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98-446: The town was originally known by a Phoenician and Punic name that included the element ʾY ( 𐤀𐤉 ), meaning " island ". This may have been ʾY-ḤOL , meaning "Island of Sand". The Punic name was hellenized as Iṑl ( Ancient Greek : Ἰὼλ ) and latinized as Iol . Cherchel and Cherchell are French transcriptions of the Arabic name Shershel ( Arabic : شرشال ), derived from

196-449: A Roman colony , it was formally named Colonia Claudia Caesariensium Iol after its imperial patron Claudius . Phoenicians established their first major wave of colonies on the coasts between their homeland and the Strait of Gibraltar in the 8th century   BC, but Iol was probably established around 600   BC and the oldest remains so far discovered at Cherchell date from

294-412: A bull and mauled by a leopard for the amusement of the crowd. St   Theodota and her sons were also supposedly martyred in the city. Caesarea was a bishopric from about 314 to 484, although not all of its bishops are known. Fortunatus took part in the 314 Council of Arles , which condemned Donatism . Clemens was mentioned in one of Symmachus 's letters and would have served in the 370s. During

392-544: A lingua franca of the maritime Mediterranean during the Iron Age . The Phoenician alphabet spread to Greece during this period, where it became the source of all modern European scripts . Phoenician belongs to the Canaanite languages and as such is quite similar to Biblical Hebrew and other languages of the group, at least in its early stages, and is therefore mutually intelligible with them. The area in which Phoenician

490-557: A summit conference between the US and UK in October 1942. The end of the war with its departure of Allied forces and a reduction of French naval personnel due to rebasing saw an actual decline in Europeans living in the city. Additionally, the general austerity of the post-war years dried up the tourism industry and caused financial stagnation and losses to the local Franco-Algerian community. In 1952,

588-550: A titular see in the 19th century. It was distinguished as "Caesarea in Mauretania" in 1933. Its bishops have included: Phoenician language Phoenician ( / f ə ˈ n iː ʃ ən / fə- NEE -shən ; Phoenician: śpt knʿn lit.   ' language of Canaan ' ) is an extinct Canaanite Semitic language originally spoken in the region surrounding the cities of Tyre and Sidon . Extensive Tyro-Sidonian trade and commercial dominance led to Phoenician becoming

686-753: A census recorded that the Frenco-Algerian population had declined to 50% of the population. For the remaining 1950s, Cherchell was only slightly caught up by the Algerian War of Independence . With its large proportion of Europeans, French control and influence was strong enough to discourage all but the most daring attacks by anti-French insurgents. By 1966, after independence from the French, Cherchell had lost nearly half of its population and all of its Franco-Algerian population. Cherchell has continued to grow post-independence, recovering to peak colonial-era population by

784-520: A few dozen extant inscriptions, played no expansionary role. However, the very slight differences in language and the insufficient records of the time make it unclear whether Phoenician formed a separate and united dialect or was merely a superficially defined part of a broader language continuum . Through their maritime trade, the Phoenicians spread the use of the alphabet to the Maghreb and Europe, where it

882-668: A grid and amenities included a theater , an art gallery, and a lighthouse modeled after the Pharos in Alexandria . He probably began the Roman wall that ran for about 7 kilometers (4 mi) around a space of about 400 hectares (988 acres); about 150 of that total was used for the settlement in antiquity. The royal couple were buried in the Royal Mausoleum of Mauretania . The seaport capital and its kingdom flourished during this period, with most of

980-550: A hospital. The local museum displays some of the finest ancient Greek and Roman antiquities found in Africa. Cherchell is the birthplace of writer and movie director Assia Djebar . Earthquakes, wars and plunder have ravaged many of the ancient remains. The town (of Caesarea) remains insufficiently known....The town walls, studied in 1946, pose more problems; and the monuments are more often simply marked than completely known. The amphitheater, which has been excavated, remains unpublished;

1078-617: A noun in the dual and the rest are nouns in the singular. They all distinguish gender: 𐤀𐤇𐤃 ʼḥd , 𐤀𐤔𐤍𐤌/𐤔𐤍𐤌 (ʼ)šnm (construct state 𐤀𐤔𐤍/𐤔𐤍 (ʼ)šn ), 𐤔𐤋𐤔 šlš , 𐤀𐤓𐤁𐤏 ʼrbʻ , 𐤇𐤌𐤔 ḥmš , 𐤔𐤔 šš , 𐤔𐤁𐤏 šbʻ , 𐤔𐤌𐤍/𐤔𐤌𐤍𐤄 šmn(h) , 𐤕𐤔𐤏 tšʻ , 𐤏𐤔𐤓/𐤏𐤎𐤓 ʻšr/ʻsr vs 𐤀𐤇𐤕 ʼḥt , 𐤔𐤕𐤌 štm , 𐤔𐤋𐤔𐤕 šlšt , 𐤀𐤓𐤁𐤏𐤕 ʼrbʻt , 𐤇𐤌𐤔𐤕 ḥmšt , 𐤔𐤔𐤕 ššt , 𐤔𐤁𐤏𐤕 šbʻt , 𐤔𐤌𐤍𐤕 šmnt , unattested, 𐤏𐤔𐤓𐤕 ʻšrt . The tens are morphologically masculine plurals of

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1176-468: A reduced schwa vowel that occurred in pre-stress syllables in verbs and two syllables before stress in nouns and adjectives, while other instances of Y as in chyl/χυλ and even chil/χιλ for 𐤊𐤋 /kull/ "all" in Poenulus can be interpreted as a further stage in the vowel shift resulting in fronting ( [y] ) and even subsequent delabialization of /u/ and /uː/ . Short /*i/ in originally-open syllables

1274-574: A traditional linguistic perspective, Phoenician was composed of a variety of dialects. According to some sources, Phoenician developed into distinct Tyro-Sidonian and Byblian dialects. By this account, the Tyro-Sidonian dialect, from which the Punic language eventually emerged, spread across the Mediterranean through trade and colonization, whereas the ancient dialect of Byblos , known from a corpus of only

1372-417: A trickle. Arab and Berber populations started seeing an increase in growth. French-Algerian colonial officials and landowners encouraged larger numbers of surrounding Berber tribesmen to move into the surrounding region to work the farms and groves cheaply. In turn, more and more Berbers and Arabs moved into the city seeking employment. By 1930 the combined Berbo-Arab Algerian population represented nearly 40% of

1470-538: Is also possible that the structure was simply meant to serve as a memorial and not an actual place of burial. The Royal Mausoleum of Mauretania is a part of a unique archeological site along the road from Cherchell to Tipaza . On this archeological site, there are various monuments and infrastructure that have survived from the Phoenician (see also Carthage National Museum ), Roman , Early Christianity and Byzantine periods. This group of ruins that are located along

1568-650: Is clearly distinct from the preposition את ʼt (/ ʼitt /). The most common negative marker is 𐤁𐤋 bl (/ bal /), negating verbs but sometimes also nouns; another one is 𐤀𐤉 ʼy (/ ʼī /), expressing both nonexistence and the negation of verbs. Negative commands or prohibitions are expressed with 𐤀𐤋 ʼl (/ ʼal /). "Lest" is 𐤋𐤌 lm . Some common conjunctions are 𐤅 w (originally perhaps / wa-? /, but certainly / u- / in Late Punic), "and" 𐤀𐤌 ʼm ( /ʼim/ ), "when", and 𐤊 k ( /kī/ ), "that; because; when". There

1666-475: Is in a circular form with a square base topped by a cone or a pyramid . The square base measures 60 to 60.9 metres square or 200 to 209 foot. The height of the monument was originally about 40 metres or 130’ in height. Due to damage that the mausoleum has suffered from natural elements and vandalism, the monument now measures 30-32.4 metres in height. The base of the monument was decorated with 60 Ionic columns whose capitals were removed, possibly stolen. Inside,

1764-731: Is now Constantine, Algeria dated to the first century BC make use of the Greek alphabet to write Punic, and many inscriptions from Tripolitania , in the third and fourth centuries AD use the Latin alphabet for that purpose. In Phoenician writing, unlike that of abjads such as those of Aramaic, Biblical Hebrew and Arabic, even long vowels remained generally unexpressed, regardless of their origin (even if they originated from diphthongs, as in bt /beːt/ 'house', for earlier *bayt- ; Hebrew spelling has byt ). Eventually, Punic writers began to implement systems of marking of vowels by means of matres lectionis . In

1862-487: Is probably the Royal Tomb that the 1st-century Roman geographer Pomponius Mela (1.31) described as the monumentum commune regiae gentis ("the communal mausoleum of the royal family"). If the geographer’s description of the mausoleum is correct, then the building was not intended just for Juba and Cleopatra, but envisaged as a dynastic funeral monument for their royal descendants. The Mauretanian sepulchre looks similar to

1960-466: Is some evidence for remains of the Proto-Semitic genitive grammatical case as well. While many of the endings coalesce in the standard orthography, inscriptions in the Latin and Greek alphabet permit the reconstruction of the noun endings, which are also the adjective endings, as follows: In late Punic, the final /-t/ of the feminine was apparently dropped: 𐤇𐤌𐤋𐤊𐤕 ‎ ḥmlkt "son of

2058-657: Is the tomb where the Numidian Berber King Juba II (son of Juba I of Numidia ) and the Queen Cleopatra Selene II , sovereigns of Numidia and Mauretania Caesariensis , were allegedly buried. However, their human remains are no longer at the site. The sepulchre is sometimes known as the Mausoleum of Juba II and Cleopatra Selene . In French , it is called the Tombeau de la Chrétienne ("the tomb of

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2156-756: Is the so-called Canaanite shift , shared by Biblical Hebrew, but going further in Phoenician. The Proto-Northwest Semitic /aː/ and /aw/ became not merely /oː/ as in Tiberian Hebrew , but /uː/ . Stressed Proto-Semitic /a/ became Tiberian Hebrew /ɔː/ ( /aː/ in other traditions), but Phoenician /oː/ . The shift is proved by Latin and Greek transcriptions like rūs/ρους for "head, cape" 𐤓𐤀𐤔 /ruːʃ/ (Tiberian Hebrew rōš /roːʃ/, ראש ‎); similarly notice stressed /o/ (corresponding to Tiberian Hebrew /a/ ) samō/σαμω for "he heard" 𐤔𐤌𐤏 /ʃaˈmoʕ/ (Tiberian Hebrew šāmaʻ /ʃɔːˈmaʕ/, שָׁמַע ‎); similarly

2254-558: Is thought that Phoenician had the short vowels /a/ , /i/ , /u/ and the long vowels /aː/ , /iː/ , /uː/ , /eː/ , /oː/ . The Proto-Semitic diphthongs /aj/ and /aw/ are realized as /eː/ and /oː/ . That must have happened earlier than in Biblical Hebrew since the resultant long vowels are not marked with the semivowel letters ( bēt "house" was written 𐤁𐤕 ‎ bt , in contrast to Biblical Hebrew בית ‎ byt ). The most conspicuous vocalic development in Phoenician

2352-516: Is usually / -im / 𐤌 m . The same enclitic pronouns are also attached to verbs to denote direct objects. In that function, some of them have slightly divergent forms: first singular / -nī / 𐤍 n and probably first plural / -nu(ː) /. The near demonstrative pronouns ("this") are written, in standard Phoenician, 𐤆 z [za] for the singular and 𐤀𐤋 ʼl [ʔilːa] for the plural. Cypriot Phoenician displays 𐤀𐤆 ʼz [ʔizːa] instead of 𐤆 z [za]. Byblian still distinguishes, in

2450-553: Is written 𐤌𐤍𐤌 mnm (possibly pronounced [miːnumːa], similar to Akkadian [miːnumːeː]) and 𐤌𐤍𐤊 mnk (possibly pronounced [miːnukːa]). The relative pronoun is a 𐤔 š [ʃi], either followed or preceded by a vowel. The definite article was /ha-/ , and the first consonant of the following word was doubled. It was written 𐤄 h but in late Punic also 𐤀 [ʼ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script ( help ) and 𐤏 [ʻ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script ( help ) because of

2548-548: The 411 synod at Carthage , Caesarea was represented by the Donatist Emeritus and the orthodox Deuterius. St   Augustine accosted Emeritus at Caesarea in the autumn of 418 and secured his exile. Apocorius was an orthodox bishop whom Huneric summoned to Carthage in 484 and then exiled. An early 8th-century Notitia Episcopatuum still included this see. Caesarea was revived by the Roman Catholic Church as

2646-1306: The Byblian and the late Punic varieties). They appear in a slightly different form depending on whether or not they follow plural-form masculine nouns (and so are added after a vowel). The former is given in brackets with the abbreviation a.V. Singular: 1st: / -ī / [∅] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script ( help ) , also 𐤉 y (a.V. / -ayy / y ) 2nd masc. / -ka(ː) / 𐤊 k 2nd fem. / -ki(ː) / 𐤊 k 3rd masc. / -oː / [∅] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script ( help ) , Punic 𐤀 [ʼ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script ( help ) , (a.V. / -ēyu(ː) / y ) 3rd fem. / -aː / [∅] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script ( help ) , Punic 𐤀 [ʼ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script ( help ) (a.V. / -ēya(ː) / y ) Plural: 1st: / -on / 𐤍 n 2nd masc. / -kum / 𐤊𐤌 km 2nd fem. unattested, perhaps / -kin / 𐤊𐤍 kn 3rd masc. / -om / 𐤌 m (a.V. / -nom / 𐤍𐤌 nm ) 3rd fem. / -am / 𐤌 m (a.V. / -nam / 𐤍𐤌 nm ) In addition, according to some research,

2744-630: The French Navy and the Knights Hospitaller (self-proclaimed descendants of the Crusaders) laid siege to the city and occasionally captured it for limited periods of time. For a century in the 1600s and for a brief period in the 1700s the city either was under Spanish or Hospitallar control. During this period a number of palaces were built, but the overwhelming edifice of Hayreddin Barbarossa's citadel,

2842-725: The International Phonetic Alphabet : The system reflected in the abjad above is the product of several mergers. From Proto-Northwest Semitic to Canaanite, *š and *ṯ have merged into *š , *ḏ and *z have merged into *z , and *ṯ̣ , *ṣ́ and *ṣ have merged into *ṣ . Next, from Canaanite to Phoenician, the sibilants *ś and *š were merged as *š , *ḫ and *ḥ were merged as ḥ , and *[ʻ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script ( help ) and * ġ were merged as *[ʻ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script ( help ) . For

2940-599: The Mausoleum of Augustus erected by the first Roman Emperor Augustus in Ancient Rome . Augustus began constructing his mausoleum between 29 BC-27 BC, some time before Juba II left Rome to return to Numidia. The Royal Mausoleum of Mauretania is a common type of ancient mausoleums found in Numidia. It is built on a hill some 250 metres (756 feet) above sea level. The monument is entirely built from stone, while its main structure

3038-727: The Mediterranean Sea were recognized and inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1982. Although these archaeological remains, including the Royal Mausoleum of Mauretania, are protected, the ruins located between Cherchell and Tipaza face constant threats from continual urban construction and expansion, open sewage drainage run offs, poor maintenance, and constant vandalism. Due to these ongoing problems, these archaeological remains face an uncertain future. The local authorities have failed and had problems implementing

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3136-629: The Punic , Numidian and Roman periods, and the works of art found there, including statues of Neptune and Venus, are now in the Museum of Antiquities in Algiers. The former Roman port is no longer in commercial use and has been partly filled by alluvial deposits and has been affected by earthquakes. The former local mosque of the Hundred Columns contains 89 columns of diorite . This remarkable building now serves as

3234-497: The Punic Wars , Carthage's holdings in northwest Africa were mostly given to Rome 's local allies. Iol was given to Micipsa , the king of Numidia , who first established it as a royal court. It became an important city for the kingdom and was the primary capital for Bocchus I and II . The town minted its own coins and received new defensive works in the 1st century   BC. Its Punic culture continued, but worship of Baal Hammon

3332-500: The Semitic alphabet . The Phoenician alphabet is one of the oldest verified consonantal alphabet, or abjad . It has become conventional to refer to the script as "Proto-Canaanite" until the mid-11th century BC, when it is first attested on inscribed bronze arrowheads , and as "Phoenician" only after 1050 BC. The Phoenician phonetic alphabet is generally believed to be at least the partial ancestor of almost all modern alphabets. From

3430-468: The Vandal Kingdom was conquered by Byzantine forces under Justinian 's general Belisarius . Caesarea was among the areas to return to imperial rule. It was the seat of Mauretania's duke ( Latin : dux ), but it went into decline and its city center was given over to ramshackle housing for the poor. The first duke was named John; that he was given an infantry unit rather than cavalry implies that he

3528-500: The lenition of stop consonants that happened in most other Northwest Semitic languages such as Biblical Hebrew and Aramaic (cf. Hackett vs Segert and Lyavdansky). The consonant /p/ may have been generally transformed into /f/ in Punic and in late Phoenician, as it was in Proto-Arabic. Certainly, Latin-script renditions of late Punic include many spirantized transcriptions with ph , th and kh in various positions (although

3626-585: The 1980s. Cherchell currently has industries in marble, plaster quarries and iron mines. The town trades in oils, tobacco and earthenware. Additionally, the ancient cistern first developed by Juba and Cleopatra Selene II was restored and expanded under recent French rule and still supplies water to the town. Although the Algerian Riviera ended with the war, Cherchell is still a popular tourist place in Algeria. Cherchell has various splendid temples and monuments from

3724-607: The 3rd century BC appeared the practice of using final 'ālep [REDACTED] to mark the presence of any final vowel and, occasionally, of yōd [REDACTED] to mark a final long [iː] . Later, mostly after the destruction of Carthage in the so-called "Neo-Punic" inscriptions, that was supplemented by a system in which wāw [REDACTED] denoted [u] , yōd [REDACTED] denoted [i] , 'ālep [REDACTED] denoted [e] and [o] , ʿayin [REDACTED] denoted [a] and hē [REDACTED] and ḥēt [REDACTED] could also be used to signify [a] . This latter system

3822-422: The 5th century   BC. By that time, Carthage had already taken control of the Phoenicians in the western Mediterranean . Punic Iol was one of the more important trading posts in what is now Algeria. In the 3rd century   BC, it was fortified and began issuing Numidia 's first coins in bronze and silver , bearing Punic text , Carthaginian gods , and images of local produce, particularly fish. After

3920-767: The Barbary ports while threatening the Ottoman Empire with war if it intervened. In 1840, the French after a significant siege captured and occupied the town. The French lynched the Barbary Pirates including the local pasha for Crimes against the laws of nations . In turn, many ancient statues and buildings were either restored and left in Cherchell, or taken to museums in Algiers or Paris, for further study. However, not all building projects were successful in uncovering and restoring

4018-714: The Christian woman") because there is a Christian cross -like shape of the division lines on the false door. In Arabic , the mausoleum is called the Kubr-er-Rumia or Kbor er Roumia , which means "tomb of the Christian woman", as Rûm was taken in Arabic as the Eastern Roman Empire and, in North Africa, rumi took the meaning "Christian". It may have been a deformation of a Punic phrase for "the royal tomb". The mausoleum

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4116-575: The Early Modern period. Similarly, by the 10th century the city's name had transformed in the local dialect from a Latin to a Berber and ultimately into the Arabised form Sharshal (in French orthography , Cherchell). The Norman Kingdom of Africa raided Berreshk, near Cherchell, in 1144. Eventually, Ottoman Turks managed to successfully reconquer the city from Spanish occupation in the 16th century, using

4214-460: The Empire. As a result, by the ninth century down much of the city's defences were damaged beyond repair, and resulting in its political loss of importance, leaving the former city little more than a small village . For the following few centuries, the city remained a power center of Arabs and Berbers with a small but significant population of Christians who were fully assimilated by the beginning of

4312-577: The G-stem, the following forms: The missing forms above can be inferred from the correspondences between the Proto-Northwest Semitic ancestral forms and the attested Phoenician counterparts: the PNWS participle forms are * /pāʻil-, pāʻilīma, pāʻil(a)t, pāʻilāt, paʻūl, paʻūlīm, paʻult or paʻūlat, paʻūlāt/ . The derived stems are: Most of the stems apparently also had passive and reflexive counterparts,

4410-476: The Latin alphabet, which also indicated the vowels. Those later inscriptions, in addition with some inscriptions in Greek letters and transcriptions of Phoenician names into other languages, represent the main source of knowledge about Phoenician vowels. The following table presents the consonant phonemes of the Phoenician language as represented in the Phoenician alphabet, alongside their standard Semiticist transliteration and reconstructed phonetic values in

4508-414: The N was a portico, covered over today by a street, where Gsell saw the S side of the forum. Of the rich scaenae frons there remain only traces and several statues, of which two are colossal muses. The orchestra had later undergone great modification which had resulted in the disappearance of the platform of the stage: an oval arena had been built, intended for hunting spectacles, and a wall was raised between

4606-543: The Phoenician orthography, also eventually merged at some point, either in Classical Phoenician or in Late Punic. In later Punic, the laryngeals and pharyngeals seem to have been entirely lost. Neither these nor the emphatics could be adequately represented by the Latin alphabet, but there is also evidence to that effect from Punic script transcriptions. There is no consensus on whether Phoenician-Punic ever underwent

4704-409: The addition of *iy 𐤉 -y . Composite numerals are formed with w- 𐤅 "and", e.g. 𐤏𐤔𐤓 𐤅𐤔𐤍𐤌 ʻšr w šnm for "twelve". The verb inflects for person, number, gender, tense and mood. Like for other Semitic languages, Phoenician verbs have different "verbal patterns" or "stems", expressing manner of action, level of transitivity and voice. The perfect or suffix-conjugation, which expresses

4802-435: The addition of 𐤍 -n or 𐤕 -t . Other prepositions are not like that: 𐤀𐤋 ʻl "upon", .𐤏𐤃 ʻd "until", 𐤀𐤇𐤓 ʼḥr "after", 𐤕𐤇𐤕 tḥt "under", 𐤁𐤉𐤍, 𐤁𐤍 b(y)n "between". New prepositions are formed with nouns: 𐤋𐤐𐤍 lpn "in front of", from 𐤋 l- "to" and 𐤐𐤍 pn "face". There is a special preposited marker of a definite object 𐤀𐤉𐤕 ʼyt (/ ʼiyyūt /?), which, unlike Hebrew,

4900-484: The ancient town. The Roman amphitheatre was considered mostly unsalvageable and unnecessary to rebuild. Its dress stones were used to the build a new French fort and barracks. Materials from the Hippodrome were used to build a new church. The steps of the Hippodrome were partly destroyed by Cardinal Charles Lavigerie in a search for the tomb of Saint Marciana. French occupation also brought new European settlement, to join

4998-561: The arena floor was cut by two perpendicular passages intended for beasts. It is in this arena that St. Marciana was martyred. Some remains can be seen in the local Archeological Museum of Chercell-Caesarea . Christianity arrived in Caesarea early enough to produce martyrs during the Diocletianic Persecution . For vandalizing an idol of Diana , St   Marciana was supposedly tortured and killed in Caesarea's arena, gored by

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5096-691: The case endings -u and -i , was written ma-ta-an-ba[ʼ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script ( help ) a-al (likely Phoenician spelling *𐤌𐤕𐤍𐤁𐤏𐤋) two centuries later. However, evidence has been found for a retention of the genitive case in the form of the first-singular possessive suffix: 𐤀𐤁𐤉 ʼby /[ʼ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script ( help ) abiya/ "of my father" vs 𐤀𐤁 ʼb /[ʼ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script ( help ) abī/ "my father". If true, this may suggest that cases were still distinguished to some degree in other forms as well. The written forms and

5194-428: The centre of the mausoleum has two vaulted chambers, separated by a short passage connected by a gallery outside by stone doors which can be moved up and down by levers. The passage leading to the chambers is about 500’. One chamber measures 142 feet long by 11 feet broad and is 11 feet high, while the other is smaller. In the 16th century, the mausoleum was believed by some Spaniards to be the tomb of Florinda la Cava ,

5292-477: The city primarily as a fortified port. In 1520, Hayreddin Barbarossa captured the town and annexed the Algerian Pashalic . His elder brother Oruç Reis built a fort over the town. Under Turkish occupation, the city's importance as a port and fort led to it being inhabited by Moslems of many nationalities, some engaging in privateering and piracy on the Mediterranean. In reply, European navies and especially

5390-459: The city's long-established communities of semi-Arabized Christians of local origin and old European merchant families, in addition to Berbers and Arab Muslims. Under French rule, European and Christians became a majority of the population again until World War II. In the immediate years before World War II, losses to the French national population from World War I, and a declining birthrate in general among Europeans kept further colonial settlement to

5488-474: The city's population. The changing demographics within the city were disguised by the large numbers of French military personnel based there and the numbers of European tourists visiting what had become known as the Algerian Riviera . Additionally, during World War II, Cherchell, with its libraries, cafes, restaurants, and hotels served as a base for the United States Army and Allied War effort , hosting

5586-510: The conquest. By 44, most resistance had been ended and the former kingdom was divided into two Roman provinces , one governed from Tingis (present-day Tangiers ) and another governed from Caesarea. Mauretania Caesariensis extended along what is now the Algerian coast and included most of the hinterland as far as the Atlas Mountains . Roman colonies of veteran soldiers were established in

5684-513: The defenders were resupplied by Byzantine fleets, finally overwhelmed it. Much of the Byzantine nobility and officials fled to other parts of the Empire, while most of the remaining Roman and semi-Roman Berber population accepted Islamic rule which granted them protected status. Some remained Christians. For two generations what remained of the Roman population and Romanized Berbers launched several revolts often in conjunction with reinforcements from

5782-585: The distinct Punic language developed. Punic also died out, but it seems to have survived far longer than Phoenician, until the sixth century, perhaps even into the ninth century. Phoenician was written with the Phoenician script, an abjad (consonantary) originating from the Proto-Canaanite alphabet that also became the basis for the Greek alphabet and, via an Etruscan adaptation, the Latin alphabet . The Punic form of

5880-542: The early 170s. The city featured a hippodrome , amphitheater , numerous temples , and civic buildings like a basilica . It was surrounded by suburban villas whose agricultural mosaics are now celebrated. It had its own school of philosophy, academy, and library. It received a new forum and further patronage from the African emperor Septimius Severus and his dynasty , possibly reaching as many as 100,000 inhabitants. Its native son Macrinus and his son Diadumenian became

5978-425: The end of the 18th century, Baba Mahommed tried in vain to destroy the monument with artillery. Later, when the French occupied Algeria the monument was used by the French Navy for target practice. The human remains of Juba II and Cleopatra Selene have not been found at the site. This is perhaps due to a grave robbery that occurred at an uncertain time (possibly shortly after the Mausoleum's construction). It

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6076-543: The first Berber and lower-class emperors, reigning in 217 and 218. ( Their predecessor 's wastefulness and wars required unpopular financial adjustments that led to their overthrow in favor of Elagabalus .) Juba's theater was converted into an amphitheater sometime after the year 300. The city was sacked by a Berber revolt in 371 and 372. It largely recovered, but was ravaged again by the Vandals after they were invited into Roman North Africa by Count Boniface in 429. Parts of

6174-441: The first row of seats and the cavea to protect spectators from the wild beasts. The sumptuously decorated monument is consequently very much mutilated, but is of interest specifically because of its complex history. The amphitheater, in the E part of the town, was erected in flat open country. It was not oval but rectangular, with the short sides rounded. The tiers of seats, for the most part missing, were carried on ramping vaults, and

6272-527: The former differing through vowels, the latter also through the infix 𐤕 -t- . The G stem passive is attested as 𐤐𐤉𐤏𐤋 pyʻl , /pyʻal/ < * /puʻal/ ; t-stems can be reconstructed as 𐤉𐤕𐤐𐤏𐤋 ytpʻl /yitpaʻil/ (tG) and 𐤉𐤕𐤐𐤏𐤋 yptʻʻl /yiptaʻʻil/ (Dt). Some prepositions are always prefixed to nouns, deleting, if present, the initial /h/ of the definite article: such are 𐤁 b- "in", 𐤋 l- "to, for", 𐤊 k- "as" and 𐤌 m- / min / "from". They are sometimes found in forms extended through

6370-646: The interpretation of these spellings is not entirely clear) as well as the letter f for the original *p. However, in Neo-Punic, *b lenited to /v/ contiguous to a following consonant, as in the Latin transcription lifnim for 𐤋𐤁𐤍𐤌 ‎ *lbnm "for his son". Knowledge of the vowel system is very imperfect because of the characteristics of the writing system. During most of its existence, Phoenician writing showed no vowels at all, and even as vowel notation systems did eventually arise late in its history, they never came to be applied consistently to native vocabulary. It

6468-513: The legendary Spanish woman, whose rape led to the Islamic conquest of Iberia . It has been explained as a confusion of Qabr Arrumiyya ("Christian tomb", locally qbér érromiya ) and qàhba romiya ("Christian whore"). In 1555, the Pasha of Algiers, Salah Rais , gave orders to pull down the mausoleum. After large black wasps swarmed out and stung some of the workers to death, the effort was abandoned. At

6566-420: The more conservative form and became predominant some time after the destruction of Carthage (c. 149 BC) . Neo-Punic, in turn, tended to designate vowels with matres lectionis ("consonantal letters") more frequently than the previous systems had and also began to systematically use different letters for different vowels, in the way explained in more detail below. Finally, a number of late inscriptions from what

6664-411: The new provinces to maintain order. Caesarea itself was made a colony, with its residents gaining Roman citizenship . It prospered as a provincial capital during the 1st and 2nd centuries, reaching a population of over 20,000 and possibly as many as 30,000. It was defended by auxiliary units and was the harbor of Rome's Mauretanian Fleet , which was established as a permanent force after Berber raids in

6762-434: The ones: 𐤏𐤔𐤓𐤌/𐤏𐤎𐤓𐤌 ʻsrm/ʻšrm , 𐤔𐤋𐤔𐤌 šlšm , 𐤀𐤓𐤁𐤏𐤌 ʼrbʻm , 𐤇𐤌𐤔𐤌 ḥmšm , 𐤔𐤔𐤌 ššm , 𐤔𐤁𐤏𐤌 šbʻm , 𐤔𐤌𐤍𐤌 šmnm , 𐤕𐤔𐤏𐤌 tšʻm . "One hundred" is 𐤌𐤀𐤕 mʼt , two hundred is its dual form 𐤌𐤀𐤕𐤌 mʼtm , whereas the rest are formed as in 𐤔𐤋𐤔 𐤌𐤀𐤕 šlš mʼt (three hundred). One thousand is 𐤀𐤋𐤐 ʼlp . Ordinal numerals are formed by

6860-451: The past tense, is exemplified below with the root 𐤐𐤏𐤋 p-ʻ-l "to do" (a "neutral", G-stem). Singular: Plural: The imperfect or prefix-conjugation, which expresses the present and future tense (and which is not distinguishable from the descendant of the Proto-Semitic jussive expressing wishes), is exemplified below, again with the root p-ʻ-l . Plural: The imperative endings were presumably /-∅/ , /-ī/ and /-ū/ for

6958-505: The phonetic values of the sibilants, see below. These latter developments also occurred in Biblical Hebrew at one point or another, except that *ś merged into *s there. The original value of the Proto-Semitic sibilants, and accordingly of their Phoenician counterparts, is disputed. While the traditional sound values are [ʃ] for š , [s] for s , [z] for z , and [sˤ] for ṣ , recent scholarship argues that š

7056-540: The population being of Greek and Phoenician origin with a minority of Berbers. Their son Ptolemy was assassinated by Caligula during a trip to Rome in AD   40. Rome proclaimed the annexation of Mauretania, which was resisted by Ptolemy's former slave Aedemon and by Berber leaders such as Sabalus . Caligula himself was murdered before Rome's response could be made, but his successor Claudius sent legions under Gn. Hosidius Geta and G. Suetonius Paulinus to complete

7154-566: The present data. The non-finite forms are the infinitive construct, the infinitive absolute and the active and passive participles. In the G-stem, the infinitive construct is usually combined with the preposition 𐤋 l- "to", as in 𐤋𐤐𐤏𐤋 /lipʻul/ "to do"; in contrast, the infinitive absolute 𐤐𐤏𐤋 (paʻōl) is mostly used to strengthen the meaning of a subsequent finite verb with the same root: 𐤐𐤕𐤇 𐤕𐤐𐤕𐤇 ptḥ tptḥ "you will indeed open!", accordingly /𐤐𐤏𐤋 𐤕𐤐𐤏𐤋 *paʻōl tipʻul / "you will indeed do!". The participles had, in

7252-537: The queen" or 𐤀𐤇𐤌𐤋𐤊𐤕 ‎ ʼḥmlkt "brother of the queen" rendered in Latin as HIMILCO. /n/ was also assimilated to following consonants: e.g. 𐤔𐤕 št "year" for earlier 𐤔𐤍𐤕 */sant/ . The case endings in general must have been lost between the 9th century BC and the 7th century BC: the personal name rendered in Akkadian as ma-ti-nu-ba-[ʼ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script ( help ) a-li "Gift of Baal ", with

7350-824: The reconstructed pronunciations of the personal pronouns are as follows: Singular: 1st: / ʼanōkī / 𐤀𐤍𐤊 ʼnk (Punic sometimes 𐤀𐤍𐤊𐤉 ʼnky ), also attested as / ʼanek / 2nd masc. / ʼatta(ː) / 𐤀𐤕 ʼt 2nd fem. / ʼatti(ː) / 𐤀𐤕 ʼt 3rd masc. / huʼa / 𐤄𐤀 hʼ , also [ hy ] (?) 𐤄𐤉 hy and / huʼat / 𐤄𐤀𐤕 hʼt 3rd fem. / hiʼa / 𐤄𐤀 hʼ Plural: 1st: / ʼanaḥnū / 𐤀𐤍𐤇𐤍 ʼnḥn 2nd masc. / ʾattim / 𐤀𐤕𐤌 ʼtm 2nd fem. unattested, perhaps / ʾattin / 𐤀𐤕𐤍 ʼtn 3rd masc. and feminine / himūt / 𐤄𐤌𐤕 hmt Enclitic personal pronouns were added to nouns (to encode possession) and to prepositions, as shown below for "Standard Phoenician" (the predominant dialect, as distinct from

7448-425: The same in both cases, i.e. / -nōm / 𐤍𐤌 nm and / -nēm / 𐤍𐤌 nm . These enclitic forms vary between the dialects. In the archaic Byblian dialect, the third person forms are 𐤄 h and 𐤅 w / -ō / for the masculine singular (a.V. 𐤅 w / -ēw /), 𐤄 h / -aha(ː) / for the feminine singular and 𐤅𐤌 hm / -hum(ma) / for the masculine plural. In late Punic, the 3rd masculine singular

7546-506: The same written forms of the enclitics that are attested after vowels are also found after a singular noun in what must have been the genitive case (which ended in /-i/ , whereas the plural version ended in /-ē/ ). Their pronunciation can then be reconstructed somewhat differently: first-person singular / -iya(ː) / 𐤉 y , third-person singular masculine and feminine / -iyu(ː) / 𐤉 y and / -iya(ː) / 𐤉 y . The third-person plural singular and feminine must have pronounced

7644-472: The script gradually developed somewhat different and more cursive letter shapes; in the 3rd century BC, it also began to exhibit a tendency to mark the presence of vowels, especially final vowels, with an aleph or sometimes an ayin . Furthermore, around the time of the Second Punic War , an even more cursive form began to develop, which gave rise to a variety referred to as Neo-Punic and existed alongside

7742-435: The second-person singular masculine, second-person singular feminine and second-person plural masculine respectively, but all three forms surface in the orthography as / puʻul / 𐤐𐤏𐤋 pʻl : [-∅] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script ( help ) . The old Semitic jussive, which originally differed slightly from the prefix conjugation, is no longer possible to separate from it in Phoenician with

7840-484: The singular, a masculine zn [zan] / z [za] from a feminine 𐤆𐤕 zt [zuːt] / 𐤆𐤀 zʼ [zuː]. There are also many variations in Punic, including 𐤎𐤕 st [suːt] and 𐤆𐤕 zt [zuːt] for both genders in the singular. The far demonstrative pronouns ("that") are identical to the independent third-person pronouns. The interrogative pronouns are /miya/ or perhaps /mi/ 𐤌𐤉 my "who" and /muː/ 𐤌 m "what". Indefinite pronouns are "anything"

7938-415: The terrain and are constructed on terraces on the lower slopes or on the edge of cliffs with views over the sea. They often are preserved for us only in a late form—4th c. A.D.—and traces of the era of Juba are found only in the lower strata. The theater is an exception; still well preserved in 1840, it has since served as a quarry. It was set against the slope of the mountain. At the back of the scaena towards

8036-417: The town received new fortifications. After the Vandal Kingdom conquered Carthage in 439, they also acquired a large part of Rome's Mediterranean fleet which they used to carry out raids all over the sea. Caesarea's port was sometimes used as a base for these raiders, and the city prospered from their plunder. Its schools produced the famous grammarian Priscian , who emigrated to the Byzantine east. In 533,

8134-582: The town's old Latin name Caesarea ( Ancient Greek : ἡ Καισάρεια , hē Kaisáreia ), which was given to it in 25   BC by Juba II to honor his benefactor Augustus , who had legally borne the name "Gaius Julius Caesar" after his posthumous adoption by Julius Caesar in 44   BC . It was later distinguished from the many other Roman towns named Caesarea by calling it Caesarea in Mauretania , Caesarea Mauretaniae ("Mauretania's Caesarea"), Iol Caesarea ( Ἰὼλ Καισάρεια , Iṑl Kaisáreia ), or Caesarea Iol . After its notional refounding as

8232-401: The verbs 𐤊𐤍 kn "to be" vs Arabic كون kwn , 𐤌𐤕 mt "to die" vs Hebrew and Arabic מות/موت mwt and 𐤎𐤓 sr "to remove" vs Hebrew סרר srr . Nouns are marked for gender (masculine and feminine), number (singular, plural and vestiges of the dual) and state (absolute and construct, the latter being nouns that are followed by their possessors) and also have the category definiteness. There

8330-647: The very large hippodrome, which appears clearly on aerial photographs, is known only through old borings. The temples, which have been found on a spur of the mountain to the East of the central esplanade, on the edge of the route from Ténès to the West of the modern town, are too much destroyed to warrant publication even of plans. The baths along the edge of the sea, rather majestic, are also badly preserved. One would scarcely recognize several houses recently excavated. Grouped around peristyles with vast trichinia, they are readily adapted to

8428-405: The weakening and coalescence of the gutturals. Much as in Biblical Hebrew, the initial consonant of the article is dropped after the prepositions 𐤁 b- , 𐤋 l- and 𐤊 k- ; it could also be lost after various other particles and function words, such the direct object marker 𐤀𐤉𐤕 ʼyt and the conjunction 𐤅 w- "and". Of the cardinal numerals from 1 to 10, 1 is an adjective, 2 is formally

8526-459: The west of Sicily , southwest Sardinia , the Balearic Islands and southernmost Spain . In modern times, the language was first decoded by Jean-Jacques Barthélemy in 1758, who noted that the name "Phoenician" was first given to the language by Samuel Bochart in his Geographia Sacra seu Phaleg et Canaan . The Phoenicians were the first state-level society to make extensive use of

8624-469: The word for "eternity" is known from Greek transcriptions to have been ūlōm/ουλομ 𐤏𐤋𐤌 /ʕuːˈloːm/, corresponding to Biblical Hebrew ʻōlām עולם /ʕoːlɔːm/ and Proto-Semitic ʻālam /ˈʕaːlam/ (in Arabic: ʻālam عالم /ˈʕaːlam/). The letter Y used for words such as 𐤀𐤔 /ʔəʃ/ ys/υς "which" and 𐤀𐤕 /ʔət/ yth/υθ (definite accusative marker) in Greek and Latin alphabet inscriptions can be interpreted as denoting

8722-417: Was [s] , s was [ts] , z was [dz] , and ṣ was [tsʼ] , as transcribed in the consonant table above. Krahmalkov, too, suggests that Phoenician *z may have been [dz] or even [zd] based on Latin transcriptions such as esde for the demonstrative 𐤅 ‎ z. On the other hand, it is debated whether šīn [REDACTED] and sāmek [REDACTED] , which are mostly well distinguished by

8820-548: Was adopted by the Greeks . Later, the Etruscans adopted a modified version for their own use, which, in turn, was modified and adopted by the Romans and became the Latin alphabet. In the east of the Mediterranean region, the language was in use as late as the 1st century BC, when it seems to have gone extinct there. Punic colonisation spread Phoenician to the western Mediterranean, where

8918-541: Was also a conjunction 𐤀𐤐/𐤐 ( ʼ ) p ( /ʼap/ "also". 𐤋 l- (/ lū, li /) could (rarely) be used to introduce desiderative constructions ("may he do X!"). 𐤋 l- could also introduce vocatives. Both prepositions and conjunctions could form compounds. Royal Mausoleum of Mauretania The Royal Mausoleum of Mauretania is a funerary monument located on the road between Cherchell and Algiers , in Tipaza Province , Algeria . The mausoleum

9016-487: Was built in 3 BC by the last King of Numidia , and later King of Mauretania Caesariensis , Juba II (son of Juba I of Numidia ) and his wife Cleopatra Selene II . She was a Greek Ptolemaic princess, the daughter of the Queen Cleopatra VII of Egypt and Roman Triumvir Mark Antony . Through her marriage to Juba II, she became the last Queen of Numidia and later Queen of Mauretania Caesariensis. The mausoleum

9114-483: Was considered too militarily valuable to destroy and uncover the previous ancient buildings of old Caesarea. After the end of the Napoleonic Wars and Revolutions of the early 19th century, the French under both British, American, and other European powers were encouraged to attack and destroy the Barbary Pirates. From 1836 to 1840 various allied navies, but mostly French hunted down the Barbary pirates and conquered

9212-695: Was lowered to [e] and was also lengthened if it was accented. Stress-dependent vowel changes indicate that stress was probably mostly final, as in Biblical Hebrew. Long vowels probably occurred only in open syllables. As is typical for the Semitic languages, Phoenician words are usually built around consonantal roots and vowel changes are used extensively to express morphological distinctions. However, unlike most Semitic languages, Phoenician preserved (or, possibly, re-introduced) numerous uniconsonantal and biconsonantal roots seen in Proto-Afro-Asiatic : compare

9310-415: Was meant to hold the port without much concern about controlling its surrounding hinterland. The town remained under Byzantine control until its Muslim conquest in the late 7th century. Successive waves of Umayyad attacks into Byzantine North African territory over 15 years wore down the smaller and less motivated imperial forces, until finally Umayyad troops laid siege to the city of Caesarea and, although

9408-481: Was notionally substituted with worship of his Roman equivalent Saturn . Iol was annexed directly to Rome in 33   BC. Augustus established Juba II as king of Mauretania in 25   BC, giving him the city as his capital, which Juba then renamed in his honor. Juba and his wife Cleopatra (the daughter of Mark Antony and Cleopatra of Egypt ) rebuilt the city on a lavish scale, combining Roman and Hellenized Egyptian styles . The roads were relaid on

9506-538: Was spoken, which the Phoenicians called Pūt , includes the northern Levant , specifically the areas now including Syria , Lebanon , the Western Galilee , parts of Cyprus , some adjacent areas of Anatolia , and, at least as a prestige language , the rest of Anatolia. Phoenician was also spoken in the Phoenician colonies along the coasts of the southwestern Mediterranean Sea , including those of modern Tunisia , Morocco , Libya and Algeria as well as Malta ,

9604-463: Was used first with foreign words and was then extended to many native words as well. A third practice reported in the literature is the use of the consonantal letters for vowels in the same way as had occurred in the original adaptation of the Phoenician alphabet to Greek and Latin, which was apparently still transparent to Punic writers: hē [REDACTED] for [e] and 'ālep [REDACTED] for [a] . Later, Punic inscriptions began to be written in

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