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105-747: Chen Duxiu (8 October 1879 – 27 May 1942) was a Chinese revolutionary socialist , educator, philosopher and author, who co-founded the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) with Li Dazhao in 1921. From 1921 to 1927, he served as the Communist Party's first general secretary . Chen was a leading figure in both the Xinhai Revolution that overthrew the Qing dynasty and the May Fourth Movement for scientific and democratic developments in

210-461: A coup d'état or putsch along the lines of Blanquism . Revolutionary socialists, particularly Trotskyists, argue that the Bolsheviks only seized power as the expression of the mass of workers and peasants, whose desires are brought into being by an organised force—the revolutionary party. Marxists such as Trotskyists argue that Lenin did not advocate seizing power until he felt that the majority of

315-567: A Workers International states, "[w]e campaign for new workers' parties and for them to adopt a socialist programme. At the same time, the CWI builds support for the ideas of revolutionary socialism". In "The Case for Revolutionary Socialism", Alex Callinicos from the Socialist Workers Party in Britain argues in favour of it. Revolutionary socialist discourse has long debated the question of how

420-453: A channel for the general public to express their ideas or discontent towards the existing government. Chen believed that the purpose of mass media was to reveal the truth. At a young age, Chen had already established his first periodical, Guomin Ribao, in which he criticized many social and political problems evident in the late Qing dynasty. With a view to the things mentioned above, his contribution

525-611: A concerted attempt by Luo Han and Ye Jianying to allow Chen to return to the Party. In September Mao responded saying that Chen could rejoin the party if he agreed to publicly renounce Trotskyism and express support for the United Front against Japan. Chen responded by letter to the Central Committee of the CCP that he agreed with its line of resistance but would not renounce Trotskyism. This was

630-661: A cooperative – and later troublesome – relationship with the Communist International (Comintern). Over the next decade, the Comintern sought to use the CCP as tools of Soviet foreign policy, leading to policy disagreements between CCP leaders and Comintern advisors. By 1922, the party had only about 200 members, not counting those overseas. Soon after the founding of the Chinese Communist Party, in 1921, Chen accepted an invitation from Chen Jiongming to serve on

735-615: A crackdown of the revolutionaries, arresting and executing several prominent members. On the evening of 10 October, Wu Zhaolin ( 吴兆麟 ) as provisional commander led the revolutionary elements of the New Army staged a mutiny against the Qing garrison in Huguang, capturing the residence of the Viceroy in the process along with securing strategic points in the city after intense fighting. As the Viceroy escaped,

840-466: A free press, and free elections, were important and valuable. Because of Chen's opposition to Mao's interpretation of Communism, Mao believed that Chen was incapable of providing a robust historical materialist analysis of China. This dispute would eventually lead to the end of Chen and Mao's friendship and political association. After the collaboration between the Communist Party and the KMT fell apart in 1927,

945-468: A paper called " Aiguo Xinbao " but failed because of pressure from different groups. Chen continued to express his discontent towards the government in his later publications. When Anhui Suhua Bao was published on 31 March 1904, Chen was responsible for all editing and distribution. On 27 November 1918, Chen started another magazine, the Weekly Review (每周评论/每週評論) with Li Dazhao in order to criticize

1050-694: A proposal by Trotsky to avoid an immediate split with the Second International. Though initially opposed to it, Lenin voted for Trotsky's resolution to avoid a split among anti-war socialists. In December 1915 and March 1916, eighteen Social Democratic representatives, the Haase - Ledebour Group, voted against war credits and were expelled from the Social Democratic Party. Liebknecht wrote Revolutionary Socialism in Germany in 1916, arguing that this group

1155-727: A teaching position at the Army Elementary School in Hangzhou . From the late 19th century, the Qing dynasty suffered a series of military defeats against the colonial foreign powers, most recently in the First Sino-Japanese War and the war against the Alliance of Eight Nations , which invaded China in response to the 1901 Boxer Rebellion . Government corruption resulted in economic paralysis and widespread impoverishment. During this time, Chen became increasingly influential within

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1260-513: A telegram from Huang Xing, he was unable to decipher it, and found out about the uprising the next morning in the newspaper. After the successful uprising in Wuchang, the revolutionaries sent telegraphs to other provinces and asked them to follow in their suit, upon which eighteen provinces in Southern and Central China agreed to secede from the Qing government by the end of December, 1911. As part of

1365-402: A theory of social revolution succeeding political revolution; its aim is to eliminate all inequality and oppression. We can call it 'contemporary' European civilization, which opposes the (merely) 'modern'." A Marxist study group at the university, led by Li Dazhao , attracted his attention in 1919. Chen published a special edition of New Youth on Marxism with Li as the edition's general editor;

1470-400: A warning never to "forgive" anti-Maoists. After Mao died in 1976, Hua Guofeng gave a speech praising Mao's suppression of "Right and 'Left' Opportunist lines of the Party" as one of the late chairman's greatest achievements: Chen was the first person to be named as being correctly suppressed; Deng Xiaoping was the last. Hu Qiaomu 's 1951 Thirty Years of the Chinese Communist Party , which

1575-721: Is another revolutionary socialist tradition. Emerging from the Communist International but critical of the post-1924 Soviet Union , the Trotskyist tradition in Western Europe and elsewhere uses the term "revolutionary socialism". In 1932, the first issue of the first Canadian Trotskyist newspaper, The Vanguard , published an editorial entitled "Revolutionary Socialism vs Reformism". Today, many Trotskyist groups advocate revolutionary socialism instead of reformism and consider themselves revolutionary socialists. The Committee for

1680-512: Is buried at his birthplace of Anqing. After the founding of the PRC in 1949, Chen's example was used to warn Communist Party members not to deviate from party orthodoxy. In the Hundred Flowers Campaign , the example of Chen in collaborating with Wang Jingwei 's Wuhan government, leading to the ostracism of his peers and the failure of Communist policies at the time, was used by Peng Zhen as

1785-446: Is characterized as the “primary, forward-seeking orientation”; Chinese culture is the “secondary, harmony and middle-ground-seeking orientation”; and Indian culture, the “tertiary, self-reflective and backward-looking orientation.” Chen Duxiu said "In many people’s estimation, the differences among Chinese, Indian, and European culture are almost entirely differences in ethnicity, and thus are not limited to those of culture.” This argument

1890-608: Is clearly about criticizing Liang's Eastern and Western Cultures and Philosophies. Chen suggested six guiding principles in New Youth with an article called "Warning the youth" ( 敬告青年 ). This article was aimed at removing the old beliefs of Confucianism. "Warning the Youth" promoted six values: New Youth was one of the most influential magazines in early modern Chinese history. Chen introduced many new ideas into popular Chinese culture, including individualism , democracy , humanism , and

1995-618: The Blanquist view emphasised the overthrow by force of the ruling elite in government by an active minority of revolutionaries, who then proceeded to implement socialist change, disregarding the state of readiness of society as a whole and the mass of the population in particular for revolutionary change. In 1875, the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) published a somewhat reformist Gotha Program , which Marx attacked in Critique of

2100-453: The Duan Qirui government and their anti-new wave ideology, which made Chen greatly dissatisfied. Chen Duxiu viewed human history as a whole thing, as a single entity. A monistic evolutionary historical model was suggested by Chen Duxiu's argument. On the other hand, Liang Shuming clearly divided cultures into three types: European culture, Chinese culture and Indian culture. European culture

2205-603: The Guomin magazine and invited Li Dazhao to be a consultant for the magazine. From 1912 to 1913, Chen, with the assistance of Luo Jialun and Fu Sinian , published a paper named Xinchao She . Chen set a precedent for future writers via the intentionally controversial nature of his publications. He insisted on telling the truth to the Chinese people and strengthening the Chinese media for later generations. By publishing newspapers and magazines concerning political issues, Chen provided

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2310-574: The Hundred Days' Reform in the Qing government. The reforms failed due to the Wuxu Coup by Empress Dowager Cixi . Disillusioned with the monarchy and the Qing government , many revolutionary groups began emerging across the country. In 1905, revolutionary leaders such as Sun Yat-sen and Song Jiaoren met in Tokyo to discuss a merger between different revolutionary groups. A new group known as Tongmenghui

2415-528: The Long March of 1934–1935, during which Mao Zedong emerged as leader. If only for sheer survival, the Communists had to flee the cities where China's fledgling industrial working class was concentrated, seek refuge in remote rural areas, and there mobilize the support of peasants; this was naturally taken as a vindication of Mao's position in his debate with Chen. Mao and this new generation of Communists would lead

2520-456: The May Fourth Movement . Chen was the chief editor of this periodical. It was published by Qunyi Shushe , and ended publication in 1926. The magazine mainly advocated the use of vernacular language , socialism, and Marxism, and was strongly against feudalism . In 1917, Chen became a lecturer of Chinese Literature , and a Dean of Peking University . Having the approval from the Cai Yuanpei ,

2625-478: The New Culture Movement . From 1919 to 1921, until the formation of the Chinese Communist Party, it focused on promoting socialism, and Marxism. From 1921 to 1926, it published and disseminated the prevailing views of the members of the Communist Party. The Shanghai local government banned the sale of a publication called " Guomin Ribao " (国民日报/國民日報) on 1 December 1903. After this, Chen twice planned to found

2730-615: The Tongmenghui ( 同盟會 ) for possible collaboration in the next uprising. The date was originally set for 6 October, on the Mid-Autumn festival . The date was later postponed, due to inadequate preparations. On 9 October, while Sun Wu was supervising the making of explosive devices in the Russian concession in Hankou , one of the devices exploded unexpectedly, inflicting serious injuries on Sun. When he

2835-590: The early Republic of China . After his expulsion from the CCP in 1929, Chen was for a time the leader of China's Trotskyist movement. Chen's ancestral home was in Anqing , Anhui , where he established the influential vernacular Chinese periodical New Youth . In order to support overthrowing the Qing government, Chen Duxiu had joined Yue Fei Loyalist Society ( 岳王會 ; Yuèwáng huì ; Yüeh-wang hui ) which emerged from Gelaohui in Anhui and Hunan province. Chen Duxiu

2940-450: The " Speech on Freedom of Religion " (蔡元培先生在信教自由会之演说/蔡元培先生在信教自由會之演說), along with an editorial interpreting its meaning and significance. Before its appearance in New Youth , Cai criticized Chen for misinterpreting this speech. Chen later admitted that "the publication of my speech in New Youth included a number of mistakes." Fortunately, Cai did not become angry with Chen and the publication

3045-594: The "Youth Self-Strengthening Society." It was the first time in China that the slogan "Science and Democracy" was proposed. It was in Japan where Chen became influenced by socialism and the growing Chinese dissident movement. While studying in Japan, Chen helped to found two radical political parties, but refused to join Tongmenghui Revolutionary Alliance, which he regarded as narrowly racist. In 1908, he accepted

3150-536: The Bible in prison, he was said to have been a Nondenominational Christian or liberal Protestant before becoming dissatisfied with Christianity. In 1921, he also lived and worked at a Protestant church school. The newspaper Shen Bao categorized academics into factions ( xuepai ). It portrayed Chen and Hu as victims of government persecution, and their opponents as allies of the warlords. In 1921, Chen, Li and other prominent revolutionaries (including Mao Zedong ) founded

3255-523: The CCP. It has been generally asserted that the group had diligently studied Marxist theories, inspired by the Russian Revolution of 1917 . Chen was elected (in absentia) as the first General Secretary at the first party congress in Shanghai. He remained the undisputed leader of the party until 1927, and was often referred to as "China's Lenin" during this period. Chen, with Li's assistance, developed

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3360-649: The Chancellor of the Peking University , Chen collected the writings of the students which he appreciated most, which especially included Li Dazhao , Hu Shih , Lu Xun and Qian Yuan. In order to expand the editorial department, New Youth was moved to Beijing at this time, and in February 1917, Chen used New Youth to promote science, democracy and modern literature, and to discourage the study of paleography and classical Chinese literature. The magazine began to advocate

3465-534: The Comintern blamed Chen, and systematically removed him from all positions of leadership. In November 1929, he was expelled. Afterwards, Chen became associated with the International Left Opposition of Leon Trotsky . Like Chen, Trotsky opposed many of the policies of the Comintern, and publicly criticized the Comintern's effort to collaborate with the Nationalists. Chen eventually became the voice of

3570-794: The Comintern's orders to do so. Pursuing collaboration with the Kuomintang, he was elected into that party's Central Committee in January 1924. In 1927, after the Shanghai massacre , he and other high-ranking Communists, including Mao Zedong and Mikhail Borodin , collaborated closely with Wang Jingwei 's Nationalist government in Wuhan , convincing Wang's regime to adopt various proto-Communist policies. The Wuhan government's subsequent land reform policies were considered provocative enough to influence various KMT-aligned generals to attack Wang's regime, suppressing it. Chen

3675-509: The Gotha Program , where he reiterated the need for the dictatorship of the proletariat . The reformist viewpoint was introduced into Marxist thought by Eduard Bernstein , one of the leaders of the SPD. From 1896 to 1898, Bernstein published a series of articles entitled "Probleme des Sozialismus" ("Problems of Socialism"). These articles led to a debate on revisionism in the SPD and can be seen as

3780-613: The Party, it was published in 2009 by the Chinese Literature and History Press which is run by the National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference . Chen felt that his articles should reflect the needs of society. He believed that the progress of society could not be achieved without those who accurately report social weaknesses and sicknesses. Chen's articles were always expressive. He criticized

3885-605: The Qing dynasty with almost three centuries of imperial rule, and the establishment of the Republic of China (ROC), which commemorates the anniversary of the uprising's outbreak on 10 October as the National Day of the Republic of China . The uprising originated from popular unrest about a railway crisis , and the planning process took advantage of the situation. On 10 October 1911, the New Army stationed in Wuchang launched an assault on

3990-460: The Qing garrison fell into disarray. Between the night of 10 October and noon of 11th, "more than 500 Manchu soldiers were killed" with "over 300 captured". On 11 October, the mutineers established a military government representing the Hubei province, and persuaded one of the high-ranking officers in the New Army, Li Yuanhong , to be the temporary leader. Li was initially resistant to the idea, but he

4095-549: The Railway Protection League, then ordered troops to open fire on the protesters. Subsequent fighting around Chengdu prompted the diversion of troops to Sichuan from central China , which later became an important factor in the Wuchang Uprising's success. Meanwhile, inaction toward nationalization of railway lines in both Hunan and Hubei were criticized by the local press. Confidence in the Qing government among

4200-618: The Reichstag voted for the government's war budget, while the French and Belgian socialists publicly supported and joined their governments. The Zimmerwald Conference in September 1915, attended by Lenin and Leon Trotsky , saw the beginning of the end of the uneasy coexistence of revolutionary socialists and reformist socialists in the parties of the Second International . The conference adopted

4305-670: The Third International) was founded following the October Revolution . This International became widely identified with communism but also defined itself in terms of revolutionary socialism. However, in 1938 Trotskyists formed the Fourth International because they thought that the Third International turned to Marxism–Leninism —this latter International became identified with revolutionary socialism. Luxemburgism

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4410-670: The Tokyo Higher Normal School before attending the Tokyo Special School (the predecessor of Waseda University ). He moved to Nanjing in 1902, after reportedly making speeches attacking the Qing government, and then back to Japan the same year under a government scholarship to study at the Tokyo Shimbu Gakko , a military preparatory academy. He returned to China in March 1902 and, together with Bo Wenwei and others, formed

4515-495: The Trotskyists in China, attempting to regain support and influence within the party, but failed. Chen continued to oppose measures like " New Democracy " and the "Block of Four Classes" advocated by Mao Zedong . After the communist movement in the late 1920s, Chen Duxiu and Leon Trotsky started to have a complex relationship that was not known in the west. Their relationship reveals the developments of Trotskyism in China and deepen

4620-449: The backwardness and corruption in China. In New Youth , he wrote various articles using pseudonyms to form "discussions", in order to arouse public interest. Chen's publications emphasized the responses from their audience. In New Youth there were forums and citizens' columns. On average, there were 6 letters from the public in each issue. Whether in praise or strong opposition, Chen encouraged all to write. He also thought that teamwork

4725-659: The collapse of the Qing dynasty. Yue Fei branches were added in Wuhu and Anqing, with those in Anqing infiltrating and agitating within the Qing military. In 1912, Chen became secretary general to the new military governor of Anhui, while also serving as the dean of a local high school. He used the Yue Fei Loyalist Society to establish an organization of students from Anhui public school, pro-rebel Qing soldiers and secret society members. However, Chen fled to Japan again in 1913 following

4830-474: The conquest of political power as a theory of Blanquist violence, has the misfortune of labeling as a Blanquist error that which has always been the pivot and the motive force of human history. From the first appearance of class societies, having class struggle as the essential content of their history, the conquest of political power has been the aim of all rising classes. Here is the starting point and end of every historic period. [...] In modern times, we see it in

4935-438: The county- and provincial-level imperial examinations in 1896 and 1897 respectively. In a sardonic memoir, he recalled the filthy conditions, the dishonesty, and the incompetence during the exams. In 1898, he enrolled at Qiushi Academy (now Zhejiang University ) in Hangzhou after passing the entrance exam and studied French, English, and naval architecture . In October 1901, Chen went to Imperial Japan , studying Japanese at

5040-416: The edition provided the most detailed analysis of Marxism then published in China, and the journal's popularity ensured its wide dissemination. Chen was involved with the May Fourth Movement , where his and Hu Shih 's ideas were labelled as being anti-government and the core of the "New Culture Movement". In the fall of 1919, conservative opponents at the university forced Chen to resign. Around that time he

5145-427: The education board in Guangzhou in the aftermath of the June 16 Incident, but this position dissolved when Guangzhou was recaptured by the Kuomintang. At the direction of the Comintern, Chen and the Chinese Communists formed an alliance with Sun Yat-sen and the Kuomintang (KMT or Nationalist Party) in 1922. Although Chen was not convinced of the utility of collaborating with the Kuomintang, he reluctantly carried out

5250-399: The end of the last serious attempt to rejoin the CCP. Chen then travelled from place to place until the summer of 1938, when he arrived at the wartime capital of Chongqing and took a position teaching at a junior high school. In poor health and with few remaining friends, Chen Duxiu later retired to Jiangjin , a small town west of Chongqing, where he died in 1942 at the age of 62. Today, he

5355-462: The essay in the central executive organs of publicity." Although he recognized the value of Mao's interpretation of Marxism in inciting the Chinese peasants and labourers to revolution, Chen opposed Mao's rejection of the strong role of the bourgeoisie that Chen had hoped to achieve. During the last years of his life, Chen denounced Stalin's dictatorship, and held that various democratic institutions, including independent judiciaries, opposition parties,

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5460-399: The faculty of Peking University in the January 1917 as the university's dean, at the invitation of Cai Yuanpei , who also paid for moving Chen's journal to Beijing . As a professor and dean at Peking University, he wrote "If we wish to construct a new state and organize a new society in order to seek an existence suitable to our modern times, then the fundamental issue is that we must import

5565-403: The focus of revolutionary struggle in China should primarily concern the workers, Mao had started to theorize about the primacy of the peasants. According to Han Suyin in Mortal Flower , Chen "opposed the opinions expressed [in Mao's analysis], denied that a radical land policy and the vigorous organization of the rural areas under the Communist party was necessary, and refused the publication of

5670-425: The forcible overthrow of all existing social conditions. Let the ruling classes tremble at a Communistic revolution. Twenty-four years after The Communist Manifesto , first published in 1848, Marx and Engels admitted that in developed countries, "labour may attain its goal by peaceful means". Marxist scholar Adam Schaff argued that Marx, Engels, and Lenin had expressed such views "on many occasions". By contrast,

5775-399: The foundation of a Western-style society and country, that is to say, the new faith in equality and human rights... Unless [Confucianism] is suppressed, [the new Way] will not prevail; unless [supporters of Confucianism] are stopped, [the new Way] will not be practiced." Chen definition of Western civilization focused on egalitarianism rather than competition. He wrote: "socialism is, therefore,

5880-406: The idea that those who love their country should spare no pains to protect it, and should fight for the rights of its citizens. This group of people should work together towards the same goal harmoniously . The article was threatening to Yuan Shikai's government, as it tried to arouse the self-consciousness of the Chinese people. This preliminary magazine was released for 10 issues in total, before it

5985-431: The most popular and widely distributed journal amongst the intelligentsia of the Republic of China. The journal criticized conservative Chinese morality and Confucianism ; it supported individualism and a Western moral system valuing human rights, democracy and science, which Chen believed Confucianism opposed. The journal also promoted vernacular writing instead of traditional Confucian writing conventions. Chen joined

6090-423: The orders of the Military Revolutionary Committee under the leadership of Trotsky in October, also termed the Revolutionary Military Committee in Lenin's collected works. Trotsky mobilized the Military Revolutionary Committee to seize power on the advent of the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies , which began on 25 October 1917. The Communist International (also known as

6195-440: The origins of a reformist trend within Marxism. In 1900, Rosa Luxemburg wrote Social Reform or Revolution? , a polemic against Bernstein's position. The work of reforms, Luxemburg argued, could only be carried on "in the framework of the social form created by the last revolution". In order to advance society to socialism from the capitalist 'social form', a social revolution will be necessary: Bernstein, thundering against

6300-433: The oversight of Guangdong , Hunan , Hubei and Sichuan . Faced with ongoing financial struggles, partly due to ongoing indemnity payments from the Boxer Protocol , the Qing court turned to Sheng Xuanhuai in 1910, a "classic bureaucratic capitalist", and adhered to his policy of securing foreign loans through the nationalization of all railway lines. This policy was met with stiff resistance, particularly in Sichuan, and

6405-423: The party in China for the next fifty years. On 23 August, Chen was released from prison and refused multiple offers of positions from the Kuomintang. He said that despite the importance of the war effort, "Chiang Kai-shek killed many of my comrades. He also killed my two sons. He and I are absolutely irreconcilable." In August 1937, Chen met with the heads of the Chinese Communist Party Office in Nanjing. This led to

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6510-421: The point where that war breaks out into open revolution, and where the violent overthrow of the bourgeoisie lays the foundation for the sway of the proletariat. [...] The Communists fight for the attainment of the immediate aims, for the enforcement of the momentary interests of the working class; [...] The Communists disdain to conceal their views and aims. They openly declare that their ends can be attained only by

6615-400: The politics of his time in a more direct way and to promote democracy, science, and modern literature. Chen also edited Tokyo Jiayin Magazine (甲寅杂志/甲寅雜誌) and Science Magazine (科学杂志/科學雜誌). Later, he became the Editor-in-Chief of the newspapers Minli Bao (民立报/民立報) and Shenzhou Daily (神州日报/神州日報). From 1908 to 1910, two students at Peking University, Deng Zhongxia and Xu Deheng , founded

6720-461: The populace continued to deteriorate in response to the escalation of the railway crisis. There were two revolutionary groups in the Wuhan area, the Literary Society ( 文學社 ) and the Progressive Association ( 共進會 ). These groups, led by Jiang Yiwu ( 蔣翊武 ) and Sun Wu ( 孫武 ) respectively, worked closely together as commander and chief of staff of the revolutionary efforts in Wuhan. Beginning in September, 1911, these two groups began negotiating with

6825-513: The population, represented in the soviets , demanded revolutionary change and no longer supported the reformist government of Alexander Kerensky established in the earlier revolution of February 1917. In the Lessons of October , Leon Trotsky wrote: Lenin, after the experience of the reconnoiter, withdrew the slogan of the immediate overthrow of the Provisional Government. But he did not withdraw it for any set period of time, for so many weeks or months, but strictly in dependence upon how quickly

6930-416: The preordained revolution moment would originate, i.e., the extent to which revolt needs to be concertedly organized and by whom. Rosa Luxemburg, in particular, was known for her theory of revolutionary spontaneity. Critics argued that Luxemburg overstated the role of spontaneity and neglected the role of party organization. Wuchang Uprising The Wuchang Uprising was an armed rebellion against

7035-459: The process. In response to the uprising, the Qing government called for the help of Yuan Shikai and the Beiyang Army to march toward Wuchang. For the revolutionaries, Huang Xing would arrive at Wuhan in early November to take over the command. Positions of revolutionary forces in Wuhan were subsequently attacked by the Beiyang Army, and the imperial troops were soon able to recapture Hankou on 1 November and Hanyang on 27 November. The offensive

7140-409: The publication to Mao Dun , who belonged to the Shanghai Communist Party . Hu Shih was dissatisfied with this responsibility and their friendship and professional relationship ended. Later, Chen wrote to Hu Shih about his dissatisfaction with Hu's intimacy with many conservative faculty members of Peking University. Especially troubling to Chen was Hu's relationship with Liang Qichao , a supporter of

7245-427: The reformist wing of social democracy and other evolutionary approaches to socialism. Revolutionary socialism is opposed to social movements that seek to gradually ameliorate capitalism's economic and social problems through political reform. In The Communist Manifesto , Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels wrote: The proletariat, the lowest stratum of our present society, cannot stir, cannot raise itself up, without

7350-422: The residence of the Viceroy of Huguang . The viceroy Ruicheng quickly fled from the residence, and the revolutionaries soon took control of the entire city. In 1895, China was decisively defeated by Japan in the First Sino-Japanese War . Intellectuals in China were divided into several factions. Constitutional monarchist reformers led by Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao took control initially, and orchestrated

7455-422: The resistance quickly turned into a movement known as the Sichuan Railway Protection Movement . In response, the Qing court suppressed the unrest by force, contributing to the declining popularity of its government. By August 11 there were massive strikes and rallies in Chengdu . On 7 September the Viceroy of Sichuan , Zhao Erfeng , was asked to "intervene vigorously", and he ordered the arrest of key leaders in

7560-468: The resolution of the uprising, the Qing government agreed to a general amnesty for political prisoners. Wang Jingwei was among those released. In the same month, Sun returned to China to participate in the provisional presidential election and was elected. Representatives from the seceding provinces met on 1 January 1912, and declared the founding of the Chinese Republic as Sun was sworn in as

7665-582: The revolt of the masses against the conciliationists would grow. For these Marxists, the fact that the Bolsheviks won a majority (in alliance with the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries ) in the second all-Russian congress of Soviets—democratically elected bodies—which convened at the time of the October revolution, shows that they had the popular support of the masses of workers, peasants and soldiers,

7770-605: The revolutionary movement against both foreign imperialism and the Qing. Influenced by his time in Japan, Chen founded the Anhui Patriotic Association in 1903 and the Yue Fei Loyalist Society in 1905. By 1905, the Yue Fei included anti-Qing gentry like Sun Yujing and Bo Wenwei. Chen was an outspoken writer and political leader by the time of the Wuchang Uprising of 1911, which started the Xinhai Revolution and led to

7875-456: The ruling Qing dynasty that took place in Wuchang (now Wuchang District of Wuhan ) in the Chinese province of Hubei on 10 October 1911, beginning the Xinhai Revolution that successfully overthrew China's last imperial dynasty. It was led by elements of the New Army , influenced by revolutionary ideas from Tongmenghui . The uprising and the eventual revolution directly led to the downfall of

7980-496: The short-lived "Second Revolution" against Yuan Shikai , but returned to China soon afterwards. He also created the Anhui Patriotic Society associated with the Anhui public school. These organizations won Chen recognition in Anhui, and contact with nationally prominent revolutionaries. In the summer of 1915, Chen founded the journal Youth – renamed to New Youth ( La Jeunesse ) in 1916 – in Shanghai. It quickly became

8085-469: The state, and that this limited their interest in political events. He also found Chinese people in general to be excessively superstitious . Chen urged Chinese people to participate in politics through the publication of Anhui Suhua Bao . After its sixteenth issue, the newspaper added an extra 16 columns; the most popular were on military events, Chinese philosophy, hygiene, and astronomy. Almost all of these additional topics were written by Chen. His pen-name

8190-458: The struggle of the bourgeoisie against feudalism. In 1902, Vladimir Lenin attacked Bernstein's position in his What Is to Be Done? When Bernstein first put forward his ideas, the majority of the SPD rejected them. The 1899 congress of the SPD reaffirmed the Erfurt Program , as did the 1901 congress. The 1903 congress denounced "revisionist efforts". On 4 August 1914, the SPD members of

8295-455: The theory of vanguardist -led revolution such as the Stalinism , Maoism , Marxism–Leninism and Trotskyism . Revolutionary socialism also includes other Marxist , Marxist-inspired and non-Marxist movements such as those found in democratic socialism , revolutionary syndicalism , anarchism and social democracy . Revolutionary socialism is contrasted with reformist socialism , especially

8400-621: The traditional Chinese officials as corrupt and guilty of other wrongdoings. He was under constant attack from conservatives in China, and had to flee to Japan four times. In China, he spent much of his life in the French Concession and the Shanghai International Settlement in order to pursue his writing and scholarly activities free from official harassment. Chen's articles strove to attract publicity, and often arouse discussion by using hyperbole . He lashed out against

8505-539: The understanding of the relationship between the Communists of China and Soviet Union. Due to lack of related resources, the public did not have a full understanding of the relationship between Chen Duxiu and Leon Trotsky. Nowadays, this situation has already improved a lot by following reasons. Firstly, more printed Chinese materials about Chen Duxiu are available. Secondly, in 1980, the "Exile papers of Leon Trotsky" which includes letters, personal notes, manuscripts, and many unpublished resource were accessible. In 1932, Chen

8610-428: The use of the scientific method and Logical arguments towards the achievement of political, economic, social , ethical, and democratic goals. New Youth focused on different concerns during various phases of its development. From 1915 to 1918 it opposed Chinese conservatism (especially conservatism associated with Confucianism) and promoted the development of democracy. During this phase, it became influential among

8715-621: The use of the scientific method , and he advocated the abandonment of Confucianism for the adoption Communism . Revolutionary socialist Revolutionary socialists believe such a state of affairs is a precondition for establishing socialism and orthodox Marxists believe it is inevitable but not predetermined. Revolutionary socialism encompasses multiple political and social movements that may define "revolution" differently from one another. These include movements based on orthodox Marxist theory such as De Leonism , impossibilism and Luxemburgism , as well as movements based on Leninism and

8820-525: The vast majority of Russian society. In his pamphlet Lessons of October , first published in 1924, Trotsky argued that military power lay in the hands of the Bolsheviks before the October Revolution was carried out, but this power was not used against the government until the Bolsheviks gained mass support. The mass of soldiers began to be led by the Bolshevik party after July 1917 and followed only

8925-464: The whole superincumbent strata of official society being sprung into the air. Though not in substance, yet in form, the struggle of the proletariat with the bourgeoisie is at first a national struggle. The proletariat of each country must, of course, first of all settle matters with its own bourgeoisie. In depicting the most general phases of the development of the proletariat, we traced the more or less veiled civil war, raging within existing society, up to

9030-477: Was San'ai (三爱/三愛). At least 50 articles were published under this name. In early 1914, Chen went to Japan, where he worked as an editor and writer in the Tokyo Jiayin Magazine , which was published by Zhang Shizhao . Chen once wrote an article entitled "Self Consciousness on Patriotism" (爱国心与自觉/愛國心與自覺) which conveyed a strong sense of patriotism and encouraged people to fight for their freedom. It promoted

9135-585: Was arrested by the government of the Shanghai International Settlement , where he had been living since 1927, and extradited to Nanjing. In 1933, he was sentenced to 15 years in prison by the Nationalist government, but was released on parole in 1937 after the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War . Chen was one of the few early leaders of the Communist party to survive the turmoil of the 1930s, but he

9240-404: Was barred from publishing in 1905. Chen had three main objectives in publishing Anhui Suhua Bao : to let his countrymen in Anhui keep abreast of the politics of the Qing dynasty; to spread knowledge to the paper's readers through vernacular Chinese; and, to promote revolutionary ideas to the public. Chen believed that most Chinese believed that the importance of the family was greater than that of

9345-524: Was born on 8 October 1879 in the city of Anqing , in the Anhui province of the Qing Empire . He was the youngest of four children born to a wealthy family of officials. In his youth, he was described as volatile, emotional, intuitive, non-intellectual, and a defender of the underdog. His father died when Chen was two years old, and he was raised primarily by his grandfather; and, later, by his older brother. Chen

9450-532: Was deemed by the Party as its authoritative history, denounced Chen as: In 1956, Mao Zedong said that Chen represented the gravest of all of the deviations to the Right in the party's history up to that time. Chen's contributions to the Party have subsequently been reassessed, however. Hong Kong historian Tang Baolin called Hu's verdict on Chen the greatest miscarriage of justice in the Party's history and although his reassessment of Chen has not been officially endorsed by

9555-420: Was eventually convinced by the mutineers after they approached him. The newly established military government were able to confirm that foreign powers would not intervene in the uprising, and they went on to raise the "iron blood 18-star flag" while signaling for the other provinces to follow their suit. On 12 October, the revolutionaries marched toward the rest of the province, capturing Hankou and Hanyang in

9660-622: Was forced to resign as General Secretary in 1927, due to his public dissatisfaction with the Comintern order to disarm during the April 12 Incident , which had led to the deaths of thousands of Communists – now known as the Shanghai massacre of 1927 , and because of his disagreement with the Comintern's new focus on peasant rebellions. Chen came into conflict with Mao Zedong in 1925 over Mao's essay "An Analysis of Classes in Chinese Society". Mao opposed Chen's analyses of China. While Chen believed that

9765-505: Was formed after this meeting. After the Boxer Rebellion , many Western powers saw railway investments as part of the consolidation in their spheres of influence over China. Railway constructions took place across Shandong , Yangtze Valley , Kunming and Manchuria . Provincial governments, with permission from the Qing court, also began to construct their own railways. The Canton-Hankou Railway and Sichuan-Hankou Railway were under

9870-565: Was given a traditional Confucian education by his grandfather, several private tutors, and his elder brother. A thorough knowledge of Confucian literary and philosophical works was the pre-requisites for civil service in Imperial China. Chen was an exceptional student, but his poor experiences taking the Confucian civil service exams resulted in a lifelong tendency to advocate unconventional beliefs and to criticize traditional ideas. Chen passed

9975-477: Was halted after the capture of these two positions, as Yuan Shikai began to secretly negotiate with the revolutionaries. The Wuchang Uprising took many revolutionary leaders by surprise; Huang Xing and Song Jiaoren were unable to reach Wuchang in time. Sun Yat-sen was traveling in the United States speaking to overseas Chinese to appeal for financial support when the uprising took place. Although Sun received

10080-460: Was hospitalized, the hospital staff discovered his identity and alerted the Qing authorities. With their identities revealed, the revolutionaries in the New Army stationed in Wuchang were facing imminent arrest by the Qing authorities. The decision was made by Jiang Yiwu of the Literary Society to immediately launch the uprising, but the plot was leaked to the Viceroy of Huguang, and he ordered

10185-574: Was jailed for three months by the Peking authorities for distributing "inflammatory" literature that demanded the resignation of pro-Japanese ministers, and government guarantees for the freedoms of speech and assembly. After his release, Chen moved to the French Concession in Shanghai and became more interested in Marxism and the promotion of rapid social change; there he pursued his intellectual and scholarly interests free from official persecution. After reading

10290-421: Was never able to regain any influence within the party he had founded. For the last decade of his life, he faded into obscurity. At the time that he was released, both the supporters of Chen and the pro-Comintern leaders who opposed him had either been killed or had fallen out of favor with the Communist membership. The Chinese Communist Party managed to survive the purges only by fleeing to the northern frontier in

10395-407: Was not a revolutionary socialist group despite their refusal to vote for war credits, further defining in his view what was meant by a revolutionary socialist. Many revolutionary socialists argue that the Russian Revolution led by Vladimir Lenin follows the revolutionary socialist model of a revolutionary movement guided by a vanguard party . By contrast, the October Revolution is portrayed as

10500-501: Was prevented from publishing. The magazine was resumed in 1925 in Beijing with the new name Tokyo Jiayin Weekly . In 1915, Chen started an influential monthly periodical in the French Concession of Shanghai, The Youth Magazine (青年杂志/青年雜誌), which was later renamed New Youth (新青年, literally New Youth ). It became one of the most influential magazines among the students who participated in

10605-424: Was said to be influential to journalism as a whole. Chen's writing brought the standards of Chinese journalism closer to those of other, more liberal societies of his time. In 1918, New Youth published contemporary poetry by Hu Shih and Liu Bannong , written in vernacular Chinese , becoming one of the first publications in China to encourage poetry in vernacular Chinese. Eventually, every article in New Youth

10710-408: Was the chief secretary of the newspaper, its circulation increased from only a thousand copies to more than three times that figure in less than half a year, becoming one of the most popular vernacular Chinese newspapers in print at that time. During 1904 and 1905, a total of twenty-three issues were published. Each issue had 40 pages – about 15,000 words. However, due to political pressures, the paper

10815-557: Was then amended before publishing. This crisis was about the political stand of New Youth . Hu Shih insisted that New Youth should be politically neutral and the publication should be concerned with Chinese philosophy . Chen attacked his rationale by publishing "Talking Politics" (谈政治/談政治) in the 8th edition. Because Chen was invited by Chen Jiongming to be the Education officer in Guangzhou in mid-December 1920, he decided to assign

10920-454: Was very important in journalism, and consequently asked for help from many talented authors and journalists, including Hu Shih and Lu Xun . On 31 March 1904, Chen founded Anhui Suhua Bao , a newspaper that he established with Fang Zhiwu and Wu Shou in Tokyo to promote revolutionary ideas using vernacular Chinese , which was simple to understand and easy for the general public to read. While Chen

11025-458: Was written in vernacular Chinese. New Youth was one of the first publications in China to adopt and use punctuations marks, and popularized their use through its popularity and wide readership. Gregor Benton compiled and translated into English the last of Chen Duxiu's writings, publishing them under the title "Chen Duxiu's last articles and letters, 1937–1942". In the second edition of New Youth, Chen prepared to publish Cai Yuanpei 's speech,

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