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86-467: See text A viperfish is any species of marine fish in the genus Chauliodus . Viperfishes are mostly found in the mesopelagic zone and are characterized by long, needle-like teeth and hinged lower jaws. A typical viperfish grows to lengths of 30 cm (12 in). Viperfishes undergo diel vertical migration and are found all around the world in tropical and temperate oceans. Viperfishes are capable of bioluminescence and possess photophores along

172-557: A species : see Botanical name and Specific name (zoology) . The rules for the scientific names of organisms are laid down in the nomenclature codes , which allow each species a single unique name that, for animals (including protists ), plants (also including algae and fungi ) and prokaryotes ( bacteria and archaea ), is Latin and binomial in form; this contrasts with common or vernacular names , which are non-standardized, can be non-unique, and typically also vary by country and language of usage. Except for viruses ,

258-483: A "hunt warm - rest cool" strategy that enables them to lower their daily energy costs. They remain in warm water only long enough to obtain food, and then return to cooler areas where their metabolism can operate more slowly. Alternatively, organisms feeding on the bottom in cold water during the day may migrate to surface waters at night in order to digest their meal at warmer temperatures. Organisms can use deep and shallow currents to find food patches or to maintain

344-419: A 24-hour period. The migration occurs when organisms move up to the uppermost layer of the water at night and return to the bottom of the daylight zone of the oceans or to the dense, bottom layer of lakes during the day. DVM is important to the functioning of deep-sea food webs and the biologically-driven sequestration of carbon . In terms of biomass , DVM is the largest synchronous migration in

430-459: A constant size and proportion throughout growth of the fish. In the retina, several rows of rod cell "banks" grow upon each other, increasing in number with size of the fish. This opposed the typical vertebrate retina, which only has one layer of receptors. The first dorsal ray of Chauliodus is elongated, hinged, and connected via musculature; allowing it to swing forward. The tip of this ray has light organs . This fish lack scales, and instead

516-418: A descent at midnight, often known as the "midnight sink". The second ascent to the surface and descent to the depths occurs at sunrise. Organisms are found at different depths depending on what season it is. Seasonal changes to the environment may influence changes to migration patterns. Normal diel vertical migration occurs in species of foraminifera throughout the year in the polar regions; however, during

602-400: A factor that regulates the biogeochemical impact of diel vertical migration. Pressure changes have been found to produce differential responses that result in vertical migration. Many zooplankton will react to increased pressure with positive phototaxis, a negative geotaxis, and/or a kinetic response that results in ascending in the water column. Likewise, when there is a decrease in pressure,

688-488: A geographical location. The sunlight can penetrate into the water column. If an organism, especially something small like a microbe , is too close to the surface the UV can damage them. So they would want to avoid getting too close to the surface, especially during daylight. A theory known as the “transparency-regulator hypothesis" predicts that "the relative roles of UV and visual predation pressure will vary systematically across

774-460: A gradient of lake transparency." In less transparent waters, where fish are present and more food is available, fish tend to be the main driver of DVM. In more transparent bodies of water, where fish are less numerous and food quality improves in deeper waters, UV light can travel farther, thus functioning as the main driver of DVM in such cases. Due to the particular types of stimuli and cues used to initiate vertical migration, anomalies can change

860-643: A later homonym of a validly published name is a nomen illegitimum or nom. illeg. ; for a full list refer to the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants and the work cited above by Hawksworth, 2010. In place of the "valid taxon" in zoology, the nearest equivalent in botany is " correct name " or "current name" which can, again, differ or change with alternative taxonomic treatments or new information that results in previously accepted genera being combined or split. Prokaryote and virus codes of nomenclature also exist which serve as

946-621: A long time and redescribed as new by a range of subsequent workers, or if a range of genera previously considered separate taxa have subsequently been consolidated into one. For example, the World Register of Marine Species presently lists 8 genus-level synonyms for the sperm whale genus Physeter Linnaeus, 1758, and 13 for the bivalve genus Pecten O.F. Müller, 1776. Within the same kingdom, one generic name can apply to one genus only. However, many names have been assigned (usually unintentionally) to two or more different genera. For example,

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1032-551: A more active role in moving organic matter down to depths. Because a large majority of the deep sea, especially marine microbes, depends on nutrients falling down, the quicker they can reach the ocean floor the better. Zooplankton and salps play a large role in the active transport of fecal pellets. 15–50% of zooplankton biomass is estimated to migrate, accounting for the transport of 5–45% of particulate organic nitrogen to depth. Salps are large gelatinous plankton that can vertically migrate 800 meters and eat large amounts of food at

1118-443: A much shorter time scale during an eclipse. The biological pump is the conversion of CO 2 and inorganic nutrients by plant photosynthesis into particulate organic matter in the euphotic zone and transference to the deeper ocean. This is a major process in the ocean and without vertical migration it wouldn't be nearly as efficient. The deep ocean gets most of its nutrients from the higher water column when they sink down in

1204-517: A possible explanation. Working with the UCDWR, the Scripps researchers were able to confirm that the observed reverberations from the echo-sounder were in fact related to the diel vertical migration of marine animals. The DSL was caused by large, dense groupings of organisms, like zooplankton, that scattered the sonar to create a false or second bottom. Once scientists started to do more research on what

1290-545: A potentially long incubation period for viperfish eggs. There are currently nine extant recognized species in this genus: At least two more species are recognized from Late Miocene -aged fossils: Genus The composition of a genus is determined by taxonomists . The standards for genus classification are not strictly codified, so different authorities often produce different classifications for genera. There are some general practices used, however, including

1376-422: A potentially significant contributor to oceanic carbon sequestration . Although the flux of lipid carbon from the lipid pump has been reported to be comparable to the global POC flux from the biological pump, observational challenges with the lipid pump from deficient nutrient cycling , and capture techniques have made it difficult to incorporate it into the global carbon export flux. So while currently there

1462-485: A primary prey for Risso's dolphins ( Grampus griseus ), an air-breathing predator, but one that relies on acoustic rather than visual information to hunt. Squid delay their migration pattern by about 40 minutes when dolphins are about, lessening risk by feeding later and for a shorter time. Another possibility is that predators can benefit from diel vertical migration as an energy conservation strategy. Studies indicate that male dogfish ( Scyliorhinus canicula ) follow

1548-409: A reference for designating currently accepted genus names as opposed to others which may be either reduced to synonymy, or, in the case of prokaryotes, relegated to a status of "names without standing in prokaryotic nomenclature". An available (zoological) or validly published (botanical) name that has been historically applied to a genus but is not regarded as the accepted (current/valid) name for

1634-515: A role in vertical migration, endogenous and exogenous . Endogenous factors originate from the organism itself; sex, age, size, biological rhythms , etc. Exogenous factors are environmental factors acting on the organism such as light, gravity, oxygen, temperature, predator-prey interactions, etc. Biological clocks are an ancient and adaptive sense of time innate to an organism that allows them to anticipate environmental changes and cycles so they are able to physiologically and behaviorally respond to

1720-493: A small upward movement at night, compared to the rest of its life stages which migrate over 10 meters. In addition, there is a trend seen in other copepods, like Acartia spp . that have an increasing amplitude of their DVM seen with their progressive life stages. This is possibly due to increasing body size of the copepods and the associated risk of visual predators, like fish, as being larger makes them more noticeable. There are two different types of factors that are known to play

1806-604: A study on dragonfishes indicating that males are able to spawn sperm continuously whereas females display asynchronous oocyte development and batch spawning. That same study showed a skewed 1:2 sex ratio favoring females in their collection of over seventy Chauliodus sloani viperfishes in the Gulf of Mexico . Two Chauliodus macouni eggs were recovered in the Columbia River in Oregon (likely displaced by strong Pacific currents), indicating

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1892-427: A taxon; however, the names published in suppressed works are made unavailable via the relevant Opinion dealing with the work in question. In botany, similar concepts exist but with different labels. The botanical equivalent of zoology's "available name" is a validly published name . An invalidly published name is a nomen invalidum or nom. inval. ; a rejected name is a nomen rejiciendum or nom. rej. ;

1978-455: A total of c. 520,000 published names (including synonyms) as at end 2019, increasing at some 2,500 published generic names per year. "Official" registers of taxon names at all ranks, including genera, exist for a few groups only such as viruses and prokaryotes, while for others there are compendia with no "official" standing such as Index Fungorum for fungi, Index Nominum Algarum and AlgaeBase for algae, Index Nominum Genericorum and

2064-565: A water depth with temperatures that best suit the organisms needs, for example some fish species migrate to warmer surface waters in order to aid digestion. Temperature changes can influence swimming behavior of some copepods. In the presence of a strong thermocline some zooplankton may be inclined to pass through it, and migrate to the surface waters, though this can be very variable even in a single species. The marine copepod, Calanus finmarchicus, will migrate through gradients with temperature differences of 6 °C over George's Ban k; whereas, in

2150-429: Is advantageous for zooplankton to migrate to deep waters during the day to avoid predation and come up to the surface at night to feed. For example, the northern krill Meganyctiphanes norvegica undergoes diel vertical migration to avoid planktivorous fish. Patterns among migrators seem to support the predator avoidance theory. Migrators will stay in groups as they migrate, a behavior that may protect individuals within

2236-417: Is an exception among birds in that it ascends and descends into high altitudes at dusk and dawn, similar to the vertical migration of aquatic lifeforms. The phenomenon was first documented by French naturalist Georges Cuvier in 1817. He noted that daphnia , a type of plankton , appeared and disappeared according to a diurnal pattern. During World War II the U.S. Navy was taking sonar readings of

2322-488: Is another restricting factor in viperfish's vertical distribution in the ocean. Depth is restricted by temperature, and the upper thermal limit of viperfish is 12° to 15 °C. In tropical waters, viperfish tend to stay in the deep layers and not migrate much, while in temperate waters viperfish are more actively migrating and even interacting with epipelagic predators. Chauliodus species are recognized by their large, fang-like teeth. They are so long that they would pierce

2408-481: Is called counter-illumination . The presence of photo-microbes in the visceral organs of Chauliodus sloani indicates that bioluminescent microbes are likely responsible for the Chauliodus's ability to luminesce. Viperfishes, depending on the species, prey on other pelagic fishes and crustaceans. Stomach contents of captured individuals have contained lanternfishes , bristlemouths , copepods and krill . Based on

2494-461: Is covered with hexagonal pigment patterns covered in an opalescent, slimy substance. Chauliodus species utilize their capability of bioluminescence for two distinct purposes: attracting prey and avoiding predators. They show distinct anatomical adaptations for the two functions. Chauliodus possesses a bioluminescent lure located at the tip of its first dorsal ray, which it uses to attract prey by swinging it forward in front of its mouth. This allows

2580-596: Is discouraged by both the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature and the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants , there are some five thousand such names in use in more than one kingdom. For instance, A list of generic homonyms (with their authorities), including both available (validly published) and selected unavailable names, has been compiled by the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera (IRMNG). The type genus forms

2666-500: Is generally nocturnal, with the animals ascending from the depths at nightfall and descending at sunrise, the timing can alter in response to the different cues and stimuli that trigger it. Some unusual events impact vertical migration: DVM can be absent during the midnight sun in Arctic regions and vertical migration can occur suddenly during a solar eclipse . The phenomenon also demonstrates cloud-driven variations. The common swift

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2752-511: Is likely that the viperfish exists full time below 400 meters. In temperate regions, viperfish trophically interact with epipelagic predators at superficial waters. Many sub-species in the Stomiidae family participated in diel vertical migration . In migrating to the surface (400m depth) at night, they prove their ability to withstand large temperature changes of up to 7°C daily. They have been recorded in waters ranging from 4 to 14.5°C, highlighting

2838-486: Is most likely due to a predation risk, but is dependent on the individuals own size such that smaller animals may be more inclined to remain at depth. "Light is the most common and critical cue for vertical migration". However, as of 2010, there had not been sufficient research to determine which aspect of the light field was responsible. As of 2020, research has suggested that both light intensity and spectral composition of light are important. Organisms will migrate to

2924-460: Is somewhat arbitrary. Although all species within a genus are supposed to be "similar", there are no objective criteria for grouping species into genera. There is much debate among zoologists about whether enormous, species-rich genera should be maintained, as it is extremely difficult to come up with identification keys or even character sets that distinguish all species. Hence, many taxonomists argue in favor of breaking down large genera. For instance,

3010-474: Is the type species , and the generic name is permanently associated with the type specimen of its type species. Should the specimen turn out to be assignable to another genus, the generic name linked to it becomes a junior synonym and the remaining taxa in the former genus need to be reassessed. In zoological usage, taxonomic names, including those of genera, are classified as "available" or "unavailable". Available names are those published in accordance with

3096-416: Is the most common form of vertical migration. Organisms migrate on a daily basis through different depths in the water column. Migration usually occurs between shallow surface waters of the epipelagic zone and deeper mesopelagic zone of the ocean or hypolimnion zone of lakes. There are three recognized types of diel vertical migration: In the most common form, nocturnal vertical migration, organisms ascend to

3182-621: The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature ; the earliest such name for any taxon (for example, a genus) should then be selected as the " valid " (i.e., current or accepted) name for the taxon in question. Consequently, there will be more available names than valid names at any point in time; which names are currently in use depending on the judgement of taxonomists in either combining taxa described under multiple names, or splitting taxa which may bring available names previously treated as synonyms back into use. "Unavailable" names in zoology comprise names that either were not published according to

3268-799: The International Plant Names Index for plants in general, and ferns through angiosperms, respectively, and Nomenclator Zoologicus and the Index to Organism Names for zoological names. Totals for both "all names" and estimates for "accepted names" as held in the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera (IRMNG) are broken down further in the publication by Rees et al., 2020 cited above. The accepted names estimates are as follows, broken down by kingdom: The cited ranges of uncertainty arise because IRMNG lists "uncertain" names (not researched therein) in addition to known "accepted" names;

3354-515: The Kurose Hole , which is the site with the highest Chauliodus density known in the world. Viperfishes also engage in diel vertical migration, meaning they migrate up into more productive waters during the night to feed. However, it is likely that only part of the total population of viperfishes engages in diel vertical migration on any given night, which could be due to their slow metabolism, i.e. they likely do not have to feed every night. Temperature

3440-544: The Scripps Institution of Oceanography which kept organisms in column tanks with light/dark cycles. A few days later the light was changed to a constant low light and the organisms still displayed diel vertical migration. This suggests that some type of internal response was causing the migration. Many organisms, including the copepod C. finmarchicus , have genetic material devoted to maintaining their biological clock. The expression of these genes varies temporally with

3526-404: The platypus belongs to the genus Ornithorhynchus although George Shaw named it Platypus in 1799 (these two names are thus synonyms ) . However, the name Platypus had already been given to a group of ambrosia beetles by Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Herbst in 1793. A name that means two different things is a homonym . Since beetles and platypuses are both members of the kingdom Animalia,

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3612-469: The French botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort (1656–1708) is considered "the founder of the modern concept of genera". The scientific name (or the scientific epithet) of a genus is also called the generic name ; in modern style guides and science, it is always capitalised. It plays a fundamental role in binomial nomenclature , the system of naming organisms , where it is combined with the scientific name of

3698-475: The North Sea they are observed to remain below the gradient. Changes in salinity may promote organism to seek out more suitable waters if they happen to be stenohaline or unequipped to handle regulating their osmotic pressure. Areas that are impacted by tidal cycles accompanied by salinity changes, estuaries for example, may see vertical migration in some species of zooplankton. Salinity has also been proposed as

3784-601: The abundance of viperfish in the meso- and bathypelagic, their reproductive ecology is widely unknown. This is due to research surveys rarely being able to catch mature adults, as well as the general lack of research on fish reproductive ecology in the deep sea. It is likely, however, that viperfish share a similar reproductive ecology to other dragonfishes which have been studied more extensively (under Stomiidae family). Viperfish are gonochoristic , meaning that they don't exhibit both testicular and ovarian tissue simultaneously in their gonads. They reproduce through spawning , with

3870-442: The base for higher taxonomic ranks, such as the family name Canidae ("Canids") based on Canis . However, this does not typically ascend more than one or two levels: the order to which dogs and wolves belong is Carnivora ("Carnivores"). The numbers of either accepted, or all published genus names is not known precisely; Rees et al., 2020 estimate that approximately 310,000 accepted names (valid taxa) may exist, out of

3956-573: The brain of the fish if misaligned. One species of viperfish, C. sloani, have a sampled standard length of 64.0 to 260.0 mm, with a mean SL of 120.3mm. The same species has a mean weight of 5.66 grams. Representatives from Chauliodus pammelas and Chauliodus sloani display a size-based depth differential. Individuals of a lesser mass are found at shallower depths and individuals of larger mass are found at deeper depths, below 500 meters. However, at nighttime larger viperfish can be found in shallower depths. The eyes of Chauliodus sloani maintain

4042-399: The deep ocean in the form of lipids produced by large overwintering copepods. Through overwintering, these lipids are transported to the deep in autumn and are metabolized at depths below the thermocline through winter before the copepods rise to the surface in the spring. The metabolism of these lipids reduces this POC at depth while producing CO 2 as a waste product, ultimately serving as

4128-532: The deep to overwinter in response to reduced primary production and harsh conditions at the surface. Furthermore, they rely on these lipid reserves that are metabolized for energy to survive through winter before ascending back to the surface in the spring, typically at the onset of a spring bloom . Organisms spend different stages of their life cycle at different depths. There are often pronounced differences in migration patterns of adult female copepods, like Eurytemora affinis , which stay at depth with only

4214-402: The diel vertical migration of its prey, viperfish are assumed to be epipelagic migrants that search surface waters for food. The prey for viperfish, specifically the viperfish species C. sloani , are highly specific and of high abundance but feeding events for viperfish have low levels of occurrence. Viperfish are able to maximize energy input by consuming few but large prey. In order to support

4300-457: The distribution patterns seen in their migration. For example, a study used Daphnia and a fish that was too small to prey on them ( Lebistus reticulatus ), found that with the introduction of the fish to the system the Daphnia remained below the thermocline , where the fish was not present. This demonstrates the effects of kairomones on Daphnia DVM . Some organisms have been found to move with

4386-405: The expected change. Evidence of circadian rhythms controlling DVM, metabolism, and even gene expression have been found in copepod species, Calanus finmarchicus . These copepods were shown to continue to exhibit these daily rhythms of vertical migration in the laboratory setting even in constant darkness, after being captured from an actively migrating wild population. An experiment was done at

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4472-411: The expression significantly increasing following dawn and dusk at times of greatest vertical migration. These findings may indicate they work as a molecular stimulus for vertical migration. The relative body size of an organism has been found to affect DVM. Bull trout express daily and seasonal vertical migrations with smaller individuals always staying at a deeper layer than the larger individuals. This

4558-447: The fish to lure prey directly in front of its mouth for feeding. Chauliodus has photophores along the ventral side of its body that emit light through adrenergic nervous control. The distribution of this light closely matches the distribution of light in mesopelagic and bathypelagic ocean zones, making it difficult for predators to see the fish. This allows the fish to swim undetected by predators, aiding survival. This type of camouflage

4644-446: The form "author, year" in zoology, and "standard abbreviated author name" in botany. Thus in the examples above, the genus Canis would be cited in full as " Canis Linnaeus, 1758" (zoological usage), while Hibiscus , also first established by Linnaeus but in 1753, is simply " Hibiscus L." (botanical usage). Each genus should have a designated type , although in practice there is a backlog of older names without one. In zoology, this

4730-405: The form of marine snow . This is made up of dead or dying animals and microbes, fecal matter, sand and other inorganic material. Organisms migrate up to feed at night so when they migrate back to depth during the day they defecate large sinking fecal pellets. Whilst some larger fecal pellets can sink quite fast, the speed that organisms move back to depth is still faster. At night organisms are in

4816-727: The generic name (or its abbreviated form) still forms the leading portion of the scientific name, for example, Canis lupus lupus for the Eurasian wolf subspecies, or as a botanical example, Hibiscus arnottianus ssp. immaculatus . Also, as visible in the above examples, the Latinised portions of the scientific names of genera and their included species (and infraspecies, where applicable) are, by convention, written in italics . The scientific names of virus species are descriptive, not binomial in form, and may or may not incorporate an indication of their containing genus; for example,

4902-518: The group from being eaten. Groups of smaller, harder to see animals begin their upward migration before larger, easier to see species, consistent with the idea that detectability by visual predators is a key issue. Small creatures may start to migrate upwards as much as 20 minutes before the sun sets, while large conspicuous fish may wait as long as 80 minutes after the sun goes down. Species that are better able to avoid predators also tend to migrate before those with poorer swimming capabilities. Squid are

4988-432: The idea that a newly defined genus should fulfill these three criteria to be descriptively useful: Moreover, genera should be composed of phylogenetic units of the same kind as other (analogous) genera. The term "genus" comes from Latin genus , a noun form cognate with gignere ('to bear; to give birth to'). The Swedish taxonomist Carl Linnaeus popularized its use in his 1753 Species Plantarum , but

5074-628: The largest component, with 23,236 ± 5,379 accepted genus names, of which 20,845 ± 4,494 are angiosperms (superclass Angiospermae). By comparison, the 2018 annual edition of the Catalogue of Life (estimated >90% complete, for extant species in the main) contains currently 175,363 "accepted" genus names for 1,744,204 living and 59,284 extinct species, also including genus names only (no species) for some groups. The number of species in genera varies considerably among taxonomic groups. For instance, among (non-avian) reptiles , which have about 1180 genera,

5160-552: The lizard genus Anolis has been suggested to be broken down into 8 or so different genera which would bring its ~400 species to smaller, more manageable subsets. Diel vertical migration Diel vertical migration ( DVM ), also known as diurnal vertical migration , is a pattern of movement used by some organisms, such as copepods , living in the ocean and in lakes . The adjective "diel" ( IPA : / ˈ d aɪ . ə l / , / ˈ d iː . əl / ) comes from Latin : diēs , lit.   'day', and refers to

5246-403: The midnight sun, no differential light cues exist so they remain at the surface to feed upon the abundant phytoplankton, or to facilitate photosynthesis by their symbionts. This is not true for all species at all times, however. Zooplankton have been observed to resynchronize their migrations with the light of the moon during periods when the sun is not visible, and to stay in deeper waters when

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5332-438: The moments that the sun is obscured during normal day light hours, there is a sudden dramatic decrease in light intensity. The decreased light intensity, replicates the typical lighting experienced at night time that stimulate the planktonic organisms to migrate. During an eclipse, some copepod species distribution is concentrated near the surface, for example Calanus finmarchicus displays a classic diurnal migration pattern but on

5418-483: The moon is full. Larger seasonally-migrating zooplankton such as overwintering copepods have been shown to transport a substantial amount of carbon to the deep ocean through a process known as the lipid pump . The lipid pump is a process that sequesters carbon (in the form of carbon-rich lipids ) out of the surface ocean via the descent of copepods to the deep during autumn. These copepods accumulate these lipids during late summer and autumn before descending to

5504-403: The most (>300) have only 1 species, ~360 have between 2 and 4 species, 260 have 5–10 species, ~200 have 11–50 species, and only 27 genera have more than 50 species. However, some insect genera such as the bee genera Lasioglossum and Andrena have over 1000 species each. The largest flowering plant genus, Astragalus , contains over 3,000 species. Which species are assigned to a genus

5590-428: The name could not be used for both. Johann Friedrich Blumenbach published the replacement name Ornithorhynchus in 1800. However, a genus in one kingdom is allowed to bear a scientific name that is in use as a generic name (or the name of a taxon in another rank) in a kingdom that is governed by a different nomenclature code. Names with the same form but applying to different taxa are called "homonyms". Although this

5676-540: The ocean when they discovered the deep scattering layer (DSL). While performing sound propagation experiments, the University of California's Division of War Research (UCDWR) consistently had results of the echo-sounder that showed a distinct reverberation that they attributed to mid-water layer scattering agents. At the time, there was speculation that these readings may be attributed to enemy submarines. Martin W. Johnson of Scripps Institution of Oceanography proposed

5762-481: The ocean's surface provides an abundance of food, it may be safest for many species to visit it at night. Light-dependent predation by fish is a common pressure that causes DVM behavior in zooplankton and krill. A given body of water may be viewed as a risk gradient whereby the surface layers are riskier to reside in during the day than deep water, and as such promotes varied longevity among zooplankton that settle at different daytime depths. Indeed, in many instances it

5848-517: The pattern drastically. For example, the occurrence of midnight sun in the Arctic induces changes to planktonic life that would normally perform DVM with a 24-hour night and day cycle. In the summers of the Arctic the Earth's north pole is directed toward the sun creating longer days and at the high latitude continuous day light for more than 24-hours. Species of foraminifera found in the ocean have been observed to cease their DVM pattern, and rather remain at

5934-526: The provisions of the ICZN Code, e.g., incorrect original or subsequent spellings, names published only in a thesis, and generic names published after 1930 with no type species indicated. According to "Glossary" section of the zoological Code, suppressed names (per published "Opinions" of the International Commission of Zoological Nomenclature) remain available but cannot be used as the valid name for

6020-482: The salinity or minute pressure changes. There are many hypotheses as to why organisms would vertically migrate, and several may be valid at any given time. The universality of DVM suggests that there is some powerful common factor behind it. The connection between available light and DVM has led researchers to theorize that organisms may stay in deeper, darker areas during the day to avoid being eaten by predators who depend on light to see and catch their prey. While

6106-497: The specific name particular to the wolf. A botanical example would be Hibiscus arnottianus , a particular species of the genus Hibiscus native to Hawaii. The specific name is written in lower-case and may be followed by subspecies names in zoology or a variety of infraspecific names in botany . When the generic name is already known from context, it may be shortened to its initial letter, for example, C. lupus in place of Canis lupus . Where species are further subdivided,

6192-481: The specificity of feeding, the viperfish has multiple adaptations such as a large-toothed mouth, modifications in its skull to allow for a wide opening of its mouth, and elastic stomach and body skin to compensate for large prey. Vertical movements of viperfish are influenced by temperature. It was observed that the upper limit of distribution is restricted by temperature (12–15 °C). That is observed to affect vertical habitat and trophodynamics. In most tropical waters, it

6278-412: The standard format for a species name comprises the generic name, indicating the genus to which the species belongs, followed by the specific epithet, which (within that genus) is unique to the species. For example, the gray wolf 's scientific name is Canis lupus , with Canis ( Latin for 'dog') being the generic name shared by the wolf's close relatives and lupus (Latin for 'wolf') being

6364-422: The surface around dusk, remaining at the surface for the night, then migrating to depth again around dawn. Reverse migration occurs with organisms ascending to the surface at sunrise and remaining high in the water column throughout the day until descending with the setting sun. Twilight diel vertical migration involves two separate migrations in a single 24-hour period, with the first ascent at dusk followed by

6450-467: The surface in favor of feeding on the phytoplankton. For example Neogloboquadrina pachyderma , and for those species that contain symbionts, like Turborotalita quinqueloba , remain in sunlight to aid photosynthesis. Changes in sea-ice and surface chlorophyll concentration are found to be stronger determinants of the vertical habitat of Arctic N. pachyderma . There is also evidence of changes to vertical migration patterns during solar eclipse events. In

6536-436: The surface. They have a very long gut retention time, so fecal pellets usually are released at maximum depth. Salps are also known for having some of the largest fecal pellets. Because of this they have a very fast sinking rate, small detritus particles are known to aggregate on them. This makes them sink that much faster. As previously mentioned, the lipid pump represents a substantial flux of POC (particulate organic carbon) to

6622-403: The taxon is termed a synonym ; some authors also include unavailable names in lists of synonyms as well as available names, such as misspellings, names previously published without fulfilling all of the requirements of the relevant nomenclatural code, and rejected or suppressed names. A particular genus name may have zero to many synonyms, the latter case generally if the genus has been known for

6708-413: The tidal cycle. A study looked at the abundance of a species of small shrimp, Acetes sibogae, and found that they tended to move further higher in the water column and in higher numbers during flood tides than during ebb tides experiences at the mouth of an estuary. It is possible that varying factors with the tides may be the true trigger for the migration rather than the movement of the water itself, like

6794-424: The top 100 metres of the water column, but during the day they move down to between 800 and 1000 meters. If organisms were to defecate at the surface it would take the fecal pellets days to reach the depth that they reach in a matter of hours. Therefore, by releasing fecal pellets at depth they have almost 1000 metres less to travel to get to the deep ocean. This is known as active transport . The organisms are playing

6880-566: The values quoted are the mean of "accepted" names alone (all "uncertain" names treated as unaccepted) and "accepted + uncertain" names (all "uncertain" names treated as accepted), with the associated range of uncertainty indicating these two extremes. Within Animalia, the largest phylum is Arthropoda , with 151,697 ± 33,160 accepted genus names, of which 114,387 ± 27,654 are insects (class Insecta). Within Plantae, Tracheophyta (vascular plants) make up

6966-511: The ventral side of their body, likely used to camouflage them by blending in with the less than 1% of light that reaches to below 200 meters depth. Although it may appear to be covered in scales, viperfishes do not possess scales. Rather, they are covered by a thick, transparent coating of unknown substance. Extremely large, fang-like teeth give the fish a slightly protruded lower jaw. Viperfishes live in meso - and bathypelagic environments and have been found dominating submarine calderas such as

7052-429: The virus species " Salmonid herpesvirus 1 ", " Salmonid herpesvirus 2 " and " Salmonid herpesvirus 3 " are all within the genus Salmonivirus ; however, the genus to which the species with the formal names " Everglades virus " and " Ross River virus " are assigned is Alphavirus . As with scientific names at other ranks, in all groups other than viruses, names of genera may be cited with their authorities, typically in

7138-776: The wide range of temperatures viperfish are capable of surviving in. Viperfish have previously been recorded in the Italian waters off the western Mediterranean Basin, the Adriatic Sea, the Greek waters of the Aegean Sea, and in the Turkish waters of the Levant Sea. Viperfish have rarely been seen off the Algerian coast by Dieuzeide. They have been reported to occur off the northern Tunisian coast. m Despite

7224-489: The world. It is not restricted to any one taxon, as examples are known from crustaceans ( copepods ), molluscs ( squid ), and ray-finned fishes ( trout ). The phenomenon may be advantageous for a number of reasons, most typically to access food and to avoid predators. It is triggered by various stimuli, the most prominent being changes in light-intensity, though evidence suggests that biological clocks are an underlying stimulus as well. While this mass migration

7310-425: The zoo plankton respond by passively sinking or active downward swimming to descend in the water column. A predator might release a chemical cue which could cause its prey to vertically migrate away. This may stimulate the prey to vertically migrate to avoid said predator. The introduction of a potential predator species, like a fish, to the habitat of diel vertical migrating zooplankton has been shown to influence

7396-490: Was causing the DSL, it was discovered that a large range of organisms were vertically migrating. Most types of plankton and some types of nekton have exhibited some type of vertical migration, although it is not always diel. These migrations may have substantial effects on mesopredators and apex predators by modulating the concentration and accessibility of their prey (e.g., impacts on the foraging behavior of pinnipeds ). This

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