Misplaced Pages

#969030

61-564: Chachani is a volcanic group in southern Peru , 22 kilometres (14 mi) northwest of the city of Arequipa . Part of the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes, it is 6,057 metres (19,872 ft) above sea level. It consists of several lava domes and individual volcanoes such as Nocarane , along with lava shields such as the Airport Domes. Underneath Chachani lies a caldera . During

122-494: A large eruption occurred in 1600, Ticsani , Tutupaca , Yucamane and Casiri . Some of these volcanoes are among the highest in the world, and on average, there is one eruption of a Peruvian volcano every 13 years. The Peruvian volcanoes are part of the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes, one of three separate volcanic belts in that mountain chain; the Central Volcanic Zone contains 44 named stratovolcanoes . Chachani

183-529: A large part of post-erosional rocks in Tenerife and Gran Canaria islands. Yucca Mountain Repository, a U.S. Department of Energy terminal storage facility for spent nuclear reactor and other radioactive waste, is in a deposit of ignimbrite and tuff. The layering of ignimbrites is used when the stone is worked, as it sometimes splits into convenient slabs, useful for flagstones and in garden edge landscaping. In

244-414: A plug flow, with an essentially non-deforming mass travelling on a thin shear zone, and the en masse freezing occurs when the driving stress falls below a certain level. This would produce a massive unit with an inversely graded base. There are several problems with the en masse model. Since ignimbrite is a deposit, its characteristics cannot completely represent the flow, and the deposit may only record

305-552: A present-day volume of about 154–248 cubic kilometres (37–59 cu mi); this makes Chachani one of the largest volcanoes of the Andes. Glacial erosion and landslides have affected the volcanic complex, forming cirques and U-shaped valleys and removing much of the original shape of the individual volcanoes. Some moraines have been overrun by lava flows. Chachani drains into the Rio Chili . The Quebrada Canchero, Quebrada Cabrería and Quebrada Traccra drain south to eastward into

366-601: A similar chemistry and so must have undergone the same compaction process to have the same foliation. The Green Tuff in Pantelleria contains rheomorphic structures which are held to be a result of post-depositional re-mobilization because at that time the Green Tuff was believed to be a fall deposit which has no lateral transport. Similarities between the structures in the Green Tuff and ignimbrites on Gran Canaria suggest post-depositional re-mobilization. This interpretation of

427-782: A very poorly sorted mixture of volcanic ash (or tuff when lithified ) and pumice lapilli , commonly with scattered lithic fragments. The ash is composed of glass shards and crystal fragments. Ignimbrites may be loose and unconsolidated, or lithified (solidified) rock called lapilli-tuff. Near the volcanic source, ignimbrites often contain thick accumulations of lithic blocks, and distally, many show meter-thick accumulations of rounded cobbles of pumice. Ignimbrites may be white, grey, pink, beige, brown, or black depending on their composition and density. Many pale ignimbrites are dacitic or rhyolitic . Darker-coloured ignimbrites may be densely welded volcanic glass or, less commonly, mafic in composition. Two main models have been proposed to explain

488-444: Is a common form of ignimbrite alteration. There are two types of welding, primary and secondary. If the density current is sufficiently hot the particles will agglutinate and weld at the surface of sedimentation to form a viscous fluid; this is primary welding. If during transport and deposition the temperature is low, then the particles will not agglutinate and weld, although welding may occur later if compaction or other factors reduce

549-403: Is a concern at Chachani. Chachani is the protector mountain spirit of Cayma The people of Arequipa sometimes refer to Chachani as the "father" of El Misti (Pichu Pichu is the "mother") and ascribed to it the ability to influence the gender of newborn children, making them daughters. The Inca worshipped Chachani and its neighbouring mountains and turned its summit into a mountain sanctuary that

610-690: Is also theorized that transformation occurs at a boundary layer at the base of the flow and that all the materials pass through this layer during deposition. Another model proposed is that the density current became stationary before the rheomorphic structures form. Structures such as pervasive foliation are a result of load compaction, and other structures are the result of remobilization by load and deposition on inclined topography. The tuff deposited at Wagontire Mountain in Oregon and Bishop Tuff in California show evidence of late stage viscous flow. These tuffs have

671-475: Is an about 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) high and 17 kilometres (11 mi) wide complex of lava domes , stratovolcanoes and volcanic cones ; the highest summit is 6,057 metres (19,872 ft) high, making Chachani the 84th highest peak in the Andes. The Chachani complex has an arcuate shape encompassing both the main Chachani volcano and the 5,784 metres (18,976 ft) high Nocarane to the north of Chachani, while

SECTION 10

#1732858773970

732-452: Is currently debate in the field of the relative importance of either mechanism, there is agreement that both mechanisms have an effect. A vertical variation in orientation of the structures is compelling evidence against post-depositional re-mobilization being responsible for the majority of the structures, but more work needs to be carried out to discover if the majority of ignimbrites have these vertical variations in order to say which process

793-633: Is occasionally covered in snow. The zero degree elevation at Chachani lies at about 5,000 metres (16,000 ft). The diurnal temperature range is large and can reach 20 °C (36 °F), while ground temperatures are much more stable and higher than air temperatures. A meteorological observatory installed by the Harvard College Observatory was active on the mountain in the latest 19th century. From 3,500 to 3,900 metres (11,500 to 12,800 ft) elevation cacti , herbs , Peruvian feather grass , yareta but also lichens and mosses grow on

854-524: Is the most common. A model based on observations at the Wall Mountain Tuff at Florissant Fossil Beds National Monument in Colorado suggests that the rheomorphic structures such as foliation and pyroclasts were formed during laminar viscous flow as the density current comes to a halt. A change from particulate flow to a viscous fluid could cause the rapid en masse cooling in the last few meters. It

915-640: The Andes of southern Peru , 22 kilometres (14 mi) northwest of Arequipa and north of the Arequipa Airport ; the city of Arequipa is situated on the foot of Chachani and El Misti volcanoes. The road from Arequipa to Chivay runs along the southeastern foot of Chachani, and a dirt road reaches to an elevation of 5,000 metres (16,000 ft). It is considered to be one of the most easily climbed mountains between 6,000 - 7,000 m high, although acclimatization and good physical health are required to ascend it. In

976-568: The Holocene . Chachani has erupted andesite and dacite , which define a potassium -rich calc-alkaline suite with unusual adakite characteristics; adakites are magmas that form when the downgoing plate in a subduction setting melts. Phenocrysts include augite , biotite , hornblende and hypersthene ; the rhyolites of the Arequipa ignimbrites additionally contain ilmenite , magnetite , plagioclase , quartz and sanidine . The composition of

1037-578: The Huaylillas Ignimbrite of southern Peru. Later, during the Quaternary the Chachani volcanic complex grew in the caldera. The older activity formed the older volcanoes Chingana northeast, Estribo east and Nocarane north of Chachani as well as the Colorado lava domes north-northwest from Nocarane and the volcanoes Chachani Base and El Angel; argon-argon dating has yielded ages ranging between 1,000,000 - 500,000 years ago for these volcanoes. Later

1098-732: The Pliocene and early Pleistocene , the volcanic group produced large ignimbrites such as the La Joya, Arequipa Airport and Yura Tuff ignimbrites; afterwards the volcanic group proper grew in the caldera until about 56,500 years ago. There have not been any eruptions during historical time, but the volcano is considered to be only dormant and due to its closeness to the city of Arequipa is considered high risk. The name means "brave" in Aymara or "mountain of man"/"mountain of male"; alternative spellings "Cacheni" and "Charchani" are also known. The volcano lies in

1159-517: The Sencca Formation and the "Barroso" volcanics developed; Chachani is classified as part of the Barroso volcanics although the oldest volcanism might belong to the "Sillapaca" unit. The terrain of the volcano is formed by volcanic rocks of Eocene to recent age, which overlie a Precambrian basement and include widespread Neogene - Quaternary ignimbrites . Chachani straddles the margin between

1220-749: The Sierra Madre Occidental in western Mexico. In the western United States , massive ignimbrite deposits up to several hundred metres thick occur in the Basin and Range Province , largely in Nevada , western Utah , southern Arizona , and north-central and southern New Mexico , and the Snake River Plain . The magmatism in the Basin and Range Province included a massive flare-up of ignimbrite which began about 40 million years ago and largely ended 25 million years ago:

1281-500: The airport , hydropower plants and reservoirs are within range of Chachani and human settlement has spread around its base. As of 2023, about 349000 people live on its slopes and infrastructure such as schools are within the volcano's reach. The western suburbs of Arequipa are 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) below and less than 25 kilometres (16 mi) away from the volcano and in case of renewed eruptions they would be threatened by pyroclastic flows . In addition, melting ice and snow on

SECTION 20

#1732858773970

1342-530: The 18–20 cubic kilometres (4.3–4.8 cu mi) 1.65 million years old Arequipa Airport, and less certainly the 1.5 cubic kilometres (0.36 cu mi) early Pleistocene Yura Tuff as well as the Capillune Formation ignimbrites appear to have been erupted by Chachani or (in the case of the Yura Tuff) from a vent north of it. Together with lava flows these form the "Pre-Chachani" units and probably are

1403-547: The 5,484 metres (17,992 ft) high La Horqueta together with El Rodado to its west and Chachani proper to its east forms an east–west trending ridge. La Horqueta has a young appearance and resembles an ash cone with a crater . Additional peaks are the northerly 5,852 metres (19,199 ft) high los Ángeles and the southeasterly 5,820 metres (19,090 ft) high Trigo. In total, Chachani is made up of more than 12 edifices. The Colorado lava domes which are also known as Cerro Penones in turn are located northwest from Nocarane. To

1464-706: The Arequipa area may be located underneath Chachani; to the north its outline is marked by a 20 kilometres (12 mi) wide amphitheatre while its southern part is continuous with the Arequipa depression and is generally poorly recognizable. The El Misti volcano later arose on the margin of the Chachani caldera, where it intersects the border of the Altiplano . The volcanic complex is formed mainly by aa and block lava flows that rarely reach lengths of about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi); additionally pyroclastic flows and tephra occur. The volcanic complex covers an area of about 600 square kilometres (230 sq mi) and has

1525-541: The Cabrería lava domes; formerly the Airport Domes/Los Angeles/Pampa de Palacio were considered to be the youngest and of Holocene age. However, Volcancillo may be even younger, and a post-glacial lava flow descends the western slope of Chachani between Chachani and Nocarane and phreatic eruptions may have formed Holocene-age craters on Chachani. No historical eruptions are known at the volcanic complex, and

1586-620: The Rio Siguas. The volcano underwent five stages of glaciation in the past. During the last glacial maximum extensive glaciers formed well-developed moraines at 3,150–3,600 metres (10,330–11,810 ft) elevation; lateral moraines marking the limit of glaciation are located at 3,440 metres (11,290 ft) elevation on the southern flank. Glaciers may have also formed during the Little Ice Age , where there are moraines at 5,100–5,300 metres (16,700–17,400 ft) elevation; presently however

1647-497: The base and top, called lower and upper 'vitrophyres', but central parts are microcrystalline ('lithoidal'). The mineralogy of an ignimbrite is controlled primarily by the chemistry of the source magma. The typical range of phenocrysts in ignimbrites are biotite, quartz, sanidine or other alkali feldspar , occasionally hornblende , rarely pyroxene and in the case of phonolite tuffs, the feldspathoid minerals such as nepheline and leucite . Commonly in most felsic ignimbrites

1708-410: The base of the flow cannot be turbulent . The instantaneous deposition of an entire body of material is not possible because displacement of the fluid is not possible instantaneously. Any displacement of the fluid would mobilize the upper part of the flow, and en masse deposition would not occur. Instantaneously cessation of the flow would cause local compression and extension, which would be evident in

1769-526: The date of the last activity is likewise unclear. The existence of solfataras in the summit region and of hot springs at Socosani and Yura has been reported, and frequent seismic activity occurs on Chachani's southwestern flank; this activity may relate to either geothermal or tectonic phenomena. Currently, the volcano is considered to be dormant . Occasionally, mudflows descend its slopes and cause damages at lower elevations. The city of Arequipa with about one million inhabitants and infrastructure such as

1830-411: The density current passed over the forming deposit. Vertical variations in the orientations of sheathfolds are evidence that rheomorphism and welding can occur syn-depositionally. It has been disputed that the shear between the density current and the forming deposit is significant enough to cause all of the rheomorphic structures observed in ignimbrites, although the shear could be responsible for some of

1891-475: The deposition of ignimbrites from a pyroclastic density current: the en masse deposition and the progressive aggradation models. The en masse model was proposed by volcanologist Stephen Sparks in 1976. Sparks attributed the poor sorting in ignimbrites to laminar flows of very high particle concentration. Pyroclastic flows were envisioned as being similar to debris flows, with a body undergoing laminar flow and then stopping en masse . The flow would travel as

Chachani - Misplaced Pages Continue

1952-424: The deposition of the Green Tuff has been disputed, suggesting that it is an ignimbrite, and structures such as imbricate fiamme , observed in the Green Tuff, were the result of late stage primary viscous flow. Similar structures observed on Gran Canaria had been interpreted as syn-depositional flow. Sheathfolds and other rheomorphic structures may be the result of a single stage of shear. Shear possibly occurred as

2013-409: The depositional process. Vertical chemical zonation in ignimbrites is interpreted as recording incremental changes in the deposition, and the zonation rarely correlates with flow unit boundaries and may occur within flow units. It has been posited that the chemical changes are recording progressive aggradation at the base of the flow from an eruption whose composition changes with time. For this to be so,

2074-578: The downgoing Nazca plate falls steeply into the mantle. Volcanic activity in the Chachani region appears to have begun during the Cretaceous - Paleocene in the form of the "Toquepala" volcanics. The oldest volcanic rocks of the Western Cordillera are known under the name "Tacaza", and underwent erosion and folding before the next phase which is known as "Sillapaca". Finally, during the Miocene - Quaternary

2135-449: The edges of the ancient Waikato River course which flowed through the valley before the last major Taupō eruption 1,800 years ago (the Hatepe eruption ). The west cliffs are quarried to get blocks of Hinuera Stone, the name given to welded ignimbrite used for building cladding. The stone is light grey with traces of green and is slightly porous. Huge deposits of ignimbrite form large parts of

2196-437: The foot of tall cliffs . Some of them (about six in total) are still active and are located above 4,810 metres (15,780 ft) elevation, while the lowest inactive ones end at 4,160 metres (13,650 ft) elevation. Permafrost is expected to be continuous above 5,420 metres (17,780 ft) with discontinuous occurrence above 5,050 metres (16,570 ft). Other periglacial phenomena such as needle ice are also encountered on

2257-567: The form of tension cracks and small scale thrusting, which is not seen in most ignimbrites. An adaptation of the en masse theory suggests that the ignimbrite records progressive aggradation from a sustained current and that the differences observed between ignimbrites and within an ignimbrite are the result of temporal changes to the nature of the flow that deposited it. Rheomorphic structures are only observed in high grade ignimbrites. There are two types of rheomorphic flow; post-depositional re-mobilization, and late stage viscous flow. While there

2318-462: The higher-elevation Altiplano and the Arequipa basin at lower altitude. The younger El Misti volcano lies southeast of Chachani, across the Rio Chili . Other volcanoes in the region are Ampato and Jollojello northwest, Baquetane, Hucullani and Nevado Calcha north, Yanarico east and Pichu Pichu southeast from Chachani. Of these, Misti, Pichu Pichu and Chachani are aligned on normal faults that trend northwest–southeast and has been active during

2379-484: The ignimbrites, like all felsic rocks, and the resultant mineralogy of phenocryst populations within them, is related mostly to the varying contents of sodium, potassium, calcium, the lesser amounts of iron and magnesium. Some rare ignimbrites are andesitic, and may even be formed from volatile saturated basalt , where the ignimbrite would have the geochemistry of a normal basalt. Large hot ignimbrites can create some form of hydrothermal activity as they tend to blanket

2440-451: The land surface. More rarely, clasts are cognate material from the magma chamber. If sufficiently hot when deposited, the particles in an ignimbrite may weld together, and the deposit is transformed into a 'welded ignimbrite' , made of eutaxitic lapilli-tuff . When this happens, the pumice lapilli commonly flatten, and these appear on rock surfaces as dark lens shapes, known as fiamme . Intensely welded ignimbrite may have glassy zones near

2501-519: The largest eruptions experienced by Chachani. They occur in the wider region of Chachani and crop out in the Arequipa area and in river valleys. Their emplacement took place in the form of fast-moving hot streams of rock. An additional ignimbrite is the 13 million years old Miocene Rio Chili Ignimbrite; the vents of the Miocene units are unknown and the Rio Chili Ignimbrite appears to be related to

Chachani - Misplaced Pages Continue

2562-454: The late 19th century, the good sight from Chachani was remarked upon. Politically, it lies in the Cayma, Yura and Cerro Colorado districts. Volcanoes in the southern part of Peru include from north to south Auquihuato , Firura , Coropuna , Andagua volcanic field , Sabancaya , Ampato , Chachani, El Misti , Pichu Pichu , Ubinas which has erupted intermittently since 1954, Huaynaputina where

2623-567: The magmatism followed the end of the Laramide orogeny , when deformation and magmatism occurred far east of the plate boundary. Additional eruptions of ignimbrite continued in Nevada until roughly 14 million years ago. Individual eruptions were often enormous, sometimes up to thousands of cubic kilometres in volume, giving them a Volcanic Explosivity Index of 8, comparable to Yellowstone Caldera and Lake Toba eruptions. Successions of ignimbrites make up

2684-951: The minimum welding temperature to below the temperature of the glassy particles; this is secondary welding. This secondary welding is most common and suggests that the temperature of most pyroclastic density currents is below the softening point of the particles. The factor that determines whether an ignimbrite has primary welding, secondary welding or no welding is debated: Landscapes formed by erosion in hardened ignimbrite can be remarkably similar to those formed on granitic rocks . In Sierra de Lihuel Calel , La Pampa Province , Argentina, various landforms typical of granites can be observed in ignimbrite. These landforms are inselbergs , flared slopes , domes , nubbins , tors , tafonis and gnammas . In addition, just like in granite landscapes landforms in ignimbrites may be influenced by joint systems . Ignimbrites occur worldwide associated with many volcanic provinces having high-silica content magma and

2745-460: The mountain lacks glaciers and only has a snowfield . In general, glaciers in the tropical Andes have been shrinking after the end of the Little Ice Age, and especially after the 1970s. Permafrost and rock glaciers however still exist at Chachani, especially close to Nocarane, and reach lengths of 1.8 kilometres (1.1 mi); they are characterized by lobate appearances and their location at

2806-564: The other two hazard scenarios. Chachani is considered to be a high-risk volcano and the Geophysical Institute of Peru in 2018 installed a monitoring station on Chachani. Several volcano hazard map exist: One shows three levels of danger depending on the distance from the edifice, the other two show areas threatened by mudflows and pyroclastic fall . Chachani is monitored with seismometers and tiltmeters . Apart from eruptions, volcano-induced pollution of neighbouring water resources

2867-589: The process the materials that made up this mixture fused together into a very tough rock of medium density. Ignimbrite also occurs in the Coromandel region of New Zealand , where the striking orange-brown ignimbrite cliffs form a distinctive feature of the landscape. The nearby Taupō Volcanic Zone is covered in extensive flat sheets of ignimbrite erupted from caldera volcanoes during the Pleistocene and Holocene. The exposed ignimbrite cliffs at Hinuera (Waikato) mark

2928-500: The quartz polymorphs cristobalite and tridymite are usually found within the welded tuffs and breccias . In the majority of cases, it appears that these high-temperature polymorphs of quartz occurred post-eruption as part of an autogenic post-eruptive alteration in some metastable form. Thus although tridymite and cristobalite are common minerals in ignimbrites, they may not be primary magmatic minerals. Most ignimbrites are silicic, with generally over 65% SiO 2 . The chemistry of

2989-620: The resulting explosive eruptions. Ignimbrite occurs very commonly around the lower Hunter Region of the Australian state of New South Wales . The ignimbrite quarried in the Hunter region at locations such as Martins Creek, Brandy Hill, Seaham ( Boral ) and at abandoned quarry at Raymond Terrace is a volcanic sedimentation rock of Carboniferous age (280–345 million years). It had an extremely violent origin. This material built up to considerable depth and must have taken years to cool down completely. In

3050-516: The river which flows around the southeastern side of Chachani and has cut a canyon between Chachani and El Misti . The Rio Sumbay, one of its tributaries, runs along the eastern side of Chachani. The Rio Yura flows southward along the western side of Chachani, and upon reaching the then westward-flowing Rio Chili becomes the Rio Vitor , which eventually discharges into the Pacific Ocean together with

3111-468: The slopes of Chachani and other regional volcanoes. Vegetation is scarce to absent above 4,500 metres (14,800 ft) elevation, and much of its lower slopes were stripped of their vegetation during the colonial era. The dry soils are not suitable for agriculture . Part of the volcano is in the Salinas y Aguada Blanca National Reserve . Lizards on the mountain are the highest-altitude known reptile population in

SECTION 50

#1732858773970

3172-416: The south of Chachani lie the Airport Domes, a 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) wide lava shield with two discernible vents and a pristine appearance. The lava shield consists of overlapping lava flows with a wavy and rugose texture and a steep front which reaches heights of 1.2 kilometres (0.75 mi); evidently these were formed by viscous lava flows. A volcanic caldera associated with widespread ignimbrites in

3233-661: The structures such as imbricate fiamme. Ignimbrite is primarily composed of a matrix of volcanic ash ( tephra ) which is composed of shards and fragments of volcanic glass, pumice fragments, and crystals. The crystal fragments are commonly blown apart by the explosive eruption. Most are phenocrysts that grew in the magma, but some may be exotic crystals such as xenocrysts , derived from other magmas, igneous rocks, or from country rock . The ash matrix typically contains varying amounts of pea- to cobble-sized rock fragments called lithic inclusions. They are mostly bits of older solidified volcanic debris entrained from conduit walls or from

3294-424: The summit could generate mudflows , and pyroclastic flows , lava flows and tephra falls are additional hazards. Four hazard scenarios have been established: An effusive eruption would cause serious physical damage, but only little threat to humans. Lava dome forming eruptions may give rise to pyroclastics, but there is no evidence of such pyroclastic deposits. Pyroclastic flow - and Plinian eruptions constitute

3355-687: The volcanic complex. Subduction of the Nazca Plate beneath the South America Plate occurs at a rate of 4.6 centimetres per year (1.8 in/year); the subduction process is responsible for the volcanism and earthquake activity of the region. In the Andes, volcanism is distributed between three volcanic belts, the Northern Volcanic Zone , the Central Volcanic Zone and the Southern Volcanic Zone which coincide with segments where

3416-458: The volcanic rocks has varied over the lifespan of Chachani, sometimes rocks of basaltic andesite composition were erupted as well while the younger volcanoes are usually more homogeneous; this was paralleled by a decrease in the eruption rate. Under the influence of the cold Humboldt Current and the subtropical ridge , the region features an arid climate with less than 100 millimetres (3.9 in) annual precipitation in Arequipa. The mountain

3477-553: The volcanoes El Rodado, La Horqueta and Chachani ( c. 130,000 - 131,000 years ago) formed as a west–east alignment, along with the Uyupampa lava field (about 230,000 - 280,000 years ago) far west from Chachani, the Airport Domes south (between 290,000 - 400,000 years ago), the Cabrería lava domes south-southeast and the Volcancillo dome northeast from Chachani. The youngest reported date of 56,500 ± 31,600 years ago has been obtained on

3538-469: The wet soil and bury watercourses and rivers. The water from such substrates will exit the ignimbrite blanket in fumaroles , geysers and the like, a process which may take several years, for example after the Novarupta tuff eruption. In the process of boiling off this water, the ignimbrite layer may become metasomatised (altered). This tends to form chimneys and pockets of kaolin -altered rock. Welding

3599-580: The white "sillar" rocks that were used in construction of the famous buildings of colonial-era Arequipa, which is also known as the "white city". Volcanic group Too Many Requests If you report this error to the Wikimedia System Administrators, please include the details below. Request from 172.68.168.236 via cp1112 cp1112, Varnish XID 390051544 Upstream caches: cp1112 int Error: 429, Too Many Requests at Fri, 29 Nov 2024 05:39:34 GMT Ignimbrite Ignimbrites are made of

3660-640: The world. The oldest volcanic formations linked to Chachani are the so-called " sillars ", which are rhyolitic pyroclastic flows / ignimbrites containing pumice beds. These ignimbrites include the La Joya Ignimbrite of Pliocene age, the Plio-Quaternary Arequipa Airport Ignimbrite and the Quaternary Yura Tuff and Capillune Formation . The 16–24 cubic kilometres (3.8–5.8 cu mi) 4.8 million years old La Joya,

3721-406: Was later destroyed by sulfur mining and plundering to the point that no trace of archeological sites can be found, such as e.g. walls. Nevertheless, evidence of Inka human sacrifice known as capacocha was found during archeological expeditions; a finding from 1896 is the earliest known finding of such a sacrifice. Chachani was reportedly mined for sulfur during the colonial era and for

SECTION 60

#1732858773970
#969030