled extensive territories, at times including regions of present-day South India and northern Sri Lanka through vassal states subject to Madurai . The rulers of

2940-531: The Sangam age were entirely absent during the first few centuries. The period started with the rivalry between the Pandyas and the Pallavas, which in turn caused the revival of the Cholas . The Cholas went on to become a great power. Their decline saw the brief resurgence of the Pandyas. This period was also that of the re-invigorated Hinduism during which temple building and religious literature were at their best. The Pallava dynasty, also known as Tondaimandalam,

3045-405: The Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam , along with the Chera and Pandya , the dynasty continued to govern over varying territory until the 13th century CE. Despite these ancient origins, the period when it is appropriate to speak of a "Chola Empire" only begins with the medieval Cholas in the mid-9th century CE when Vijayalaya Chola , the successor of Srikantha Chola captured Thanjavur from

3150-511: The three major powers (muventar) of ancient Tamilakam  in the early centuries of the Common Era. Chera bow and arrow insignia in Sangam era copper coin, Amaravati River , Karur The Chera country was geographically well placed to profit from maritime trade via the extensive Indian Ocean networks. Exchange of spices, especially black pepper , with Middle Eastern and Graeco-Roman merchants are attested in several sources. The Cheras of

3255-659: The 10th and 11th centuries. The earliest version of this is found in the Anbil Plates which gives fifteen names before Vijayalaya Cholan including the historical ones of Karikala, Perunarkilli and Kocengannan. The Thiruvalangadu Plate swells this list to forty-four, and the Kanyakumari Plate runs up to fifty-two. There are other lists gathered from literary works such as Kalingathuparani . No two of these lists agree, although some names and details are common to all. The Chola kings namely Dharmavarcholan and Killivalavan developed

Chola dynasty - Misplaced Pages Continue

3360-490: The 11th and 12th centuries. They attribute to him the conquest of the whole of India up to the Himalayas and the construction of the flood banks, Grand Anicut , of the Kaveri River with the aid of his feudatories. These legends however are conspicuous by their absence in the works of Sangam. The poet Kovur Kilar mentions a protracted civil war between two Chola chieftains Nalankilli and Nedunkilli . Nedunkilli shut himself in

3465-526: The 2023 film Ponniyin Selvan: II . The 2022 and 2023 movies were based on the novel of the same name . Indo-Scythians Indo-Parthians References Sources Tamil dynasties The medieval period of the history of Tamil Nadu saw the rise and fall of many kingdoms, some of whom went on to the extent of empires, exerting influences both in India and overseas. The Cholas who were very active during

3570-517: The 5th century CE, recounts several conflicts between the inhabitants of Sri Lanka and Cholas in the 1st century BCE. A commonly held view is that Chola is, like Chera and Pandya , the name of the ruling family or clan of immemorial antiquity. The annotator Parimelazhagar said: "The charity of people with ancient lineage (such as the Cholas, the Pandyas and the Cheras) are forever generous despite their reduced means". Other names in common use for

3675-446: The 7th century. The period of the story lies within the interregnum during which the Cholas were in decline before Vijayalaya Chola revived their fortunes. Parthiban Kanavu was also serialised in the Kalki weekly during the early 1950s. Sandilyan , another popular Tamil novelist, wrote Kadal Pura in the 1960s. It was serialised in the Tamil weekly Kumudam . Kadal Pura is set during

3780-696: The Brihadisvara Temple in Thanjavur. There were stage productions based on the life of Rajaraja Chola during the 1950s and in 1973 Sivaji Ganesan acted in a screen adaptation of a play titled Rajaraja Cholan . The Cholas are featured in the History of the World board game, produced by Avalon Hill . The Cholas were the subject of the 2010 Tamil-language film Aayirathil Oruvan , the 2022 film Ponniyin Selvan: I and

3885-400: The Chalukyas existed only in name for the period 1135–1140. But the Cholas remained stable until 1215, and were then absorbed by the Pandyan empire and ceased to exist by 1279. On the other hand, from 1150 CE to 1280 CE, the Pandya dynasty became the staunchest opponents of the Cholas and tried to win independence for their traditional territories. Thus, this period saw constant warfare between

3990-489: The Chera king Kanaikkal Irumporai. The Chera was taken prisoner and Poygayar, who was a friend of the Chera, sang a poem praising the Chola King Kochchenganan in 40 stanzas. The Chola king, pleased with the work, released the Chera. Kalavali describes the battle fought at Kalumalam, near the Chera capital. Kocengannan is one of the 63 nayanars . Kocengannan became the subject of many instances in later times and

4095-514: The Chola country. The Chola Empire was founded in 848 CE by Vijayalaya , a descendant of Early Cholas . The early Chola kings expanded their territory and influence. During the early 10th century, the second Chola King, Aditya I , defeated the Pallava dynasty and Pandyan dynasty capturing Tondaimandalam and Kongu Nadu . Later Aditya's son Parantaka I defeated the Rashtrakuta dynasty in

4200-497: The Chola influence in the Vengi kingdom. The Western Chalukyas mounted several unsuccessful attempts to engage the Chola emperors in war, and except for a brief occupation of the Vengi territories between 1118 and 1126, allied with Prince Vikramaditya VI . Cholas usually managed to dominate over the Chalukyas in the western Deccan by defeating them in war and levying tribute on them. With

4305-519: The Cholas also lost control of the island of Lanka and were driven out by the revival of Sinhala power. In continuation of the decline, also marked by the resurgence of the Pandyan dynasty as the most powerful rulers in South India, a lack of a controlling central administration in its erstwhile Pandyan territories prompted several claimants to the Pandya throne to cause a civil war in which the Sinhalas and

Chola dynasty - Misplaced Pages Continue

4410-531: The Cholas and the Pandyas. Besides, the Cholas regularly fought with the Eastern Gangas of Kalinga . Moreover, under Chola's protection, Vengi remained largely independent. Cholas also dominated the entire eastern coast with their feudatories, the Telugu Cholas of Velanati and Nellore among others. These feudatories always aided the Cholas in their successful campaigns against the Chalukyas and levied tribute on

4515-477: The Cholas are Choda , Killi (கிள்ளி), Valavan (வளவன்), Sembiyan (செம்பியன்) and Cenni . Killi perhaps comes from the Tamil kil (கிள்) meaning dig or cleave and conveys the idea of a digger or a worker of the land. This word often forms an integral part of early Chola names like Nedunkilli , Nalankilli and so on, but almost drops out of use in later times. Valavan is most probably connected with " valam " (வளம்) – fertility and means owner or ruler of

4620-754: The Cholas were involved by proxy. Details of the Pandyan civil war and the role played by the Cholas and Sinhalas, are present in the Mahavamsa as well as the Pallavarayanpettai Inscriptions. The setbacks suffered during the final years of Kulothunga I left a somewhat diminished empire. Kulothunga's successors Vikrama Chola (1118–1135 CE) and Kulothunga Chola II (1133–1150 CE) were capable and compassionate leaders who took care not to involve their subjects in unnecessary and unwinnable wars. Rajaraja II (1146–1173 CE), Rajadhiraja II (1166–1178 CE) and Kulothunga Chola III (1178–1218 CE) took active roles in

4725-414: The Cholas were not Hindus. At the same event, another leading Tamil actor, film director, film producer, screenwriter, choreographer, playback singer, lyricist, television presenter, social activist and politician Kamal Haasan , while supporting Vetrimaaran asserted Hindu religion did not exist during the Chola period. The Chola dynasty has inspired many Tamil authors. The most important work of this genre

4830-488: The Cholas, the Tamil country reached new heights of excellence in art , religion , music and literature . In all of these spheres, the Chola period marked the culmination of movements that had begun at an earlier age under the Pallavas. Monumental architecture in the form of majestic temples and sculpture in stone and bronze reached a finesse never before achieved in India. The Chola conquest of Kadaram (Kedah) and Srivijaya, and their continued commercial contacts with

4935-590: The Deccan, the Pallavas of Kanchi , and Pandyas of Madurai dominated the politics of south India. The Pandyas often ruled or invaded the fertile estuary of Kaveri (the Chola country), the ancient Chera country (Kongu and central Kerala ) and Venadu (southern Kerala), the Pallava country and Sri Lanka . The Pandyas fell into decline with the rise of the Cholas of Thanjavur in the 9th century and were in constant conflict with

5040-515: The Early Chola kings. The Cholas were looked upon as descended from the sun. These historic incidents speak of the Chola king Kantaman , supposed contemporary of the sage Agastya , whose devotion brought the river Kaveri into existence. There is also the story of the king Manu who sentenced his son to death for having accidentally killed a calf. Mahavamasa portrays King Ellaalan who was defeated by Duttha Gamini ( c.  3rd century BCE ) as

5145-819: The Ganges river in north India. Rajendra Chola I built a new capital called Gangaikonda Cholapuram to celebrate his victories in northern India. Rajendra Chola I successfully invaded the Srivijaya kingdom in Southeast Asia which led to the decline of the empire there. He also completed the conquest of a kingdom in Rajarata within Sri Lanka and sent three diplomatic missions to China in 1016, 1033, and 1077. The Western Chalukya empire under Satyashraya and Someshvara I tried regularly to loose itself from Chola domination, primarily due to

5250-635: The Kannada kingdoms. Furthermore, the Cholas fought constantly with the Sinhala kings from the Rohana kingdom of Sri Lanka, who repeatedly attempted to overthrow the Chola occupation of Rajarata and unify the island. But until the later Chola king Kulottunga I, the Cholas had firm control over the area. In one such instance, the Chola king, Rajadhiraja Chola II , was able to defeat the Sinhalese, aided by their traditional ally,

5355-624: The Mauryan empire's neighbours to the South ( Ashoka Major Rock Edict No.13 ), who, thought not subject to Ashoka, were on friendly terms with him. There are also brief references to the Chola country and its towns, ports and commerce in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea ( Periplus Maris Erythraei ), and in the slightly later work of the geographer Ptolemy . Mahāvaṃsa , a Buddhist text written down during

SECTION 50

#1732845598263

5460-467: The Pandya power by Kadungon (7th century CE) coincided with the prominence of the Shaivite nayanars and the Vaishnavite alvars . The Chola dynasty was a Tamil thalassocratic empire of southern India, one of the longest-ruling dynasties in the world history. The earliest datable references to the Chola are in inscriptions from the 3rd century BCE left by Ashoka , of the Maurya Empire . As one of

5565-562: The Pandyas. The heartland of the Cholas was the fertile valley of the Kaveri River , but they ruled a significantly larger area at the height of their power from the later half of the 9th century till the beginning of the 13th century. The whole country south of the Tungabhadra was united and held as one state for a period of three centuries and more between 907 and 1215 AD. Under Rajaraja I and his successors Rajendra I , Rajadhiraja I , Rajendra II , Virarajendra , and Kulothunga Chola I ,

5670-528: The Sangam literature, written in the period 600 BCE–300 CE. Unfortunately, it has not been possible to piece together an internal chronology of the Sangam works. Due to this, we know of several rulers, but not their chronology. All three kings have been portrayed as fighting the war or involved in feeding both the armies at that legendary war. Karikala Chola (c. 90 BCE) stands pre-eminent amongst all those mentioned in Pattinappaalai . Karikala's father

5775-615: The Srivijaya Empire in the 11th century. Rajaraja Chola I launched several naval campaigns that resulted in the capture of Sri Lanka, Maldives and the Malabar Coast. In 1025, Rajendra Chola launched naval raids on the ports of Srivijaya and against the Burmese kingdom of Pegu. A Chola inscription states that he captured or plundered 14 places, which have been identified with Palembang, Tambralinga and Kedah among others. A second invasion

5880-698: The Tamil land almost completely in this debacle, though a branch of them can be traced towards the close of the fifth century CE in Rayalaseema—the Telugu-Cholas , whose kingdom is mentioned by Yuan Chwang in the seventh-century CE. Due to Kalabhra invasion and the growing power of Pallavas, Cholas migrated from their native land Uraiyur to Telugu country and ruled from there as chieftains of Pallavas at least since 540 CE. Several Telugu Chola families like Renati Cholas, Pottapi Cholas, Nellore Cholas , Velanati Cholas , Nannuru Cholas, Kondidela Cholas existed and claimed descent from ancient Tamil king Karikala Chola . The Cholas had to wait for another three centuries until

5985-490: The accession of Vijayalaya Chola belonging to Pottapi Chola family in the second quarter of the ninth century to re-establish their dynasty as independent rulers by overthrowing Pallavas and Pandyas. As per inscriptions found in and around Thanjavur, Thanjavur kingdom was ruled by Mutharaiyars / Muthurajas for three centuries. Their reign was ended by Vijayalaya Chola who captured Thanjavur from Ilango Mutharaiyar between 848 and 851 CE. Epigraphy and literature provide

6090-430: The accession of King Vikrama Chola, the son and successor of Kulothunga Chola I, the Cholas lost no time in recovering the province of Vengi by defeating Chalukya Someshvara III and also recovering Gangavadi from the Hoysalas. The Chola empire, though not as strong as between 850 and 1150, was still largely territorially intact under Rajaraja Chola II (1146–1175) a fact attested by the construction and completion of

6195-399: The available information of the early Cholas is the early Tamil literature of the Sangam Period. Karikala Chola was the most famous early Chola. He is mentioned in a number of poems in the Tamil Sangam literature . There are also brief notices on the Chola country and its towns, ports and commerce furnished by the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea ( Periplus Maris Erythraei ). Periplus is

6300-424: The battle of Vallala and also defeated the Pandyas. Rajaraja I and Rajendra I would expand the dynasty to its imperial state in the 11th century, creating an influential empire in the Bay of Bengal . The Brihadeeswarar Temple was also built in this era. The Chola dynasty was at the peak of its influence and power during the 11th century. Rajendra I conquered Odisha and Pala dynasty of Bengal and reached

6405-601: The beginning of the 13th century with the rise of the Pandyan dynasty , which ultimately caused their downfall. The Cholas left a lasting legacy. Their patronage of Tamil literature and their zeal in the building of temples has resulted in some great works of Tamil literature and architecture. The Chola kings were avid builders and envisioned the temples in their kingdoms not only as places of worship but also as centers of economic activity. They were also well known for their art, specifically temple sculptures and 'Chola bronzes', exquisite bronze sculptures of Hindu deities built in

SECTION 60

#1732845598263

6510-417: The beginning of the 13th century. They unified peninsular India south of the Tungabhadra River and held the territory as one state for three centuries between 907 and 1215 CE . Under Rajaraja I and his successors Rajendra I , Rajadhiraja I , Rajendra II , Virarajendra , and Kulothunga Chola I , the empire became a military, economic and cultural powerhouse in South Asia and Southeast Asia . There

6615-500: The chiefs called by the general denomination Vel or Velir . Still lower at the local level there were clan chiefs called kizhar or mannar . The Tamil area had an independent existence outside the control of these northern empires. The Tamil kings and chiefs were always in conflict with each other mostly over property. The royal courts were mostly places of social gathering rather than places of dispensation of authority; they were centres for distribution of resources. The names of

6720-408: The dissolution of the Perumal kingdom, royal inscriptions and temple grants, especially from outside Kerala proper, continued to refer the country and the people as the "Cheras or Keralas". The rulers of Venad (the Venad Cheras or the "Kulasekharas"), based out of the port of Kollam in south Kerala, claimed their ancestry from the Perumals. Cheranad was also the name of an erstwhile province in

6825-401: The dissolution of the Chalukyas by aiding the Hoysalas under Veera Ballala II , the son-in-law of the Chola monarch, and defeated the Western Chalukyas in a series of wars with Someshvara IV between 1185 and 1190. The last Chalukya king's territories did not even include the erstwhile Chalukyan capitals Badami, Manyakheta or Kalyani. That was the final dissolution of Chalukyan power though

6930-429: The dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in South Asia and South-East Asia . The power of the new empire was proclaimed to the eastern world by the expedition to the Ganges which Rajendra Chola I undertook and by naval raids on cities of the city-state of Srivijaya , as well as by the repeated embassies to China. The Chola fleet represented the zenith of ancient Indian maritime capacity . During

7035-461: The early historical period (c. second century BCE – c. third century CE) are known to have had their original centre at Karur in Kongu Nadu and harbours at Muchiri (Muziris) and Thondi (Tyndis) on the Indian Ocean coast ( Kerala ). They governed the area of Malabar Coast between Alappuzha in the south to Kasaragod in the north. This included Palakkad Gap , Coimbatore , Dharapuram , Salem , and Kolli Hills . The region around Coimbatore

7140-409: The edicts of Maurya emperor Ashoka , coins with legends in Tamil-Brahmi script, and Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions suggest the continuity of the Pandya dynasty from the 3rd century BCE to the early centuries CE. The early historic Pandyas faded into obscurity upon the rise of the Kalabhra dynasty in south India. From the 6th century to the 9th century CE, the Chalukyas of Badami or Rashtrakutas of

7245-441: The end of the Sangam age (c. 300) to that in which the Pandyas and Pallavas dominated the Tamil country. An obscure dynasty, the Kalabhras invaded Tamil country, displaced the existing kingdoms and ruled during that time. They were displaced by the Pallava dynasty and the Pandyan dynasty in the 6th century. Little is known of the fate of the Cholas in Tamil land during the succeeding three centuries. The Cholas disappeared from

7350-628: The finest example being the Shore Temple , a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Mamallapuram . Kancheepuram served as the capital of the Pallava kingdom. The dynasty left behind magnificent sculptures and temples, and are recognised to have established the foundations of medieval South Indian architecture. They developed the Pallava script , from which Grantha ultimately took form. This script eventually gave rise to several other Southeast Asian scripts such Khmer . The Chinese traveller Xuanzang visited Kanchipuram during Pallava rule and extolled their benign rule. The Pandya dynasty , also referred to as

7455-427: The great text Tolkāppiyam which deals with grammar but which also mentions ethics of warfare. Periapuranam was another remarkable literary piece of this period. This work is in a sense a national epic of the Tamil people because it treats the lives of the saints who lived in all parts of Tamil Nadu and belonged to all classes of society, men and women, high and low, educated and uneducated. Kamban flourished during

7560-414: The just king who '..had a bell with a rope attached at the head of his bed, so that all who sought redress might ring it..'. King Sibi who rescued a dove from a hawk by giving his own flesh to the hungry hawk was also part of the early Chola history. These historic incidents received enormous emphasis in the later Chola period in the long mythical genealogies incorporated into the copper-plate charters of

7665-585: The kingdom of Zamorin of Calicut , which had included parts of present-day Tirurangadi and Tirur Taluks of Malappuram district in it. Later it became a Taluk of Malabar District , when Malabar came under the British Raj . The headquarters of Cheranad Taluk was the town of Tirurangadi . Later the Taluk was merged with Eranad Taluk. In the modern period the rulers of Cochin and Travancore (in Kerala) also claimed

7770-612: The kings of the Chola empire. Chola rule is remembered in Malaysia today as many princes there have names ending with Cholan or Chulan, one such being Raja Chulan , the Raja of Perak . The Imperial Chola era was the golden age of Tamil culture, marked by the importance of literature. Chola records cite many works, including the Rajarajesvara Natakam , Viranukkaviyam and Kannivana Puranam . The revival of Hinduism from its nadir during

7875-401: The last great Chola monarch Kulottunga Chola III reinforced the hold of the Chola territories by quelling further rebellions and disturbances in the Rajarata area of Sri Lanka and Madurai. He also defeated Hoysala generals who fought under Veera Ballala II at Karuvur. Eastern Gangavadi, Draksharama, Vengi, and Kalinga. However, after defeating Veera Ballala II, Kulottunga Chola III entered into

7980-467: The latter. The Pandyas allied themselves with the Sinhalese and the Cheras in harassing the Chola Empire until it found an opportunity for reviving its frontiers during the late 13th century. The Pandyas entered their golden age under Maravarman I and Jatavarman Sundara Pandya I (13th century). Some early efforts by Maravarman I to expand into the ancient Chola country were effectively checked by

8085-414: The most famous Chola king, Rajaraja Chola in 1010 CE. The Chera dynasty ( Tamil : சேரர், Malayalam : ചേരൻ) ( or Cēra ), IPA: [t͡ʃeːɾɐ] , was one of the principal lineages in the early history of the present day state of Kerala and some parts of Tamil Nadu in southern India. Together with the Cholas of Uraiyur(Tiruchirappalli) and the Pandyas of Madurai , the early Cheras were known as one of

8190-524: The northern parts of the Tamil region for about 600 years, until the end of the 9th century. Throughout their reign, they remained in constant conflict with both the Chalukyas of Badami in the north, and the Tamil kingdoms of Chola and Pandyas in the south. The Pallavas were finally defeated by the Chola ruler Aditya I in the 9th century CE. The Pallavas are most noted for their patronage of architecture,

8295-470: The numerous battles Karikala fought against the other two Tamil kings in one of which the Chera king was disgraced (received a wound on his back) and committed suicide. Karikala thus broke the confederacy that was formed against him and established hegemony over Pandyas and Cheras. In later times Karikala was the subject of many legends found in the Cilappatikaram and in inscriptions and literary works of

8400-695: The occupation of Dharwar in North Central Karnataka by the Hoysalas under Vishnuvardhana , where he based himself with his son Narasimha I in charge of the Hoysala capital Dwarasamudra around 1149, and with the Kalachuris occupying the Chalukyan capital for over 35 years from around 1150–1151, the Chalukya kingdom had already started to dissolve. The Cholas under Kulothunga Chola III collaborated to herald

8505-672: The old country. Cenni in Tamil means Head . The history of the Cholas falls into four periods: the Early Cholas of the Sangam literature, the interregnum between the fall of the Sangam Cholas and the rise of the Imperial medieval Cholas under Vijayalaya (c. 848), the dynasty of Vijayalaya, and finally the Later Chola dynasty of Kulothunga Chola I from the third quarter of the 11th century. The earliest Chola kings for whom there

8610-577: The other port town of Nagappattinam as the most important centres of Cholas. These two towns became hubs of trade and commerce and attracted many religious faiths, including Buddhism. Roman ships found their way into these ports. Roman coins dating from the early centuries of the common era have been found near the Kaveri delta. The other major towns were Thanjavur, Uraiyur and Kudanthai, now known as Kumbakonam . After Rajendra Chola moved his capital to Gangaikonda Cholapuram, Thanjavur lost its importance. Under

8715-576: The period 1010–1153, the Chola territories stretched from the islands of the Maldives in the south to as far north as the banks of the Godavari River in Andhra Pradesh . Rajaraja Chola conquered peninsular South India , annexed parts of which is now Sri Lanka and occupied the islands of the Maldives. Rajendra Chola sent a victorious expedition to North India that touched the river Ganges and defeated

8820-421: The period when Kulothunga Chola I was in exile from the Vengi kingdom after he was denied the throne. It speculates the whereabouts of Kulothunga during this period. Sandilyan's earlier work, Yavana Rani , written in the early 1960s, is based on the life of Karikala Chola. More recently, Balakumaran wrote the novel Udaiyar , which is based on the circumstances surrounding Rajaraja Chola's construction of

8925-508: The poets who extolled them. The Sangam literature also records legends about mythical Chola kings. These myths speak of the Chola king Kantaman, a supposed contemporary of the sage Agastya , whose devotion brought the river Kaveri into existence. Two names are prominent among those Chola kings who feature in Sangam literature: Karikala and Kocengannan . There are no sure means of settling the order of succession, of fixing their relations with one another and with many other princelings of around

9030-480: The politics of the emerging revival of the Pandyas . Meanwhile, the Chola succession was getting murkier and murkier with disputes and intrigues during the periods of Rajadhiraja II and Kulothunga III. The Cholas under Kulothunga Chola III collaborated to herald the dissolution of the Chalukyas by aiding Hoysalas under Veera Ballala II , the son-in-law of the Chola monarch and defeated the Western Chalukyas in

9135-419: The reign of Kulothunga III . Jayamkondar's Kalingattuparani , draws a clear boundary between history and fictitious conventions. The Tamil poet Ottakuttan was a contemporary of Kulothunga I and served at the courts of three of Kulothunga's successors. Nannul is a Chola era work on Tamil grammar. It discusses all five branches of grammar and, according to Berthold Spuler, is still relevant today and

9240-470: The rise of Buddhism and Jainism as were the kings of the Pallava and Pandya dynasties. Kocengannan, an Early Chola, was celebrated in both Sangam literature and in the Shaivite canon as a Hindu saint. Among the Tamil film and entertainment industry, there is a rising trend of terming the Cholas as non-Hindus. Noted Tamil film director, producer and screenwriter Vetrimaaran asserted at a function in 2022 that

9345-516: The rule of the later Cholas between 1218, starting with Rajaraja Chola II , to the last emperor Rajendra Chola III was not as strong as those of the emperors between 850 and 1215. Around 1118, they lost control of Vengi to the Western Chalukya and Gangavadi (southern Mysore districts) to the Hoysala Empire . However, these were only temporary setbacks, because immediately following

9450-403: The same period. Urayur (now a part of Thiruchirapalli ) was their oldest capital. Kaveripattinam also served as an early Chola capital. The Mahavamsa mentions that a Chola prince known as Ellalan , invaded the Rajarata kingdom of Sri Lanka and conquered it in 235 BCE with the help of a Mysore army. There is not much information about the transition period of around three centuries from

9555-462: The sea, unbroken by major hills or valleys. The river, which is also known as the Ponni ( Golden ) river, had a special place in the culture of Cholas. The annual floods in the Kaveri marked an occasion for celebration, known as Adiperukku , in which the whole nation took part. Kaveripoompattinam on the coast near the Kaveri delta was a major port town. Ptolemy knew of this, which he called Khaberis, and

9660-643: The shrine of Srirangam into big temple seen now. They laid the basic foundations and primary Buildings. Killi, Thiru Mangai, Kulasekaran, Rajamahendra and Thiru Vikrama were named in the Sri Ranganathar temple in Tiruchchirappalli as being ancestors of Killivallavan. Dharmavarma was another ancestor of Killivallavan, possibly his father. It is located in the middle of the Trichy town. The earliest Chola kings of whom we have tangible evidence are those mentioned in

9765-425: The third grand Chola architectural marvel, the chariot-shaped Airavatesvara Temple at Dharasuram on the outskirts of modern Kumbakonam. Chola administration and territorial integrity until the rule of Kulothunga Chola III was stable and very prosperous up to 1215, but during his rule itself, the decline of the Chola power started following his defeat by Maravarman Sundara Pandiyan II in 1215–16. Subsequently,

9870-507: The three Tamil dynasties were referred to as the " three crowned rulers (the mu-ventar) of the Tamil country ". The origin and the timeline of the Pandya dynasty are difficult to establish. The early Pandya chieftains ruled their country ( Pandya Nadu ) from the ancient period, which included the inland city of Madurai and the southern port of Korkai . The Pandyas are celebrated in the earliest available Tamil poetry ( Sangam literature "). Graeco-Roman accounts (as early as 4th century BCE),

9975-488: The three dynasties, Cholas , Pandyas , and Cheras , are mentioned in the Pillars of Ashoka (inscribed 273–232 BCE) inscriptions, among the kingdoms, which though not subject to Ashoka , were on friendly terms with him. The king of Kalinga , Kharavela , who ruled around 150 BCE, mentioned in the famous Hathigumpha inscription of the confederacy of the Tamil kingdoms that had existed for over 100 years. Another source for

10080-542: The title "Chera". Early Cholas The Early Cholas were a Tamil kingdom of the Chola dynasty - pre and post Sangam period (600 BCE–300 CE). It was one of the three main kingdoms of Tamilakam . Their early capitals were Urayur or Tiruchirapalli and Kaveripattinam . Along with the Pandyas and the Cheras , the Chola history goes back to the period when written records were scarce. Ancient Tamil Nadu contained three monarchical states, headed by kings called Vendhar and several chieftaincies, headed by

10185-444: Was Ilamcetcenni , a brave king and a hard fighter. 'Karikala' means 'elephant feller' or 'charred leg', which is assumed to be a reference to an accident by fire that befell the prince early in his life. Pattinappaalai describes this accident and the enterprising way in which the prince escaped and established himself in the Chola throne. Pattinappalai is a long poem on the then Chola capital Kaveripattinam . This work also describes

10290-458: Was an Indian dynasty that existed from 275 CE to 897 CE, ruling a significant portion of southern India . They gained prominence after the downfall of the Satavahana dynasty , with whom they had formerly served as feudatories . The Pallavas became a major power during the reign of Mahendravarman I (600–630 CE) and Narasimhavarman I (630–668 CE), and dominated the southern Telugu Region and

10395-460: Was carried away by the Pandyas. During this period, the rule of the kingdom was shared among several royals, one of them enjoying primacy over the rest. An internal crisis in the Pandya kingdom coincided with the Khalji invasion of south India in 1310–11. The ensuing political crisis saw more sultanate raids and plunder, the loss of south Kerala (1312), and north Sri Lanka (1323) and the establishment of

10500-452: Was led by Virarajendra Chola, who conquered Kedah in Malaysia of Srivijaya in the late 11th century. Chola invasion ultimately failed to install direct administration over Srivijaya, since the invasion was short and only meant to plunder the wealth of Srivijaya. However, this invasion gravely weakened the Srivijayan hegemony and enabled the formation of regional kingdoms. Although the invasion

10605-626: Was married to the Eastern Chalukya prince Rajaraja Narendra . Virarajendra Chola's son, Athirajendra Chola , was assassinated in a civil disturbance in 1070, and Kulothunga Chola I, the son of Ammanga Devi and Rajaraja Narendra, ascended the Chola throne. Thus began the Later Chola dynasty. The Later Chola dynasty was led by capable rulers such as Kulothunga Chola I, his son Vikrama Chola , other successors like Rajaraja Chola II, Rajadhiraja Chola II, and Kulothunga Chola III, who conquered Kalinga, Ilam , and Kataha . However,

10710-672: Was not followed by direct Cholan occupation and the region was unchanged geographically, there were huge consequences in trade. Tamil traders encroached on the Srivijayan realm traditionally controlled by Malay traders and the Tamil guilds' influence increased on the Malay Peninsula and the north coast of Sumatra. Marital and political alliances between the Eastern Chalukyas began during the reign of Rajaraja following his invasion of Vengi. Rajaraja Chola's daughter married Chalukya prince Vimaladitya and Rajendra Chola's daughter Ammanga Devi

10815-659: Was ruled by the Cheras during Sangam period between c. 1st and the 4th centuries CE and it served as the eastern entrance to the Palakkad Gap , the principal trade route between the Malabar Coast and Tamil Nadu . However the southern region of present-day Kerala state (The coastal belt between Thiruvananthapuram and southern Alappuzha ) was under Ay dynasty , who was more related to the Pandya dynasty of Madurai . The early historic pre-Pallava Tamil polities are often described as

10920-403: Was serialised in the Tamil periodical Kalki during the mid-1950s. The serialisation lasted for nearly five years and every week its publication was awaited with great interest. Kalki's earlier historical romance, Parthiban Kanavu , deals with the fortunes of the imaginary Chola prince Vikraman, who was supposed to have lived as a feudatory of the Pallava king Narasimhavarman I during

11025-414: Was the prevailing form of government. Disputed succession and civil war was not uncommon. The sphere of state activity was limited. In a society steeped in respect for custom, even the most perverse dictator could not have done much harm. The Chola monarchs were approachable by subjects and justice was meted out directly by the king in most occasions. This is in marked contrast to the magnificent empires of

#262737