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88-544: The origin of the Sanskrit name Cīna is commonly believed to have been the Qin ( Tsin or Chin in older transliterations) dynasty which ruled in China from 221 BC, or the preceding state of Qin which is traditionally dated to the 9th century BC. There are a number of other suggestions for the origin of the word. Some Chinese and Indian scholars argued for the state of Jing ( 荆 ) as

176-436: A "China king" Dhautamulaka, who caused the destruction of his own race (5,74). The name "Dhautamulaka" translates to "clean root", and might be a reference to the last Xia emperor Jie (1728–1675 BC). "Deer skins from China" are mentioned at (5,86). King Dhritarashtra wanted to give a thousand deer-skins from China as a present to Vasudeva Krishna : I will give him a thousand deer-skins brought from China and other things of

264-517: A canal to the south, which they used heavily for supplying and reinforcing their troops during their second attack to the south. Building on these gains, the Qin armies conquered the coastal lands surrounding Guangzhou , and took the provinces of Fuzhou and Guilin . They may have struck as far south as Hanoi . After these victories in the south, Qin Shi Huang moved over 100,000 prisoners and exiles to colonise

352-511: A future sage of "benevolence and righteous", which the First Emperor declares himself to be. Regardless, in the Qin and early Han, criminals may be given amnesties, and then only punished if they did it again. While Dong Zhongshu claimed that Qin officials and taxes were harsh, he did't specifically claim that punishments were harsh for their time: in fact he claimed that the Qin failed to punish criminals. Penal law actually develops more in

440-417: A hierarchy of officials, all serving the First Emperor. The Qin put into practice the teachings of Han Fei , allowing the First Emperor to control all of his territories, including those recently conquered. All aspects of life were standardised, from measurements and language to more practical details, such as the length of chariot axles. The states made by the emperor were assigned to officials dedicated to

528-442: A permanent system of ranks and rewards, consisting of twenty ranks based on the number of enemies killed in battle or commanding victorious units. Ranks were not hereditary unless a soldier died heroically in battle, whereby the soldier's rank will be inherited by his family. Each rank was assigned a specified number of dwellings, slaves and land, and ranks could be used to remit judicial punishments. The form of government created by

616-399: A result of their art – Luan Da , a Han dynasty medium, was granted rule over 2,000 households. Han historian Sima Qian was scornful of such practices, dismissing them as foolish trickery. Divinations to predict or influence the future were another form of religious practice during the Qin, including the ancient practice of cracking bones or turtle shells to gain knowledge of

704-481: A result, men from all over China revolted, attacking officials, raising armies, and declaring themselves kings of seized territories. During this time, Li Si and Zhao Gao fell out, and Li Si was executed. Zhao Gao decided to force Qin Er Shi to commit suicide due to Qin Er Shi's incompetence. Upon this, Ziying , a nephew of Qin Er Shi, ascended the throne, and immediately executed Zhao Gao. Increasing unrest spread amongst

792-447: A revulsion against the Qin developed over the course of the Han dynasty, centring on Shang Yang and Han Fei as espousing rigorous law and punishment. While Shang Yang, and maybe Han Fei , may have been influential for Qin administration, the Qin otherwise abandoned the harsh penal policy of Shang Yang before its founding. The Qin government was highly bureaucratic , and was administered by

880-412: A sacrifice to further blur his senses and increase the likelihood of perceiving otherworldly phenomena. Other participants were similarly prepared, though not as rigorously. Such blurring of the senses was also a factor in the practice of spirit intermediaries, or mediumship . Practitioners of the art would fall into trances or dance to perform supernatural tasks. These people would often rise to power as

968-572: A state in such turmoil could not hold for long. Ziying was defeated near the Wei River in 207, and surrendered shortly after; he was executed by the Chu leader Xiang Yu . The Qin capital was destroyed the next year, and this is considered by historians to be the end of the Qin Empire. Liu Bang then betrayed and defeated Xiang Yu, and on 28 February 202 BC declared himself Emperor Gaozu ("High Progenitor") of

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1056-545: A strong leadership from long-lived rulers, openness to employ talented men from other states, and little internal opposition gave the Qin a strong political base. Another advantage of the Qin was that they had a large, efficient army and capable generals. They used the newest developments in weaponry and transportation as well, which many of their enemies lacked. These latter developments allowed greater mobility over several different terrain types which were most common in many regions of China. Thus, in both ideology and practice,

1144-437: A trip to the eastern frontiers in 210 BC, Qin Shi Huang died in an attempt to procure an elixir of immortality from Taoist magicians, who claimed the elixir was stuck on an island guarded by a sea monster. The chief eunuch , Zhao Gao , and the prime minister, Li Si , hid the news of his death upon their return until they were able to alter his will to place on the throne the dead emperor's most pliable son, Huhai, who took

1232-402: A working crossbow. The Qin also used improved methods of transportation and tactics. The state of Zhao had first replaced chariots with cavalry in 307 BC, but the change was swiftly adopted by the other states because cavalry had greater mobility over the terrain of China. The First Emperor developed plans to fortify his northern border, to protect against nomadic invasions. The result

1320-443: Is an accepted version of this page The Qin dynasty ( / tʃ ɪ n / ; CHIN ) was the first dynasty of Imperial China . It is named for its progenitor state of Qin , which was a fief of the confederal Zhou dynasty that had endured for over five centuries. Beginning in 230 BC, the Qin under King Ying Zheng engaged in a series of wars conquering each of the rival states that had previously pledged fealty to

1408-553: Is in Sima Qian 's Shiji ( c.  91 BC ), and some modern scholars dispute its veracity. According to the Shiji ( c.  91 BC ), during the 9th century BC, Feizi , a supposed descendant of the ancient political advisor Gao Yao , was granted rule over the settlement of Qin ( 秦邑 ) (present-day Qingshui County in Shaanxi ). During the rule of King Xiao of Zhou ,

1496-762: The Kalika Purana , the Cinas are again grouped with the Kambojas, Shakas , Khasas and the Barabaras etc. and are said to have sided with Buddhist king Kali in the war against Vedic king Kalika. Bhuvanakosha section of numerous Puranas locates the Cinas along with the Tusharas, Pahlavas, Kambojas, and Barbaras in the Udichya or northern division of ancient India. There is yet another reference to China as Cina-maru as referred to in

1584-603: The Kuru Kingdom and Pañcāla existed. The entire region is considered sacred in the Hindu mythology as gods and heroes mentioned in the two epics, the Ramayana and Mahabharata , lived here. Kanyakubja or modern day Kannauj was a central city of Aryavarta and was used as capital-city from 510 CE to 1197 CE under Maukharis , Harshavardhana , Varmans , Pratiharas and Gahadavala dynasty . The Gurjara-Pratihara king in

1672-521: The Vayu Purana and Brahmanda Purana . However, at the same place, Matsya Purana mentions Vira-maru . China-maru or Vira-maru has been identified with the lands of Turkestan situated above And-khui in the north of Afghanistan (Dr K. P. Jayswal, Dr M. R. Singh). The Cinas also find reference in the Buddhist play, Mudrarakshasa , where they are listed with other contemporary tribes, such as

1760-532: The Aryans ' , Sanskrit pronunciation: [aːrjaːˈʋərtə] ) is a term for the northern Indian subcontinent in the ancient Hindu texts such as Dharmashastras and Sutras , referring to the areas of the Indo-Gangetic Plain and surrounding regions settled by Indo-Aryan tribes and where Indo-Aryan religion and rituals predominated. The limits of Āryāvarta extended over time, as reflected in

1848-751: The Daradas , the various tribes of the Kiratas, Yanavas, Sakas, Harahunas , Chinas, Tusharas , Sindhavas , Jagudas, Ramathas and the Mundas, as well as the inhabitants of the kingdom of women, Tanganas, Kekayas , Malavas and the inhabitants of Kasmira were mentioned at (3,51) as bringing tribute to the Pandava king Yudhishthira . The Yanavas, the Kiratas , the Gandharvas , the Chinas,

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1936-556: The Ganges - Yamuna . BDS 1.1.2.13-15 considers people from beyond this area as of mixed origin, and hence not worthy of emulation by the Aryans. Some sutras recommend expiatory acts for those who have crossed the boundaries of Aryavarta. Baudhayana Srautasutra recommends this for those who have crossed the boundaries of Aryavarta and ventured into far away places. The Vasistha Dharma Sutra (oldest sutras ca. 500–300 BCE) I.8-9 and 12-13 locates

2024-557: The Mandate of Heaven , as the Zhou kings had claimed, nor that he had the right to offer sacrifices; they left this to the Zhou rulers. Before their conquest in the 4th and 3rd centuries BC, the Qin suffered several setbacks. Shang Yang was executed in 338 BC by King Huiwen due to a personal grudge harboured from his youth. There was also internal strife over the Qin succession in 307 BC, which decentralised Qin authority somewhat. Qin

2112-445: The Saka invasions and rule of northwestern India (2nd c. BC - 4th c. CE), Brahmanism faced a grave threat to its existence. The decline of Brahmanism was overcome by providing new services and incorporating the non-Vedic Indo-Aryan religious heritage of the eastern Ganges plain and local religious traditions, giving rise to the Hindu synthesis . These texts also identify other parts of

2200-547: The Shakas , Yavanas, Kiratas, Cambojas , Bhalikas , Parasikas , Khasas, Gandharas, Kalutas, etc. Buddhist text Milindapanho (see: Sacred Books of the East , xxxvi, 204), associates the Chinas with the Sakas, Yavanas , Kambojas and Vilatas(?) etc., and locates them in and beyond the western Tibet / Ladakh , according to Dr Michael Witzel . The Arthashastra , believed to date between

2288-681: The Thar desert in the west and the confluence of the rivers Ganges (Ganga) and Jumna (Yamuna) in the east." The Manusmṛti (dated between 2nd cent. BCE to 3rd cent. CE) (2.22) gives the name to "the tract between the Himalaya and the Vindhya Ranges , from the Eastern Sea ( Bay of Bengal ) to the Western Sea ( Arabian Sea )". The Manava Dharmasastra (ca.150-250 CE) gives aryavarta as stretching from

2376-482: The Wei River canal built in 246 BC was particularly significant in this respect. During the Warring States period preceding the Qin dynasty, the major states vying for dominance were Yan , Zhao , Qi , Chu , Han , Wei and Qin. The rulers of these states styled themselves as kings, rather than using the titles of lower nobility they had previously held. However, none elevated himself to believe that he had

2464-572: The Xiongnu tribe living in the Ordos region in northwestern China often raided them instead, prompting the Qin to retaliate. After a military campaign led by General Meng Tian , the region was conquered in 215 BC and agriculture was established; the peasants, however, were discontented and later revolted. The succeeding Han dynasty also expanded into the Ordos due to overpopulation, but depleted their resources in

2552-636: The methods of the Mohists and school of names . Confucius 's school of thought, called Ru ( 儒 ), was also influential beginning in the Warring States period, and throughout the imperial periods. Beginning in the subsequent Han dynasty, this school of thought developed a canon of literature thought to represent and preserve the ways of Zhou, called the Six Classics: the Odes , Documents , Ritual , Music , Spring and Autumn Annals , and Changes . Qin law

2640-400: The zhu zhu of the musics, Which purifies and refines human feelings. Suddenly the spirits ride off on the darkness And the brilliant event finishes. Purified thoughts grow hidden and still, And the warp and weft of the world fall dark. Book of Han , p. 1046 The dominant religious belief in China during the reign of the Qin, and, in fact, during much of early imperial China,

2728-406: The "Records of Officialdom". A commander named Hu ordered his men to attack peasants in an attempt to increase the number of "bandits" he had killed; his superiors, likely eager to inflate their records as well, allowed this. Qin Shi Huang also improved the strong military, despite the fact that it had already undergone extensive reforms. The military used the most advanced weaponry of the time. It

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2816-524: The 2nd century BCE and 3rd century CE, refers to Chinese silk as "cinamsuka" (Chinese silk dress) and "cinapatta" (Chinese silk bundle). The Sanmoha Tantra speaks of the Tantric culture of the foreign countries like the Bahlika ( Bactria ), Kirata , Bhota ( Tibet ), Cina, Maha-Cina, Parasika , Airaka, Kambojas, Huna, Yavana, Gandhara and Nepala . The Laws of Manu , dated between 200 BC and 300 AD, describes

2904-595: The Chinas with the tribes of the Uttarapatha , viz. the Yavanas, Kiratas , Gandharas , Shabras, Barbaras , Shakas , Tusharas , Kanakas, Pahlavas , Sindhus , Madrakas , Ramathas, and the Kambojas and states them to be living the lives of Dasyus. These verses of the epic expect these tribes to perform certain duties which are different from those performed by the Brahmanas , Kshatriyas , Vaishyas , and Shudras . Vanaparvan of

2992-409: The Han dynasty. The Qin often expelled criminals to the new colonies, or pardoned them in exchange for fines, labour, or one to several aristocratic ranks, even up to the death penalty. While the penal laws would still be considered harsh compared to the modern day, they were not very harsh for their time, and often not actually enacted. Villainising the first Emperor while adopting Qin administration,

3080-669: The Indian subcontinent with specific designations. The Manusmṛti mentions Brahmavarta as the region between the Sarasvati and the Drishadvati in northwest India . The text defines the area as the place where the "good" people are born, the twice-born who adhere to the Vedic dharma, in contrast to the mleccha s, who live outside the Aryan territory and Vedic traditions. The precise location and size of

3168-635: The Kiratas, the Bahlikas, the Rishikas , and the Tañkanas of the Uttarapatha. They sent tributaries to Ayodhya and were protector of Dharma in northern Asia from Siberia to modern China. The epic literature asserts that the Cinas, Khasas , Hunas, Shakas , Kambojas, Yavanas , Pahlavas, Kiratas, Sinhalas, Mlechchas etc. were created by sage Vashistha through the divine powers of cow Sabala or Nandini (Kamdhenu). In

3256-660: The Kulatthas, the Hunas , the Parasikas, the Ramanas, and the Dasamalikas. Chinas were mentioned along with Chivukas and Pulindas and Khasas , Hunas, Pahlavas , Sakas , Yanavas, Savaras , Paundras , Kiratas, Kanchis , Dravidas , Sinhalas and Keralas . Here they were described as the protectors of sage Vasistha and his cow against the attack of king Viswamitra . (1,177) Pahlavas and

3344-770: The Mahabharata states that the territory of the Chinas can be reached by a land-route across the country of the Kiratas in the mountain regions of the north. China is mentioned as one among the northern kingdoms in Mahabharata, Book 6, chapter 9: –Among the tribes of the north are the Mlecchas , and the Kruras, the Yavanas , the Chinas, the Kambojas , the Darunas, and many Mleccha tribes; the Sukritvahas,

3432-616: The Qin state was greatly increased by the reforms of Shang Yang in the 4th century BC, during the Warring States period . In the mid- and late 3rd century BC, the Qin state carried out a series of swift conquests, destroying the powerless Zhou dynasty and eventually conquering the other six of the Seven Warring States . Qin's 15-year existence was the shortest major dynasty in Chinese history, with only two emperors. However,

3520-447: The Qin statesman Shang Yang introduced a series of advantageous military reforms between 361 BC and his death in 338 BC. Yang also helped to construct the Qin capital at Xianyang , a city that ultimately resembled the capitals of the other states. Qin engaged in practical and ruthless warfare. During the Spring and Autumn period ( c.  770  – c.  481 BC ),

3608-427: The Qin to attempt to conquer the other states. The Qin were swift in their assault on the other states. They first attacked the Han, directly east, and took thir capital city of Xinzheng in 230 BC. They then struck northward; the state of Zhao surrendered in 228 BC, and the northernmost state of Yan followed, falling in 226. Next, Qin armies launched assaults to the east, and later the south as well; they took

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3696-704: The Qin were militarily superior. Finally, Qin possessed geographical advantages, with the fertility and strategic position of its territory protected by mountains making the state a natural stronghold. This was the heart of the Guanzhong region, as opposed to the Yangtze drainage basin, known as Guandong. The warlike nature of the Qin in Guanzhong inspired a Han dynasty adage: "Guanzhong produces generals, while Guandong produces ministers." Its expanded agricultural output helped sustain Qin's large army with food and natural resources;

3784-446: The Qin. The state of Qin first began a military expedition into central China in 672 BC, though it did not engage in any serious incursions due to the threat from neighbouring tribesmen. By the dawn of the 4th century BC, the neighbouring tribes had all been either subdued or conquered, and the stage was set for the rise of Qin expansionism. During the Warring States period ( c.  475  – 221 BC),

3872-936: The Savaras, the Barbaras, the Sakas, the Tusharas, the Kankas, the Pathavas, the Andhras , the Madrakas , the Paundras, the Pulindas, the Ramathas, the Kambojas were mentioned together as tribes beyond the kingdoms of Aryavarta . The Aryavarta kings had doubts about dealing with them. (12,64) China is mentioned in the travel-descriptions of the Pandavas. The passage below, describes these Chinas, to be located somewhere in

3960-529: The Wei city of Daliang (now called Kaifeng) in 225 and forced Chu to surrender by 223. Lastly, they deposed the Zhou dynasty's remnants in Luoyang and conquered Qi, taking the city of Linzi in 221 BC. Upon the completion of Qin's conquests in 221 BC, King Zheng  – who had first assumed the throne of the Qin state at age 9  – became the effective ruler of China. The subjugation of

4048-426: The Zhou. This culminated in 221 BC with the successful unification of China under Qin, which then assumed an imperial prerogative—with Ying Zheng declaring himself to be Qin Shi Huang , the first emperor of China . This state of affairs lasted until 206 BC, when the dynasty collapsed in the years following Qin Shi Huang's death. Qin was a minor power for the early centuries of its existence. The strength of

4136-401: The dead journeyed and stayed in the other realm, and to receive blessings from the spirit realm. Religious practices were usually held in local shrines and sacred areas, which contained sacrificial altars. During a sacrifice or other ritual, the senses of all participants and witnesses would be dulled and blurred with smoke, incense, and music. The lead sacrificer would fast and meditate before

4224-507: The different districts. Versatility in federal structures was emphasised, to create a sense of authority and absolute power. Architectural elements such as high towers, pillar gates, terraces, and high buildings amply conveyed this. The written language of the Qin was logographic , as that of the Zhou had been. It was more conservative of earlier graphic forms than more evolved local scripts in other regions. As one of his most influential achievements in life, prime minister Li Si standardised

4312-659: The downfall of the Chinas, as well as many foreign groups in India: Besides China and Parama-China , there is also a reference to Mahachina in the Manasollasa which text mentions the fabrics from Mahachina. It is thus possible that China probably referred to western Tibet or Ladakh , Mahachina to Tibet proper, and Parama-China to mainland China . This word was transcribed into various forms including {支那 ( Zhīnà ), 芝那 ( Zhīnà ), 脂那 ( Zhīnà ) and 至那 ( Zhìnà ). Qin dynasty This

4400-419: The early period as the source of the name. Qin Shi Huang was the first Chinese sovereign to proclaim himself "Emperor", after unifying China in 221 BC. That year is therefore generally taken by historians to be the start of the "Qin dynasty" which lasted for 14 years until 207, when it was cut short by civil wars. Aryavarta Āryāvarta ( Sanskrit : आर्यावर्त, lit.   ' Land of

4488-416: The eastern to the western seas, reflecting the growing sphere of influence of the Brahmanical ideology. The post-Vedic period of the Second Urbanisation saw a decline of Brahmanism. With the growth of cities, which threatened the income and patronage of the rural Brahmins; the rise of Buddhism; and the Indian campaign of Alexander the Great (327-325 BCE), the rise of the Maurya Empire (322-185 BCE), and

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4576-451: The eighth king of the Zhou dynasty, this area became known as the state of Qin. In 897 BC, under the Gonghe Regency , the area became a dependency allotted for the purpose of raising and breeding horses. One of Feizi's descendants, Duke Zhuang , became favoured by King Ping of Zhou , the 13th king in that line. As a reward, Zhuang's son, Duke Xiang, was sent eastward as the leader of a war expedition, during which he formally established

4664-454: The first emperor and his advisors was used by later dynasties to structure their own government. Under this system, both the military and government thrived, as talented individuals could be more easily identified in the transformed society. Later Chinese dynasties emulated the Qin government for its efficiency, despite its being condemned by Confucian philosophy. There were instances of abuse, however, with one example having been recorded in

4752-499: The future. The forms of divination which sprang up during early imperial China were diverse, though observing natural phenomena was a common method. Comets, eclipses, and droughts were considered omens of things to come. The name Qin is believed to be the origin of the modern name for the country in many European languages, China . The word probably made its way into the Indo-Aryan languages first as Cina or Sina , and then into Greek and Latin as Sinai or Thinai . It

4840-419: The high Himalayas : Mahabharata book 3, chapter 176 (MBh 3.176): "Leaving the place called Badari ( Badrinath in Uttarakhand ) and crossing the difficult Himalayan regions, and leaving behind them, the countries of China, Tukhara, Darada and all the climes of Kulinda, rich in heaps of jewels, those warlike men, viz. the Pandavas, reached the capital of Suvahu, the king of Pulindas (Kiratas)." Bhima mentions

4928-401: The kind that may be worthy of his praise. During the Han dynasty (between the 2nd century BC and 2nd century AD), deer skins were used to make token money notes representing 400,000 coins. Kiskindhakanda of Valmiki 's Ramayana makes reference to Cinas as well as Parama-Cinas and associates them with the trans-Himalayan tribes of the Daradas, Kambojas, the Yavanas , the Sakas ,

5016-511: The legacy of Qin strategies in military and administrative affairs shaped the consummate Han dynasty that followed, ultimately becoming seen as the originator of an imperial system that ultimately lasted in various forms until the Xinhai Revolution in 1911. The Qin sought to create a state unified by structured centralised political power and a large military supported by a stable economy. The central government moved to undercut aristocrats and landowners to gain direct administrative control over

5104-428: The life-sized Terracotta Army . The Qin introduced a range of reforms such as standardised currency, weights, measures and a uniform system of writing, which aimed to unify the state and promote commerce. Additionally, its military used the most recent weaponry, transportation and tactics, though the government was heavy-handed and bureaucratic. Qin created a system of administering people and land that greatly increased

5192-413: The likely origin of the name, while other theories suggest it is derived from Zina , the endonym of the inhabitants of Yelang . The Sanskrit epic work Mahabharata contains certain references to China, referring to its people as the China tribe. In the Mahabharata , the Chinas appear together with the Kiratas among the armies of King Bhagadatta of Pragjyotisa ( Assam ). In the Sabhaparvan,

5280-423: The majority (500,000 men) of his army south to conquer the territory of the southern tribes . Prior to the events leading to Qin dominance over China, they had gained possession of much of Sichuan to the southwest. The Qin army was unfamiliar with the jungle terrain, and it was defeated by the southern tribes' guerrilla warfare tactics with over 100,000 men lost. However, in the defeat Qin was successful in building

5368-429: The name of Qin Er Shi . They believed that they would be able to manipulate him to their own ends, and thus effectively control the empire. Qin Er Shi was, indeed, inept and pliable. He executed many ministers and imperial princes, continued massive building projects (one of his most extravagant projects was lacquering the city walls), enlarged the army, increased taxes, and arrested messengers who brought him bad news. As

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5456-441: The new Han dynasty . Despite the short duration of the Qin, it was very influential on the structure of future dynasties. The Qin aristocracy were largely similar to the Zhou in culture and daily life, with regional variation generally considered a symbol of the lower classes – and ultimately as contrary to the unification that the government strove to achieve. Commoners and rural villagers, who made up over 90% of

5544-428: The new name "Shi Huangdi", meaning 'First Emperor'. The newly declared emperor ordered all weapons not in the possession of the Qin to be confiscated and melted down. The resulting metal was sufficient to build twelve large ornamental statues at the Qin's newly declared capital at Xianyang . In 214 BC, Qin Shi Huang secured his boundaries to the north with a fraction of his large army (roughly 100,000 men) and sent

5632-430: The newly conquered area. In terms of extending the boundaries of his empire, the First Emperor was extremely successful in the south. However, while the empire at times was extended to the north, the Qin could rarely hold on to the land for long. The tribes of these locations, collectively called the Hu by the Qin, were free from Chinese rule during the majority of the dynasty. Prohibited from trading with Qin peasants,

5720-407: The peasantry, who comprised the overwhelming majority of the population and labour force. This allowed ambitious projects involving three hundred thousand peasants and convicts: projects such as connecting walls along the northern border, eventually developing into the Great Wall of China , and a massive new national road system, as well as the city-sized Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor guarded by

5808-418: The people, largely caused by regional differences which survived despite Qin's attempt to impose uniformity, and many local officials had declared themselves kings. Given this climate, Ziying attempted to cling to his throne by declaring himself one king among all the others. He was undermined by his ineptitude, and popular revolt broke out in 209 BC. When Chu rebels under the lieutenant Liu Bang attacked,

5896-444: The population, very rarely left the villages or farmsteads where they were born. Forms of employment differed by region, though farming was almost universally common. Professions were hereditary; a father's employment was passed to his eldest son after he died. The Lüshi Chunqiu gave examples of how, when commoners are obsessed with material wealth, instead of the idealism of a man who "makes things serve him", they were "reduced to

5984-475: The power of the government to transform environment, and it has been argued that the subsequent impact of this system on East Asia's environments makes the rise of Qin an important event in China's environmental history. When Qin Shi Huang died in 210 BC, two of his advisors placed an heir on the throne in an attempt to influence and control the administration of the dynasty. These advisors squabbled among themselves, resulting in both of their deaths and that of

6072-455: The prevalent philosophy had dictated war as a gentleman's activity; military commanders were instructed to respect what they perceived to be Heaven's laws in battle. For example, when Duke Xiang of the rival state of Song was at war with the state of Chu during the Warring States period, he declined an opportunity to attack the enemy force, commanded by Zhu, while they were crossing a river. After allowing them to cross and marshal their forces, he

6160-402: The process. Indeed, this was true of the dynasty's borders in multiple directions; modern Xinjiang , Tibet, Manchuria , Inner Mongolia, and regions to the southeast were foreign to the Qin, and even areas over which they had military control were culturally distinct. Three assassination attempts were made on Qin Shi Huang, leading him to become paranoid and obsessed with immortality. While on

6248-405: The region has been the subject of academic uncertainty. Some scholars, such as the archaeologists Bridget Allchin and Raymond Allchin , believe the term Brahmavarta to be synonymous with Aryavarta. Madhyadesa extended from the upper reaches of the Ganges and the Yamuna to the confluence of the two rivers at Prayaga , and was the region where, during the time of the Mahajanapadas ,

6336-512: The same king is said to be surrounded by the Kiratas, and the Cinas. Also in the Bhismaparvan, the army of Bhagadatta is said to consist of the Kirtas and the "yellow-coloured" Cinas. Bhishamaparva of Mahabharata also lists the Chinas with the mlechha tribes of the north like the Yavanas , Kambojas , Kuntalas , Hunas , Parasikas , Darunas, Ramanas, Dasamalikas. Shantiparvan of Mahabharata groups

6424-400: The second Qin emperor. Popular revolt broke out and the weakened empire soon fell to Chu general Xiang Yu , who was proclaimed Hegemon-King of Western Chu, and Liu Bang , who founded the Han dynasty. Han Confucians portrayed the Qin as a monolithic, legalist tyranny, notably citing a purge known as the burning of books and burying of scholars ; however, the earliest account of this event

6512-468: The service of things". Peasants were rarely figured in literature during the Qin dynasty and afterwards; scholars and others of more elite status preferred the excitement of cities and the lure of politics. One notable exception to this was Shen Nong , the so-called "Divine Father", who taught that households should grow their own food. "If in one's prime he does not plow, someone in the world will grow hungry. If in one's prime she does not weave, someone in

6600-419: The six states was done by King Zheng who had used efficient persuasion and exemplary strategy. He solidified his position as sole ruler with the abdication of his prime minister, Lü Buwei . The states made by the emperor were assigned to officials dedicated to the task rather than place the burden on people from the royal family. He then combined the titles of the earlier Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors into

6688-456: The task rather than placing the burden on people from the royal family. Zheng and his advisors also introduced new laws and practices that ended aristocratic rule in China, fully replacing it with a centralised, bureaucratic government. A supervisory system, the Censorate was introduced to monitor and check the powers of administrators and officials at each level of government. The Qin instituted

6776-602: The various sources, as the influence of the Brahmanical ideology spread eastwards in post-Vedic times. The Baudhayana Dharmasutra (BDS) 1.1.2.10 (perhaps compiled in the 8th to 6th centuries BCE) declares that Āryāvarta is the land that lies west of Kālakavana, east of Adarsana, south of the Himalayas and north of the Vindhyas, but in BDS 1.1.2.11 Āryāvarta is confined to the doab of

6864-458: The world will be cold." The Qin encouraged this; a ritual was performed once every few years that consisted of important government officials taking turns with the plough on a special field, to create a simulation of government interest and activity within agriculture. Warring States-era architecture had several definitive aspects. City walls, used for defence, were made longer, and indeed several secondary walls were also sometimes built to separate

6952-655: The writing system to be of uniform size and shape across the whole country. This would have a unifying effect on the Chinese culture for thousands of years. He is also credited with creating the small seal script style, which serves as a basis for modern Chinese and is still used in cards, posters, and advertising. During the Warring States period, the Hundred Schools of Thought comprised many different philosophies proposed by Chinese scholars. These largely lacked coherence until much later taxonomy imposed by Han dynasty librarians. Contemporary institutions descended in part from

7040-798: The Āryāvarta to the east of the disappearance of the Sarasvati River in the desert, to the west of the Kālakavana, to the north of the Pariyatra Mountains and the Vindhya Range and to the south of the Himalayas. Patanjali 's Mahābhāṣya (mid-2nd century BCE) defines Āryāvarta like the Vashistha Dharmasutra . According to Bronkhost, he "situates it essentially in the Ganges plan, between

7128-678: Was decisively defeated in the ensuing battle. When his advisors later admonished him for such excessive courtesy to the enemy, he retorted, "The sage does not crush the feeble, nor give the order for attack until the enemy have formed their ranks." The Qin disregarded this military tradition, taking advantage of their enemy's weaknesses. A nobleman in the state of Wei accused the Qin state of being "avaricious, perverse, eager for profit, and without sincerity. It knows nothing about etiquette, proper relationships, and virtuous conduct, and if there be an opportunity for material gain, it will disregard its relatives as if they were animals." This, combined with

7216-466: Was defeated by an alliance of the other states in 295 BC, and shortly after suffered another defeat by the state of Zhao, because the majority of their army was then defending against Qi. The aggressive statesman Fan Sui ( 范雎 ), however, soon came to power as prime minister even as the problem of the succession was resolved, and he began an expansionist policy that had originated in Jin and Qi, which prompted

7304-431: Was first used mostly in bronze form, but by the 5th century BC, kingdoms such as Chu and Qin were using iron and/or steel swords. The demand for this metal resulted in improved bellows . The crossbow had been introduced in the 5th century BC and was more powerful and accurate than the composite bows used earlier. It could also be rendered ineffective by removing two pins, which prevented enemies from capturing

7392-416: Was focused on the shen (roughly translating to 'spirits' or 'gods'), yin ('shadows'), and the realm they were said to live in. The Chinese offered animal sacrifices in an attempt to contact this other world, which they believed to be parallel to the earthly one. The dead were said to have simply moved from one world to the other. The rituals mentioned, as well as others, served two purposes: to ensure that

7480-521: Was inconspicuous due to its underground location, and was not discovered until 1974. Floating on high in every direction, Music fills the hall and court. The incense sticks are a forest of feathers, The cloudy scene an obscure darkness. Metal stalks with elegant blossoms, A host of flags and kingfisher banners. The music of the "Seven Origins" and "Blossoming Origins" Are intoned as harmonious sounds. Thus one can almost hear The spirits coming to feast and frolic. The spirits are seen off to

7568-903: Was primarily administrative, and included penal law alongside ritual orthopraxy , comparative model manuals in the Qin empire guided penal legal procedure and application based on real-life situations, with publicly named wrongs linked to punishments. While some Qin penal laws deal with infanticide or other unsanctioned harm of children, it primarily concerned theft; it does not much deal with murder, as either more straightforward or more suitable to ritual. By contrast, detailed rules and "endless paperwork" tightly regulate grain, weights, measures, and official documents. Like most ancient societies, tradition China did not divide administration and judiciary, but it did include such concepts as intent, judicial procedure, defendant rights, retrial requests and distinctions between different kinds of law ( common law and statutory law ). The Book of Lord Shang prophecies

7656-528: Was the initial construction of what later became the Great Wall of China , which was built by joining and strengthening the walls made by the feudal lords, which would be expanded and rebuilt multiple times by later dynasties, also in response to threats from the north. Another project built during Qin Shi Huang's rule was the Terracotta Army , intended to protect the emperor after his death. The Terracotta Army

7744-520: Was then borrowed into English and French as China and Chine . This etymology is dismissed by some scholars, who suggest that Sina in Sanskrit evolved much earlier before the Qin. However, the preceding state of Qin was itself founded in the 9th century BC. Jin , a state during the Zhou dynasty until the 4th century BC, is another possible origin. Others argued for the state of Jing ( 荆 , another name for Chu ), as well as other polities in

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