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88-714: Centipedes (from Neo-Latin centi- , "hundred", and Latin pes, pedis , " foot ") are predatory arthropods belonging to the class Chilopoda ( Ancient Greek χεῖλος , kheilos , "lip", and Neo-Latin suffix -poda , "foot", describing the forcipules ) of the subphylum Myriapoda , an arthropod group which includes millipedes and other multi-legged animals. Centipedes are elongated segmented ( metameric ) creatures with one pair of legs per body segment. All centipedes are venomous and can inflict painful stings , injecting their venom through pincer-like appendages known as forcipules or toxicognaths, which are actually modified legs instead of fangs . Despite

176-566: A monophyletic group within the Pleurostigmophora, but the Anamorpha are paraphyletic , as shown in the cladogram: Scutigeromorpha [REDACTED] Lithobiomorpha [REDACTED] Craterostigmomorpha [REDACTED] Scolopendromorpha [REDACTED] Geophilomorpha [REDACTED] All centipedes are venomous . Over the first 50 million years of the clade's evolutionary history, centipede venoms appear to have consisted of

264-465: A spermatophore for the female to take up. In temperate areas, egg laying occurs in spring and summer. A few parthenogenetic species are known. Females provide parental care, both by curling their bodies around eggs and young, and by grooming them, probably to remove fungi and bacteria. Centipedes are longer-lived than insects; the European Lithobius forficatus may live for 5 to 6 years, and

352-507: A bite to an adult human is usually very painful and may cause severe swelling, chills, fever , and weakness, it is unlikely to be fatal. Bites can be dangerous to small children and those with allergies to bee stings. The venomous bite of larger centipedes can induce anaphylactic shock in such people. Smaller centipedes are generally incapable of piercing human skin. Even small centipedes that cannot pierce human skin are considered frightening by some humans due to their dozens of legs moving at

440-557: A broad range of prey. Common prey items include lumbricid earthworms, dipteran fly larvae, collembolans , and other centipedes. They are carnivorous; study of gut contents suggests that plant material is an unimportant part of their diets, although they eat vegetable matter when starved during laboratory experiments. Species of Scolopendromorph , noticeably members from the genera Scolopendra and Ethmostigmus , are able to hunt for substantial prey items, including large invertebrates and sizable vertebrates, which could be larger than

528-449: A broader range of courses relating to urban professions such as law and medicine. All universities required Latin proficiency, obtained in local grammar schools, to obtain admittance as a student. Throughout the period, Latin was the dominant language of university education, where rules were enforced against the use of vernacular languages. Lectures and debates took place in Latin, and writing

616-521: A deliberate class barrier for entry to educational institutions. Post-classical Latin, including medieval, Renaissance and Neo-Latin, makes up the vast majority of extant Latin output, estimated as well over 99.99% of the totality. Given the size of output and importance of Latin, the lack of attention to it is surprising to many scholars. The trend is a long one, however, dating back to the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, as Neo-Latin texts became looked down on as non-classical. Reasons could include

704-444: A dynamic for purification and ossification of Latin, and thus its decline from a more productive medieval background. Modern Neo-Latin scholars tend to reject this, as for instance word formation and even medieval uses continued; but some see a kernel of truth, in that the standards of Latin were set very high, making it hard to achieve the necessary confidence to use Latin. In any case, other factors are certainly at play, particularly

792-606: A focus of Neo-Latin studies. For instance, stylistic borrowings flowed from Latin to the Dutch vernacular, where models were lacking in the latter. Telson In lobsters , shrimp and other decapods , the telson , along with the uropods , forms the tail fan . This is used as a paddle in the caridoid escape reaction ("lobstering"), whereby an alarmed animal rapidly flexes its tail, causing it to dart backwards. Krill can reach speeds of over 60 cm per second by this means. The trigger time to optical stimulus is, in spite of

880-454: A high standard. Even in this period, an excessive focus on grammar and poor teaching methods were seen by reformers as a barrier to the acquisition of Latin. Comenius for instance was credited with significant attempts to make Latin more accessible through use of parallel Latin and native language texts, and more interesting through acquisition of vocabulary and the use of modern and more relevant information in texts. Others worried whether it

968-660: A kind of bridge of communication across religious as well as linguistic divides in the Res Publica Litterarum . One exception to the general rule of vernacular services in Protestant countries can be observed in the Anglican Church , where with the publication of the Book of Common Prayer of 1559, a Latin edition was published in 1560 for use in universities such as Oxford and the leading grammar and " public schools " (in

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1056-430: A moist microhabitat because they lack the waxy cuticle of insects and arachnids , therefore causing them to rapidly lose water. Accordingly, they avoid direct sunlight by staying under cover or by being active at night . Centipedes have a rounded or flattened head, bearing a pair of antennae at the forward margin. They have a pair of elongated mandibles , and two pairs of maxillae . The first pair of maxillae form

1144-471: A purified Classical Latin vocabulary. Recent study tends to identify a style of Latin that was closer to Classical Latin in grammar, sometimes influenced by vernaculars in syntax especially in more everyday writing, but eclectic in choice of vocabulary and generation of new words. Some authors including C. S. Lewis have criticised the Neo-Latin and classicising nature of humanistic Latin teaching for creating

1232-446: A role in mating rituals. Because glandular pores occur more frequently on ultimate legs than on the "walking" legs, they may serve a sensory role. They are sometimes used in defensive postures, and some species use them to capture prey, defend themselves against predators, or suspend themselves from objects such as branches, using the legs as pincers. Several species use their ultimate legs upon encountering another centipede, trying to grab

1320-779: A simple cocktail of about four different components, and differentiation into specific venom types appears to have only occurred after the currently recognized five orders had developed. The evolution of the venom includes horizontal gene transfer , involving bacteria, fungi and oomycetes . As a food item, certain large centipedes are consumed in China , usually skewered and grilled or deep fried. They are often seen in street vendors’ stalls in large cities, including Donghuamen and Wangfujing markets in Beijing . Large centipedes are steeped in alcohol to make centipede vodka. Some species of centipedes can be hazardous to humans because of their bite. While

1408-623: A simple tube, with digestive glands attached to the mouthparts. Like insects, centipedes breathe through a tracheal system , typically with a single opening, or spiracle , on each body segment. They excrete waste through a single pair of malpighian tubules . Just as the first pair of legs are modified into forcipules, the back legs are modified into "ultimate legs", also called anal legs, caudal legs, and terminal legs. Their use varies between species, but does not include locomotion. The ultimate legs may be elongated and thin, thickened, or pincer-like. They are frequently sexually dimorphic , and may play

1496-453: A strong role in education and writing in early colonial Mexico, Brazil and in other parts of Catholic Americas. Catholicism also brought Latin to India, China and Japan. Neo-Latin began in Italy with the rise of Renaissance Latin and humanist reform of Latin education, then brought to prominence in northern Europe by writers such as Erasmus , More , and Colet . Medieval Latin had been

1584-415: A variable number of ocelli , sometimes clustered together to form true compound eyes . However, these eyes are only capable of discerning light from dark, and provide no true vision. In some species, the first pair of legs can function as sensory organs, similar to antennae; unlike the antennae of most other invertebrates, these point backwards. An unusual clustering of sensory organs found in some centipedes

1672-473: A wider audience using the same ideas with more practical applications. Over time, the use of Latin continued where international communication with specialist audiences was paramount. Later, where some of the discourse moved to French, English or German, translations into Latin would allow texts to cross language boundaries, while authors in countries with much smaller language populations or less known languages would tend to continue to compose in Latin. Latin

1760-402: Is anamorphic : more segments and pairs of legs are grown between moults . For example, Scutigera coleoptrata , the house centipede, hatches with only four pairs of legs and in successive moults has 5, 7, 9, 11, 15, 15, 15 and 15 pairs respectively, before becoming a sexually mature adult. Life stages with fewer than 15 pairs of legs are called larval stadia (there are about five stages). After

1848-494: Is epimorphic, meaning that all pairs of legs are developed in the embryonic stages, and offspring do not develop more legs between moults. This clade contains the longest centipedes. In the Geophilomorpha, the number of thoracic segments usually varies within species, often on a geographical basis, and in most cases, females bear more legs than males. The number of leg-bearing segments varies within each order (usually 21 or 23 in

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1936-498: Is from a natural to stylised word order. Unlike medieval schools, however, Italian Renaissance methods focused on Classical models of Latin prose style, reviving texts from that period, such as Cicero's De Inventione or Quintilian 's Institutio Oratoria . Teaching of specific, gradually harder Latin authors and texts followed rhetorical practice and learning. In Italy, during the medieval period, at different periods, Classical and Christian authors competed for attention, but

2024-553: Is seen as a vital context for understanding the vernacular cultures in the periods when Latin was in widespread productive use. Additionally, Classical reception studies have begun to assess the differing ways that Classical culture was understood in different nations and times. Classicists use the term "Neo-Latin" to describe the Latin that developed in Renaissance Italy as a result of renewed interest in classical civilization in

2112-414: Is the organ of Tömösváry . The organs, at the base of the antennae, consist of a disc-like structure and a central pore, with an encircling of sensitive cells. They are likely used for sensing vibrations, and may provide a weak form of hearing. Forcipules are unique to centipedes. The forcipules are modifications of the first pair of legs (the maxillipeds), forming a pincer -like appendage , just behind

2200-536: The Cretaceous . The following cladogram shows the position of the Chilopoda within the arthropods as of 2019: inc. horseshoe crabs and spiders [REDACTED] [REDACTED] Chilopoda [REDACTED] millipedes and allies [REDACTED] inc. crustaceans and insects [REDACTED] [REDACTED] Within the myriapods, centipedes are believed to be the first of the extant classes to branch from

2288-605: The IUCN Red List , there are one vulnerable , six endangered , and three critically endangered species of centipede. For example, the Serpent Island centipede ( Scolopendra abnormis) is vulnerable, and Turk's earth centipede (Nothogeophilus turki) and the Seychelles long-legged centipede ( Seychellonema gerlachi) are both endangered. The fossil record of centipedes extends back to 430  million years ago , during

2376-601: The Italian Renaissance of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, and then across northern Europe after about 1500, as a key feature of the humanist movement. Through comparison with Latin of the Classical period , scholars from Petrarch onwards promoted a standard of Latin closer to that of the ancient Romans, especially in grammar, style, and spelling. The term Neo-Latin was however coined much later, probably in Germany in

2464-649: The Late Silurian ( Crussolum ), though they are rare throughout the Paleozoic . The Devonian Panther Mountain Formation contains two species of centipede. One is a species of the scutigeromorph Crussolum . The other is Devonobius , which is included in the extinct group Devonobiomorpha. Another Devonian site, the Rhynie chert , also bears Crussolum fossils, and possible scutigeromorph head material. Rhyniognatha , which

2552-594: The Republic of Letters (Res Publica Litterarum) . Even as Latin receded in importance after 1650, it remained vital for international communication of works, many of which were popularised in Latin translation, rather than as vernacular originals. This in large part explains the continued use of Latin in Scandinavian countries and Russia – places that had never belonged to the Roman Empire – to disseminate knowledge until

2640-409: The horseshoe crab "tail" and the scorpion sting). Some authorities have urged that the usage of this word in this context be discouraged. In millipedes , the telson consists of a legless pre-anal body segment (which may contain a posterior extension known as an epiproct ), a pair of anal valves ( paraprocts ) or plates closing off the anus, and a plate below the anus ( hypoproct ), also known as

2728-607: The last common ancestor . The five orders of centipedes are: Craterostigmomorpha , Geophilomorpha , Lithobiomorpha , Scolopendromorpha , and Scutigeromorpha . These orders are united into the clade Chilopoda by the following synapomorphies : The Chilopoda are then split into two clades: the Notostigmophora including the Scutigeromorpha and the Pleurostigmophora including the other four orders. The following physical and developmental traits can be used to separate members of

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2816-478: The 14th and 15th centuries. Scientific nomenclatures sometimes prefer the term "New Latin", to show where their terms were coined in the same period. Neo-Latin describes the use of the Latin language for any purpose, scientific or literary, during and after the Renaissance. The beginning of the period cannot be precisely identified. The spread of secular education, the acceptance of humanistic literary norms, and

2904-463: The 1800s among linguists and scientists . Neo-Latin can be said to be the current style of Latin writing, but different periods in its evolution can be seen. Neo-Latin writings were seen as less relevant and deserving of less attention than Classical Latin during the 1800s, as Classical models were asserted as the prime focus for study. Productive use of Latin for most purposes ended in the early 1800s. While Latin remained an actively used language,

2992-534: The Catholic church affirmed their commitment to Latin in the liturgy and as a working language within the hierarchy at the Council of Trent in 1545–63. Jesuit schools were particularly well known for their production of Latin plays , exclusive use of spoken Latin and emphasis on classical written style. However, the standards ultimately achieved by the whole school system were uneven. Not all students would acquire Latin to

3080-617: The German Celtis . In the late 1400s, some schools in the Low Countries were using the new Italian standards of Latin. Erasmus and other pupils promoted the new learning and Latin standards. The Low Countries established itself as a leading centre of humanism and Neo-Latin; Rotterdam and Leuven were especially well known for these intellectual currents. Neo-Latin developed in advance of and in parallel with vernacular languages, but not necessarily in direct competition with them. Frequently

3168-625: The Neo-Latin period is likewise indeterminate, but Latin as a regular vehicle of communicating ideas became rare following the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire and after the Congress of Vienna , where French replaced Latin as the language of diplomacy. By 1900, Latin survived primarily in international scientific vocabulary and taxonomy , or more actively, in the upper echelons of the Catholic Church . The term "Neo-Latin" came into use during

3256-569: The Pleurostigmomorpha from Notostigmomorpha: It was previously believed that Chilopoda was split into Anamorpha (Lithobiomorpha and Scutigeromorpha) and Epimorpha (Geophilomorpha and Scolopendromorpha), based on developmental modes, with the relationship of the Craterostigmomorpha being uncertain. Recent phylogenetic analyses using combined molecular and morphological characters supports the previous phylogeny. The Epimorpha still exist as

3344-605: The Renaissance and Neo-Latin period saw a decisive move back to authors from the Classical period, and away from non-Classical 'minor' authors such as Boethius , whose language was simpler. The changes to schooling in Northern Europe were more profound, as methods had not evolved as quickly. Adopting Italian innovations, changes to the teaching of grammar and rhetoric were promoted by reformers including Calvin , Melanchthon and Luther . Protestants needed Latin to promote and disseminate their ideas, so were heavily involved with

3432-537: The Scolopendromorpha; from 27 to 191 in the Geophilomorpha), but the total number of pairs is always odd, so there are never exactly 100 legs or 100 pairs, despite the group's common name. Centipede segments are developed in two phases. Firstly, the head gives rise to a fixed but odd number of segments, driven by Hox genes as in all arthropods. Secondly, pairs of segments are added at the tail (posterior) end by

3520-411: The body of the other centipede. Members of the genus Alipes can stridulate their leaf-like ultimate legs to distract or threaten predators. Rhysida immarginata togoensis makes a faint creaking sound when it swings its ultimate legs. There are many differences between millipedes and centipedes. Both groups of myriapods have long, multi-segmented bodies, many legs, a single pair of antennae, and

3608-517: The bounds of the Church. Nevertheless, studies and criticism of Biblical translations were a particular and important focus of early Humanism, in Italy and beyond. Prominent Neo-Latin writers who were admired for their style in this early period included Pontano , Petrarch , Salutati , Bruni , Ficino , Pico della Mirandola in Italy; the Spaniard Juan Luis Vives ; and in northern Europe,

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3696-408: The careful work of Petrarch, Politian and others, first the demand for manuscripts, and then the rush to bring works into print, led to the circulation of inaccurate copies for several centuries following. As the humanist reformers sought both to purify Latin grammar and style, and to make Latin applicable to concerns beyond the ecclesiastical, they began to create a body of Latin literature outside

3784-599: The creation of a prepattern unit, a double segment, which is then always divided into two. The repeated creation of these prepattern units is driven by an oscillator clock, implemented with the Notch signalling pathway . The segments are homologous with the legs of other arthropods such as trilobites ; it would be sufficient for the Notch clock to run faster , as it does in snakes , to create more legs. Centipedes are predominantly generalist predators, which means they are adapted to eat

3872-585: The cultural heritage of Ancient Greece and Byzantium , as well as Greek and Old Church Slavonic languages. Latin was taught extensively in the USA , during the colonial period on the European model of Latin medium education, but was among the first to allow this monopoly to recede. Both Latin and the Classics were very influential nevertheless, and supported an active Latin literature, especially in poetry. Latin played

3960-480: The early nineteenth century. In Neo-Latin's most productive phase, it dominated science, philosophy, law, and theology, and it was important for history, literature, plays, and poetry. Classical styles of writing, including approaches to rhetoric, poetical metres, and theatrical structures, were revived and applied to contemporary subject matter. It was a pan-European language for the dissemination of knowledge and communication between people with different vernaculars in

4048-478: The early nineteenth century. Neo-Latin includes extensive new word formation . Modern scholarly and technical nomenclature , such as in zoological and botanical taxonomy and international scientific vocabulary , draws extensively from this newly minted vocabulary, often in the form of classical or neoclassical compounds . Large parts of this new Latin vocabulary have seeped into English , French and several Germanic languages, particularly through Neo-Latin. In

4136-419: The eighteenth century, Latin was increasingly being learnt as a written and read language, with less emphasis on oral fluency. While it still dominated education, its position alongside Greek was increasingly attacked and began to erode. In the nineteenth century, education in Latin (and Greek) focused increasingly on reading and grammar, and mutated into the 'classics' as a topic, although it often still dominated

4224-482: The extent of potential records, even regarding printed works, there is extensive basic work to be done in cataloguing what is available, as well as in digitisation and translation of important works. Neo-Latin was, at least in its early days, an international language used throughout Catholic and Protestant Europe, as well as in the colonies of the major European powers. This area consisted of most of Europe, including Central Europe and Scandinavia ; its southern border

4312-471: The final two segments are small and legless. Each pair of legs is slightly longer than the pair preceding them, ensuring that they do not overlap, which reduces the chance that they will collide and trip the animal. The last pair of legs may be as much as twice the length of the first pair. The final segment bears a telson , and includes the openings of the reproductive organs. Centipedes mainly use their antennae to seek out their prey. The digestive tract forms

4400-429: The full complement of legs is achieved, the now postlarval stadia (about five more stages) develop gonopods, sensory pores, more antennal segments, and more ocelli. All mature lithobiomorph centipedes have 15 leg-bearing segments. The Craterostigmomorpha only have one phase of anamorphosis, with embryos having 12 pairs, and adults 15. The clade Epimorpha, consisting of the orders Geophilomorpha and Scolopendromorpha ,

4488-401: The head. Forcipules are not oral mouthparts , though they are used to subdue prey by injecting venom and gripping the prey animal. Venom glands run through a tube, from inside the head to the tip of each forcipule. Behind the head, the body consists of at least fifteen segments. Most of the segments bear a single pair of legs; the maxillipeds project forward from the first body segment, while

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4576-456: The late eighteenth century, as Neulatein , spreading to French and other languages in the nineteenth century. Medieval Latin had diverged quite substantially from the classical standard and saw notable regional variation and influence from vernacular languages. Neo-Latin attempts to return to the ideal of Golden Latinity in line with the Humanist slogan ad fontes . The new style of Latin

4664-641: The learner with spoken vocabulary for common topics, such as play and games, home work and describing travel. In short, Latin was taught as a "completely normal language", to be used as any other. Colloquia would also contain moral education. At a higher level, Erasmus' Colloquia helped equip Latin speakers with urbane and polite phraseology, and means of discussing more philosophical topics. Changes to Latin teaching varied by region. In Italy, with more urbanised schools and Universities, and wider curricula aimed at professions rather than just theology, Latin teaching evolved more gradually, and earlier, in order to speed up

4752-423: The learning of Latin. For instance, initial learning of grammar in a basic Latin word order followed the practice of medieval schools. In both medieval and Renaissance schools, practice in Latin written skills would then extend to prose style composition, as part of 'rhetoric'. In Italy, for prose for instance, a pupil would typically be asked to convert a passage in ordo naturalis to ordo artificialis , that

4840-473: The level of abstract thought addressed to other specialists. To begin with, knowledge was already transmitted through Latin and it maintained specialised vocabularies not found in vernacular languages. This did not preclude scientific writings also existing in vernaculars; for example Galileo , some of whose scientific writings were in Latin, while others were in Italian, the latter less academic and intended to reach

4928-572: The liturgy, resisting attempts even in the New World and China to diverge from it. As noted above, Jesuit schools fuelled a high standard of Latinity, and this was also supported by the growth of seminaries, as part of the Counter Reformation 's attempts to revitalise Catholic institutions. While in Protestant areas Latin was pushed out of the Church, this did not make Protestants hostile to Latin in education or universities. In fact, Latin remained

5016-454: The low temperatures, only 55  milliseconds . In the Isopoda and Tanaidacea (superorder Peracarida ), the last abdominal body segment is fused with the telson, forming a "pleotelson". The term telson is widely used for the caudal spine of some chelicerates . The chelicerate telson can be clearly seen in a number of fossil species (like in eurypterids ) and in extant animals (like

5104-452: The lower lip, and bear short palps . The first pair of limbs stretch forward from the body over the mouth. These limbs, or forcipules, end in sharp claws and include venom glands that help the animal to kill or paralyze its prey. Their size ranges from a few millimetres in the smaller lithobiomorphs and geophilomorphs to about 30 cm (12 in) in the largest scolopendromorphs . Many species of centipedes lack eyes, but some possess

5192-590: The most well known example. Throughout this period, Latin was a universal school subject, and indeed, the pre-eminent subject for elementary education in most of Europe and other places of the world that shared its culture. Schools were variously known as grammar schools in Britain, Latin schools in France, Germany, the Netherlands and colonial North America, and also Gymnasia in Germany and many other countries. Latin

5280-612: The myriapod itself. For instance, Scolopendra gigantea (the Amazonian giant centipede) preys on tarantulas , scorpions , lizards , frogs , birds , mice , snakes , and even bats , catching them in midflight. Three species ( Scolopendra cataracta , S. paradoxa , and S. alcyona ) are amphibious, believed to hunt aquatic or amphibious invertebrates. Many larger animals prey upon centipedes, such as mongooses , mice , salamanders , beetles and some specialist snake species. They form an important item of diet for many species and

5368-424: The name, no species of centipede has exactly 100 legs; the number of pairs of legs is an odd number that ranges from 15 pairs to 191 pairs. Centipedes are predominantly generalist carnivorous , hunting for a variety of prey items that can be overpowered. They have a wide geographical range, which can be found in terrestrial habitats from tropical rainforests to deserts . Within these habitats, centipedes require

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5456-512: The period, English schools established with charitable structures open to the general public; now a kind of private academy), where the liturgy was still permitted to be conducted in Latin. In this period, it was common for poets and authors to write in Latin, either in place of or in addition to their native language. Latin was a language for "high art" in an "eternal language", that authors supposed might outlast contemporary vernacular writings. It allowed for an international readership that shared

5544-463: The practical working language of the Roman Catholic Church , and was taught throughout Europe to clerics through the medieval university system. It was a flexible language, with many neologisms. Changes in grammatical practices regarding syntax and other elements such as conjunctions had become established. The Renaissance reinforced the position of Latin as a spoken and written language by

5632-449: The presence of postantennal organs . Centipedes have one pair of legs per segment, while millipedes have two. Their heads differ in that millipedes have short, elbowed antennae , a pair of robust mandibles and a single pair of maxillae fused into a lip; centipedes have long, threadlike antennae, a pair of small mandibles, two pairs of maxillae and a pair of large venom claws. Centipede reproduction does not involve copulation. Males deposit

5720-471: The process of emulating Classical models did not become complete. For instance, Catholic traditions preserved some features of medieval Latin, given the continued influence of some aspects of medieval theology. In secular texts, such as scientific, legal and philosophical works, neologisms continued to be needed, so while Neo-Latin authors might choose new formulations, they might also continue to use customary medieval forms, but in either case, could not aim for

5808-434: The reform of Latin teaching. Among the most influential of these reformers was Calvin's Latin teacher and educational collaborator Corderius , whose bilingual colloquies were aimed at helping French-speaking children learn to speak Latin. Among Latin schools, the rapid growth of Jesuit schools made them known for their dedication to high attainment in written and spoken Latin to educate future priests. This took place after

5896-757: The reform of the new secular Latin teaching. The heyday of Neo-Latin was 1500–1700, when in the continuation of the Medieval Latin tradition, it served as the lingua franca of science, medicine, legal discourse, theology, education, and to some degree diplomacy in Europe. This coincided with the growth of printed literature; Latin dominated early publishing. Classic works such as Thomas More 's Utopia were published. Other prominent writers of this period include Dutchmen Grotius and Secundus and Scotsman George Buchanan . Women, while rarely published, also wrote and composed poetry in Latin, Elizabeth Jane Weston being

5984-598: The rising belief during this period in the superiority of vernacular literatures, and the idea that only writing in one's first language could produce genuinely creative output, found in nationalism and Romanticism. More recently, the lack of trained Latinists has added to the barriers. More academic attention has been given to Neo-Latin studies since 1970, and the role and influence of Latin output in this period has begun to be reassessed. Rather than being an adjunct to Classical Latin forms, or an isolated, derivative and now largely irrelevant cultural output, Neo-Latin literature

6072-503: The same Classical and recent Latin cultural reference points. The literature did not stand apart from vernaculars, as naturally allusions and the same reference points could flow across language boundaries. However, these dynamics have become less well understood, as academics and other readers are not as familiar with the Latin works of the period, sometimes resulting in simplistic notions of competition and replacement of Latin over time. The actual processes were more complicated and are now

6160-435: The same people were codifying and promoting both Latin and vernacular languages, in a wider post-medieval process of linguistic standardisation. However, Latin was the first language that was available, fully formed, widely taught and used internationally across a wide variety of subjects. As such, it can be seen as the first "modern European language". It should also be noted that for Italian reformers of written Latin, there

6248-467: The same time and their tendency to dart swiftly out of the darkness towards one's feet. A 19th-century Tibetan poet warned his fellow Buddhists , "if you enjoy frightening others, you will be reborn as a centipede." Neo-Latin Neo-Latin (sometimes called New Latin or Modern Latin ) is the style of written Latin used in original literary, scholarly, and scientific works, first in Italy during

6336-700: The scholarship by the Renaissance Humanists . Although scholarship initially focused on Ancient Greek texts, Petrarch and others began to change their understanding of good style and their own usage of Latin as they explored the texts of the Classical Latin world. Skills of textual criticism evolved to create much more accurate versions of extant texts through the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and some important texts were rediscovered. Comprehensive versions of author's works were published by Isaac Casaubon , Joseph Scaliger and others. Nevertheless, despite

6424-478: The school curriculum, especially for students aiming for entry to university. Learning moved gradually away from poetry composition and other written skills; as a language, its use was increasingly passive outside of classical commentaries and other specialised texts. Latin remained in active use in eastern Europe and Scandinavia for a longer period. In Poland, it was used as a vehicle of local government. This extended to those parts of Poland absorbed by Germany. Latin

6512-444: The secretions of Geophilus vittatus are sticky and odorous, and contain hydrogen cyanide. The giant desert centipede of Arizona, Scolopendra polymorpha , has a black head and tail, and an orange body; this conspicuous pattern may be aposematic , an honest signal of the animal's toxicity. Many species raise and splay their ultimate legs and display the spines found on the legs in a defensive threat posture. Because centipedes lack

6600-558: The staple diet of some such as the African ant Amblyopone pluto , which feeds solely on geophilomorph centipedes, and the South African Cape black-headed snake Aparallactus capensis . Some Geophilomorph, Lithobiomorph, and Scolopendromorph centipedes produce sticky, toxic secretions to defend themselves. The various secretions ward off or entangle predators. Scolopendromorph secretions contain hydrogen cyanide . Among Geophilomorphs,

6688-503: The waxy water-resistant cuticle of other arthropods, they are more susceptible to water loss via evaporation. Thus, centipedes are most commonly found in high-humidity environments to avoid dehydration, and are mostly nocturnal . Centipedes live in many different habitats including in soil and leaf litter; they are found in environments as varied as tropical rain forests, deserts, and caves. Some geophilomorphs are adapted to littoral habitats, where they feed on barnacles . According to

6776-413: The wide availability of Latin texts following the invention of printing , mark the transition to a new era of scholarship at the end of the 15th century, but there was no simple, decisive break with medieval traditions. Rather, there was a process of change in education, a choice of literary and stylistic models, and a move away from medieval techniques of language formation and argumentation. The end of

6864-449: The wide-ranging Scolopendra subspinipes can live for over 10 years. The combination of a small number of eggs laid, long gestation period, and long time of development to reproduction has led authors to label lithobiomorph centipedes as K-selected . Centipedes grow their legs at different points in their development. In the primitive condition, seen in the orders Lithobiomorpha , Scutigeromorpha , and Craterostigmomorpha , development

6952-417: The widening of education and its needs to address many more practical areas of knowledge, many of which were being written about for national audiences in the vernacular. The exact size of the Neo-Latin corpus is currently incalculable, but dwarfs that of Latin in all other periods combined. Material includes personal, unpublished, bureaucratic, educational, and academic output such as notes and theses. Given

7040-443: Was adopted throughout Europe, first through the spread of urban education in Italy, and then the rise of the printing press and of early modern schooling. Latin was learnt as a spoken language as well as written, as the vehicle of schooling and University education, while vernacular languages were still infrequently used in such settings. As such, Latin dominated early publishing, and made up a significant portion of printed works until

7128-453: Was appropriate to put so much emphasis on abstract language skills such as Latin poetry composition. As time went on, the difficulties with Latin teaching began to lead to calls to move away from an emphasis on spoken Latin and the introduction of more native-language-medium teaching. At the beginning of the Renaissance, universities in northern Europe were still dominated by theology and related topics, while Italian universities were teaching

7216-412: Was frequently the normal medium of education, both for teaching the Latin language, and for other subjects. Fluency in spoken Latin was an objective as well as the ability to read and write; evidence of this includes the emphasis on use of diacritics to maintain understanding of vowel quantity, which is important orally, and also on the use of Colloquia for children's learning, which would help to equip

7304-446: Was in Latin, across the curriculum. Many universities hosted newly or recently-written Latin plays , which formed a significant body of literature before 1650. Plays included satires on student life, such as the play Studentes (Students), which went through many reprints. Enforcement of Latin-only rules tended to decline especially after 1650. Latin dominated topics of international academic and scientific interest, especially at

7392-423: Was no clear divide between Italian and Latin; the latter was seen by Petrarch for example as an artificial and literary version of the spoken language. While Italian in this period also begins to be used as a separate written language, it was not always seen as wholly separate from Latin. The Protestant Reformation (1520–1580), though it removed Latin from the liturgies of the churches of Northern Europe, promoted

7480-647: Was of course the major language of Christian theology. Both Catholic and Protestant writers published in Latin. While Protestant writers would also write in vernaculars, Latin was important for the international dissemination of ideas. Legal discourse, medicine, philosophy and sciences started from a strong Latin tradition, and continued as such. This began to change in the late seventeenth century, as philosophers and others began to write in their native language first, and translate into Latin for international audiences. Translations would tend to prioritise accuracy over style. The Catholic Church made exclusive use of Latin in

7568-563: Was once thought to be the oldest insect fossil, is also found in the Rhynie Chert. Three species, one scutigeromorph ( Latzelia ) and two scolopendromorphs ( Mazoscolopendra and the poorly known Palenarthrus ), have been described from the Mazon Creek fossil beds , which are Carboniferous , 309–307 mya. More species appear in the Mesozoic , including scolopendromorphs and scutigeromorphs in

7656-658: Was the Mediterranean Sea, with the division more or less corresponding to the modern eastern borders of Finland , the Baltic states , Poland , Slovakia , Hungary and Croatia . Russia 's acquisition of Kyiv in the later 17th century introduced the study of Latin to Russia. Russia relied on Latin for some time as a vehicle to exchange scientific knowledge. Nevertheless, the use of Latin in Orthodox eastern Europe did not reach pervasive levels due to their strong cultural links to

7744-608: Was used as a common tongue between parts of the Austrian Empire, particularly Hungary and Croatia, at least until the 1820s. Croatia maintained a Latin poetry tradition through the nineteenth century. Latin also remained the language of the Catholic Church and of oral debate at a high level in international conferences until the mid twentieth century. Over time, and especially in its later phases after its practical value had severely declined, education that included strong emphasis on Latin and Greek became associated with elitism and as

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