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53-405: According to its website, the association's responsibilities include "contact, coordination, and service". The association promotes new musical composition , organizes music competitions , provides rewards and commendations for prominent musical contributions, and sponsors musical research. It also carries out musical exchange between China and other countries including introducing Chinese music to

106-410: A string section , wind and brass sections used in a standard orchestras to electronic instruments such as synthesizers . Some common group settings include music for full orchestra (consisting of strings, woodwinds, brass, and percussion), concert band (which consists of larger sections and greater diversity of woodwind, brass, and percussion instruments than are usually found in the orchestra), or

159-584: A chamber group (a small number of instruments, but at least two). The composer may also choose to write for only one instrument, in which case this is called a solo . Solos may be unaccompanied, as with works for solo piano or solo cello, or solos may be accompanied by another instrument or by an ensemble. Composers are not limited to writing only for instruments, they may also decide to write for voice (including choral works, some symphonies, operas , and musicals ). Composers can also write for percussion instruments or electronic instruments . Alternatively, as

212-495: A circular issued by the United States Copyright Office on Copyright Registration of Musical Compositions and Sound Recordings, a musical composition is defined as "A musical composition consists of music, including any accompanying words, and is normally registered as a work of the performing arts. The author of a musical composition is generally the composer, and the lyricists if any. A musical composition may be in

265-629: A combination of both methods. For example, the principal cello player in an orchestra may read most of the accompaniment parts in a symphony, where she is playing tutti parts, but then memorize an exposed solo, in order to be able to watch the conductor . Compositions comprise a huge variety of musical elements, which vary widely from between genres and cultures. Popular music genres after about 1960 make extensive use of electric and electronic instruments, such as electric guitar and electric bass . Electric and electronic instruments are used in contemporary classical music compositions and concerts, albeit to

318-414: A compendium featuring graphic scores by composers from over fifty countries, demonstrating how widespread the practice has become. In addition to the more widespread popularity of graphic notation, new technology has expanded its possibilities. In his book The Digital Score: Musicianship, Creativity, and Innovation , Craig Vear describes how Artificial Intelligence and animation can be used to enhance

371-434: A composition for different musical ensembles is called arranging or orchestration , may be undertaken by the composer or separately by an arranger based on the composer's core composition. Based on such factors, composers, orchestrators, and arrangers must decide upon the instrumentation of the original work. In the 2010s, the contemporary composer can virtually write for almost any combination of instruments, ranging from

424-481: A lesser degree than in popular music. Music from the Baroque music era (1600–1750), for example, used only acoustic and mechanical instruments such as strings, brass, woodwinds, timpani and keyboard instruments such as harpsichord and pipe organ . A 2000s-era pop band may use an electric guitar played with electronic effects through a guitar amplifier , a digital synthesizer keyboard and electronic drums . Piece

477-533: A method of notating music known as the Galin-Paris-Chevé system , building on a notation system created in the 18th century by Jean-Jacques Rousseau . This system used numbers to indicate scale degrees, and used dots either above or below the note to indicate if they were in the lowest octave or the highest. The middle octave, relative to the example, contained no dots. Flats and sharps were notated using backslashes and forward slashes respectively. Prolongations of

530-476: A note is either bass or treble", an indeterminacy which is not unusual in Cage's work, and which leaves decision-making up to the performer. Some graphic scores can be defined as action-based, where musical gestures are notated as shapes instead of conventional musical ideas. The use of graphic notation within a score can vary widely, from the score being made up entirely of graphic notation to graphic notation being

583-590: A number of secondary academic societies. The association's subordinate organizations include the Chinese Traditional Music Society, Chinese National Orchestral Music society, Chinese Ethnic Minorities Vocal Music Society, Chinese Musical Aesthetics Society, Chinese Musical Literature Society, Nie Er, and Xian Xinghai Society. The CMA is a member of the International Music Council and JMI (www.JMI.org) This Chinese music article

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636-416: A performer. Copyright is a government-granted monopoly which, for a limited time, gives a composition's owner—such as a composer or a composer's employer, in the case of work for hire —a set of exclusive rights to the composition, such as the exclusive right to publish sheet music describing the composition and how it should be performed. Copyright requires anyone else wanting to use the composition in

689-458: A single author, this is not always the case. A work of music can have multiple composers, which often occurs in popular music when all members of a band collaborate to write a song or in musical theatre, when one person writes the melodies, a second person writes the lyrics and a third person orchestrates the songs. A piece of music can also be composed with words, images or, since the 20th century, with computer programs that explain or notate how

742-481: A small part of an otherwise largely-traditional score. Some composers include written explanations to aid the performer in interpreting the graphic notation, while other composers opt to leave the interpretation entirely up to the performer. Graphic notation is difficult to characterize with specificity, as the notation system is only limited by the imagination and ability of the composer. Though some composers, like John Cage, formulate graphic notation systems which unify

795-646: A specific mode ( maqam ) often within improvisational contexts , as does Indian classical music in both the Hindustani and the Carnatic system. As technology has developed in the 20th and 21st century, new methods of music composition have come about. EEG headsets have also been used to create music by interpreting the brainwaves of musicians. This method has been used for Project Mindtunes, which involved collaborating disabled musicians with DJ Fresh, and also by artists Lisa Park and Masaki Batoh. The task of adapting

848-530: Is "compulsory" because the copyright owner cannot refuse or set terms for the license. Copyright collectives also typically manage the licensing of public performances of compositions, whether by live musicians or by transmitting sound recordings over radio or the Internet. Even though the first US copyright laws did not include musical compositions, they were added as part of the Copyright Act of 1831 . According to

901-434: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Musical composition Musical composition can refer to an original piece or work of music , either vocal or instrumental , the structure of a musical piece or to the process of creating or writing a new piece of music. People who create new compositions are called composers . Composers of primarily songs are usually called songwriters ; with songs,

954-403: Is a "general, non-technical term [that began to be] applied mainly to instrumental compositions from the 17th century onwards....other than when they are taken individually 'piece' and its equivalents are rarely used of movements in sonatas or symphonies....composers have used all these terms [in their different languages] frequently in compound forms [e.g. Klavierstück]....In vocal music...the term

1007-575: Is desired. One of the earliest pioneers of this technique was Earle Brown , who, along with John Cage , sought to liberate performers from the constraints of notation and make them active participants in the creation of the music. Graphic notation is characterized by its variability and lack of standardization. According to Baker's Student Encyclopedia of Music, Vol. 1 , "Graphic notation is used to indicate extremely precise (or intentionally imprecise) pitch or to stimulate musical behavior or actions in performance." Modern graphic notation relies heavily on

1060-428: Is most frequently used for operatic ensembles..." Composition techniques draw parallels from visual art's formal elements . Sometimes, the entire form of a piece is through-composed , meaning that each part is different, with no repetition of sections; other forms include strophic , rondo , verse-chorus , and others. Some pieces are composed around a set scale , where the compositional technique might be considered

1113-421: Is the case with musique concrète , the composer can work with many sounds often not associated with the creation of music, such as typewriters , sirens , and so forth. In Elizabeth Swados ' Listening Out Loud , she explains how a composer must know the full capabilities of each instrument and how they must complement each other, not compete. She gives an example of how in an earlier composition of hers, she had

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1166-618: Is the rendering audible of two or more simultaneous sounds in such a manner that their combination is pleasant. This is what we call harmony and it alone merits the name of composition. Since the invention of sound recording , a classical piece or popular song may exist as a recording. If music is composed before being performed, music can be performed from memory (the norm for instrumental soloists in concerto performances and singers in opera shows and art song recitals), by reading written musical notation (the norm in large ensembles, such as orchestras, concert bands and choirs ), or through

1219-450: The ars subtilior is Jacob Senleches ' La harpe de melodie , where the voices are notated on a stave that appears to be the strings of a harp. Eye music's popularity died down after the Humanist movement of the mid-16th century, later to be revitalized in the twentieth century as the use of graphic scores became prominent once again. The 19th century music educator Pierre Galin developed

1272-434: The lead sheet , which sets out the melody , lyrics and chord progression. In classical music, orchestration (choosing the instruments of a large music ensemble such as an orchestra which will play the different parts of music, such as the melody, accompaniment , countermelody , bassline and so on) is typically done by the composer, but in musical theatre and in pop music , songwriters may hire an arranger to do

1325-422: The 1750s onwards, there are many decisions that a performer or conductor has to make, because notation does not specify all of the elements of musical performance. The process of deciding how to perform music that has been previously composed and notated is termed "interpretation". Different performers' or conductor's interpretations of the same work of music can vary widely, in terms of the tempos that are chosen and

1378-481: The 1950s as an evolution of movement of Indeterminacy as pioneered by John Cage . The technique was originally used by avant-garde musicians and manifested itself as the use of symbols to convey information that could not be rendered with traditional notation such as extended techniques . Graphic scores have, since their conception, evolved into two broadly defined categories, one being the invention of new notation systems used to convey specific musical techniques and

1431-465: The 2000s, composition is considered to consist of the manipulation of each aspect of music ( harmony , melody, form, rhythm and timbre ), according to Jean-Benjamin de Laborde (1780 , 2:12): Composition consists in two things only. The first is the ordering and disposing of several sounds...in such a manner that their succession pleases the ear. This is what the Ancients called melody . The second

1484-612: The 20th century, such as John Cage , Morton Feldman and Witold Lutosławski . A more commonly known example of chance-based, or indeterminate, music is the sound of wind chimes jingling in a breeze. The study of composition has traditionally been dominated by examination of methods and practice of Western classical music, but the definition of composition is broad enough to include the creation of popular music and traditional music songs and instrumental pieces, and to include spontaneously improvised works like those of free jazz performers and African percussionists such as Ewe drummers . In

1537-401: The approach of specific pieces, or several pieces, there is no universal consensus on the parameters of graphic notation and its use. Though its most popular usage occurred in the mid-twentieth century, the first evidence of graphic notation dates back much earlier. Originally called " eye music ", these graphic scores bear much resemblance to the scores of composers like George Crumb . One of

1590-531: The composer's work. Contract law, not copyright law, governs these composer–publisher contracts, which ordinarily involve an agreement on how profits from the publisher's activities related to the work will be shared with the composer in the form of royalties . The scope of copyright in general is defined by various international treaties and their implementations, which take the form of national statutes , and in common law jurisdictions, case law . These agreements and corresponding body of law distinguish between

1643-504: The earliest surviving pieces of eye music is Belle, Bonne, Sage by Baude Cordier , a Renaissance composer. His score, formed in the shape of a heart, was intended to enhance the meaning of the chanson . Characteristic of the Ars subtilior , "experimentations with mensural signs and graphic shapes and colours were often a feature of musical design – for the sake of visual, rather than necessarily audible effect." Another example of eye music from

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1696-455: The form of a notated copy (for example sheet music) or in the form of a phonorecord (for example cassette tape, LP, or CD). Sending a musical composition in the form of a phonorecord does not necessarily mean that there is a claim to copyright in the sound recording." Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 defines a musical work to mean "a work consisting of music, exclusive of any words or action intended to be sung, spoken or performed with

1749-433: The function of the musician, and dared to add others to musical space in all its dimensions, with all their ontological consequences and burdens. They also changed the roles of the composer, the performer and the public, giving them totally new functions to explore. In this context, the score, which had to a great extent been considered a mere support for musical writing (with the exception of eye music ), began to flirt with

1802-401: The imagination and inspiration of each individual performer to interpret the visual content provided by the composer. Because of this relative freedom, the realization of graphically notated pieces usually varies from performance to performance. For example, in notation indication "E" of his piece Concert for Piano and Orchestra , John Cage writes: "Play with hands indicated. Where clefs differ,

1855-418: The limits of the work and its identity. This marriage produced three paths: the first considered the musical score to be a representation of organized sound; the second conceived it as an extension of sound; and the third viewed it as another type of music, a visual music with its own autonomy, independent of sound. The score took on new meanings and went from being a mere support of sound to being an extension of

1908-540: The movement of abstract notation, John Cage and Allison Knowles published an archive of excerpts of scores by 269 composers with the intention of showing "the many directions in which notation is now going". Other notable pioneers of graphic notation include composers such as Roman Haubenstock-Ramati , Mauricio Kagel , György Ligeti ( Artikulation ), Krzysztof Penderecki , Karlheinz Stockhausen , and Iannis Xenakis , Morton Feldman , Constance Cochnower Virtue , and Christian Wolff . In 2008, Theresa Sauer edited

1961-670: The music." Graphic notation (music) Graphic notation (or graphic score ) is the representation of music through the use of visual symbols outside the realm of traditional music notation . Graphic notation became popular in the 1950s, and can be used either in combination with or instead of traditional music notation. Graphic notation was influenced by contemporary visual art trends in its conception, bringing stylistic components from modern art into music. Composers often rely on graphic notation in experimental music , where standard musical notation can be ineffective. Other uses include pieces where an aleatoric or undetermined effect

2014-504: The music." In India The Copy Right Act, 1957 prevailed for original literary, dramatic, musical and artistic work until the Copyright (Amendment) Act, 1984 was introduced. Under the amended act, a new definition has been provided for musical work which states "musical works means a work consisting of music and included any graphical notation of such work but does not included any words or any action intended to be sung, spoken or performed with

2067-406: The non-lyrical elements. Many jurisdictions allow for compulsory licensing of certain uses of compositions. For example, copyright law may allow a record company to pay a modest fee to a copyright collective to which the composer or publisher belongs, in exchange for the right to make and distribute CDs containing a cover band 's performance of the composer or publisher's compositions. The license

2120-625: The note were notated using periods, and silence was notated with the number zero. This method was primarily used to teach sight-singing. The usage of symbols to indicate musical direction have been likened to an early version of graphic notation. Experimental music appeared in the United States and Europe during the 1950s, when many of the once untouchable parameters of traditional music began to be challenged. Aleatoric music , indeterminate music , musique concrète and electronic music shook previously unquestioned concepts, such as musical time or

2173-420: The orchestration. In some cases, a pop or traditional songwriter may not use written notation at all and instead compose the song in their mind and then play, sing or record it from memory. In jazz and popular music, notable sound recordings by influential performers are given the weight that written or printed scores play in classical music . Although a musical composition often uses musical notation and has

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2226-435: The other the use of conceptual notation such as shapes, drawings and other artistic techniques that are meant to evoke improvisation from the performer. Examples of the former include Morton Feldman 's Projection 1, which was the result of Feldman drawing abstract shapes on graph paper, and Stockhausen's Prozession . Examples of the latter include Earle Brown's December 1952 and Cornelius Cardew's Treatise , which

2279-405: The person who writes lyrics for a song is the lyricist . In many cultures, including Western classical music , the act of composing typically includes the creation of music notation , such as a sheet music "score" , which is then performed by the composer or by other musicians. In popular music and traditional music , songwriting may involve the creation of a basic outline of the song, called

2332-414: The playing or singing style or phrasing of the melodies. Composers and songwriters who present their own music in a concert are interpreting their songs, just as much as those who perform the music of others. The standard body of choices and techniques present at a given time and a given place is referred to as performance practice , whereas interpretation is generally used to mean the individual choices of

2385-515: The porousness of experimental music with respect to the plastic arts , notation came to be more and more influenced by a dialogue with painting, installations and performativity. As J.Y. Bosseur mentions in La musique du XXè siècle à la croisé des artes , the score progressed towards representing the management of space, a graphic space that allows us to know the multiple connections enclosed within it. Graphic notation in its modern form first appeared in

2438-428: The rights applicable to sound recordings and the rights applicable to compositions. For example, Beethoven 's 9th Symphony is in the public domain , but in most of the world, recordings of particular performances of that composition usually are not. For copyright purposes, song lyrics and other performed words are considered part of the composition, even though they may have different authors and copyright owners than

2491-408: The same ways to obtain a license (permission) from the owner. In some jurisdictions, the composer can assign copyright , in part, to another party. Often, composers who are not doing business as publishing companies themselves will temporarily assign their copyright interests to formal publishing companies, granting those companies a license to control both the publication and the further licensing of

2544-414: The singer or musician should create musical sounds. Examples range from 20th century avant-garde music that uses graphic notation , to text compositions such as Karlheinz Stockhausen 's Aus den sieben Tagen , to computer programs that select sounds for musical pieces. Music that makes heavy use of randomness and chance is called aleatoric music and is associated with contemporary composers active in

2597-502: The tuba playing with the piccolo. This would clearly drown the piccolo out. Each instrument chosen to be in a piece must have a reason for being there that adds to what the composer is trying to convey within the work. Arranging is composition which employs prior material so as to comment upon it such as in mash-ups and various contemporary classical works. Even when music is notated relatively precisely, as in Western classical music from

2650-462: The usage of a particular scale. Others are composed during performance (see improvisation ), where a variety of techniques are also sometimes used. Some are used from particular songs which are familiar. The scale for the notes used, including the mode and tonic note, is important in tonal musical composition. Similarly, music of the Middle East employs compositions that are rigidly based on

2703-404: The work, or even another work altogether, an element that was as important as the sounds and silences it contained, or more. These conceptions required a new language and a new reading of what it is to be musical. They also required a new notation, one that would reflect the changes taking place in the second artistic vanguards, and contain them, granting them a new semantics. In this way, taken with

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2756-484: The world, bringing internationally acclaimed musicians and music groups to China and selecting Chinese musicians to participate in international music competitions. In political terms, the organization serves as "a bridge and bond between the Party and government and the music industry." The CMA publishes several professional periodicals and publishes audio and video recordings. The CMA maintains nine specialized committees and

2809-485: Was written in response to Cage's 4'33" and which he wrote after having worked as Stockhausen's assistant. The score consists of 193 pages of lines and shapes on a white background. Here the lines represented elements in space and the score was merely a representation of that space at a given instant. In Europe, one of the most notable users was Sylvano Bussotti , whose scores have often been displayed as pieces of visual art by enthusiasts. In 1969, in an effort to promote

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