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114-444: Caxaro's cultural preparation and his humanistic character, together with his philosophy, entirely reflect the peculiar force, functions and needs of a Mediterranean people whose golden age had still to come, but whose mental constitution and mode of expression were readily set. The discovery of the man and his philosophy is immeasurably relevant to further recognition of the wise tenure of an ancient civilization. No portrait of Caxaro

228-455: A diplomatic mission for Alfonso VIII , King of Castile , to secure a bride in Denmark for crown prince Ferdinand. The envoys traveled to Denmark via Aragon and the south of France . The marriage negotiations ended successfully, but the princess died before leaving for Castile. During their return journey, they met with Cistercian monks who had been sent by Pope Innocent III to preach against

342-738: A historical legend for the sake of auto-justification. Reacting against the Spanish tribunals, 16th- and 17th-century Protestant polemicists gladly developed and perpetuated the legend of Dominic the Inquisitor. This image gave German Protestant critics of the Catholic Church an argument against the Dominican Order whose preaching had proven to be a formidable opponent in the lands of the Reformation. As Edward Peters notes, "In Protestant historiography of

456-411: A poetic writer, apart from his philosophic and oratorical skills, is highly estimable. He seems to qualify as a phonetic master, as well as one having control of classical rhetoric techniques. He has tact in expressing his veiled poetic thought in striking and tempting allusions. In other words, Caxaro is a forceful writer, possessing clarity of thought, and is confident in handling of style. The Cantilena

570-603: A span of forty-three years. Alternatively or concurrently, at one time or another Caxaro acted as judge in the civil courts of Gozo and of Malta, and in the ecclesiastical cours. He was further juror in Malta at the Mdina city-council, to which he sometimes acted as secretary. Finally, the Dominicans at Rabat, Malta preserve a substantial part of his will, drawn on August 12, 1485, shortly before his death. No wife or offspring are mentioned in

684-417: A strict sense. The hope of the discovery of corroborative material in this regard must remain enkindled. It seems to be opportune at this point to highlight two instances from Caxaro's acquaintances, namely, his father's contact with Barcelona and Valencia , and Caxaro's own connection with Palermo . Catalonia , together with Aragon , became familiar with humanism before Castille . The first contact of

798-466: A work preceding Azzopardo's by approximately three decades. This had been by Giovanni Francesco Abela 's 1647 publication entitled (in short) Della Descrittione di Malta . Introducing his transcription of the composition, Rev. Brandan – a member of the Society of True Christians – indicated its author as a "philosopher, poet and orator". On examination, it is positively held that Caxaro's original version

912-580: Is April 1, 1438, when he set for the examination to be given the warrant of public notary of Malta and Gozo by the competent authorities in Palermo , Sicily . In those times, Malta and its dependencies formed part of the Kingdom of Aragon . This means that Caxaro had spent some time in Palermo, a city then imbued with humanism . Next, we are informed of a series of appointments in Malta and Gozo between 1440 and 1483,

1026-607: Is a calque of the Latin name, from μέσος ( mésos , "in the middle") and γήινος ( gḗinos , "of the earth"), from γῆ ( gê , "land, earth"). The original meaning may have been 'the sea in the middle of the earth', rather than 'the sea enclosed by land'. Ancient Iranians called it the "Roman Sea", and in Classical Persian texts , it was called Daryāy-e Rōm (دریای روم), which may be from Middle Persian form, Zrēh ī Hrōm (𐭦𐭫𐭩𐭤 𐭩 𐭤𐭫𐭥𐭬). The Carthaginians called it

1140-742: Is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean , surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the east by the Levant in West Asia , on the north by Anatolia in West Asia and Southern Europe , on the south by North Africa , and on the west almost by the Morocco–Spain border . The Mediterranean has played a central role in the history of Western civilization . Geological evidence indicates that around 5.9 million years ago,

1254-659: Is a piece of fine literature; the work of dextrous mastership. It shows a very particular formal attention, and an uncommon capability of stylistic invention in its structure. It must be noticed, however, that Giovanni Francesco Abela , in his Descrittione of 1647, did not include Caxaro in his list of some forty-six Houmini di Malta per varie guise d’eccellenza celebri, e famosi , of which not all are that illustrious. Abela could have mentioned Caxaro's philosophic, poetic or oratorical skills, if anything. This may suggest that Caxaro's aptitudes were somewhat concealed. The known sources of Caxaro's biographical data are few, namely four,

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1368-570: Is known as al-Baḥr [al-Abyaḍ] al-Mutawassiṭ ( البحر [الأبيض] المتوسط ) 'the [White] Middle Sea'. In Islamic and older Arabic literature, it was Baḥr al-Rūm ( بحر الروم ) or al- Baḥr al-Rūmī ( بحر الرومي ) 'the Sea of the Romans' or 'the Roman Sea' or Baḥr al-šām ( بحر الشام ) or al-Baḥr al-šāmī ( البحر الشامي ) ("the Sea of Syria"). At first, that name referred only to the eastern Mediterranean, but

1482-496: Is known that he had in his service at least six slaves. Apart from Caxaro's public offices and death, which is satisfactorily documented, two other personal episodes are known. The first, occurring either in 1463 or 1478, concerns his proposed marriage to Francha di Biglera. From the court proceedings we know that Caxaro's father had frequently visited Catalonia (specifically Barcelona and Valencia ). This may have some bearing on Peter's own formation. The second instance concerns

1596-485: Is known to exist. Caxaro was born of a noble Mdina family in Malta . The date of his birth is unknown, and it is doubtful that it had ever been recorded at all. He was likely born around the beginning of the 15th century. His father's name was Leo, and his mother's was Zuna. It may have been that the family was of Jewish descent and was forced to convert to Christianity . It is known that one of Caxaro's brothers, Nicholas,

1710-457: Is still not known with any certainty. All his possession went to the Dominican friars. It is not known where he was initially buried. However, later, as he had it willed, his remains were laid to rest in one of the newly built chapels of the church of St. Dominic at Rabat, Malta . The chapel had been actually constructed at Caxaro's expense, and dedicated to Our Lady of Divine Help. A memorial

1824-446: Is told that before his birth his barren mother made a pilgrimage to the Abbey at Silos , and dreamt that a dog leapt from her womb carrying a flaming torch in its mouth, and seemed to set the earth on fire. This story is likely to have emerged when his order became known, after his name, as the Dominican order, Dominicanus in Latin, and a play on words interpreted as Domini canis : "Dog of

1938-428: Is undoubtable, and so is Brandan's transcription. The discoverers themselves, both reliable historical researchers, carefully examined the document and found that it could not reveal any suspicious feature. It was next to impossible for the document to have been faked so well that no sign of its faking remained. Up till 1968, modern scholarly references to Peter Caxaro had been few. The first known to have referred to him

2052-451: Is written on the Cord. According to the tradition, if someone wishes to receive grace from Saint Dominic, they should wear it all the time. Infertile couples use the Cord to pray for intercession of Saint Dominic for the gift of offspring from God. The country Dominican Republic and its capital Santo Domingo are named after Saint Dominic. The Arca di San Domenico is a shrine containing

2166-509: The Black Sea . In Persian, the name was translated as Baḥr-i Safīd , which was also used in later Ottoman Turkish . Similarly, in 19th century Greek, the name was Άσπρη Θάλασσα ( áspri thálassa ; "white sea"). According to Johann Knobloch, in classical antiquity , cultures in the Levant used colours to refer to the cardinal points: black referred to the north (explaining the name Black Sea ), yellow or blue to east, red to south (e.g.,

2280-450: The Cantilena is faulty is evident from various internal traits. Furthermore, the reasons for which Brandan recalled the work, and even the manner in which he did so, is unto this day a baffling uncertainty. The cheerfulness felt by Brandan apparently seems to be doubly caused, namely by both the memory of the composition and the memory of his ancestor (with a necessary relationship of one to

2394-602: The Cathars , a religious sect with gnostic and dualistic beliefs which the Catholic Church deemed heretical. Dominic and Diego de Acebo attributed the Cistercians' lack of success to their extravagance and pomp compared to the asceticism of the Cathars. Dominic and Diego decided to adopt a more ascetic way of life and began a program in the south of France to convert the Cathars. In late 1206, Acebo and his group established themselves at

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2508-701: The Italian Lakes (Po). While the Mediterranean watershed is bordered by other river basins in Europe, it is essentially bordered by endorheic basins or deserts elsewhere. The following countries are in the Mediterranean drainage basin while not having a coastline on the Mediterranean Sea: The following countries have a coastline on the Mediterranean Sea: Several other territories also border

2622-705: The Italian city-states like Amalfi and Genoa before the Crusades, according to the Cairo Geniza documents. A document dated 996 mentions Amalfian merchants living in Cairo . Another letter states that the Genoese had traded with Alexandria . The caliph al-Mustansir had allowed Amalfian merchants to reside in Jerusalem about 1060 in place of the Latin hospice . The Crusades led to

2736-560: The Monastery of Our Lady of Prouille in France . Bishop Foulques of Toulouse allowed them to use the church. The house was intended partly as a refuge for women who had previously lived in Cathar religious houses, and partly the first established base of operations. The first nuns of Prouille lived for several months at Fanjeaux, because the buildings at Prouille were not yet habitable. Dominic gave them

2850-508: The Notarial Archives , Valletta . Caxaro's work was actually transcribed by Rev. Brandan himself in its original Maltese version. The discovery was encountered with enthusiasm within scholarship circles since it had eventually given Maltese literature its greatest boost for a very long time. It had taken the authors about two years before they were able to present Caxaro's Cantilena to the general public. The authenticity of Caxaro's work

2964-743: The Punic Wars in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC, the Roman Republic defeated the Carthaginians to become the preeminent power in the Mediterranean. When Augustus founded the Roman Empire , the Romans referred to the Mediterranean as Mare Nostrum ("Our Sea"). For the next 400 years, the Roman Empire completely controlled the Mediterranean Sea and virtually all its coastal regions from Gibraltar to

3078-616: The Red Sea ) and white to west. That would explain the Bulgarian Byalo More , the Turkish Akdeniz , and the Arab nomenclature described above, lit. "White Sea". Major ancient civilizations were located around the Mediterranean. The sea provided routes for trade, colonization, and war, as well as food (from fishing and the gathering of other seafood) for numerous communities throughout

3192-550: The Roman Empire , Mare Nostrum ("Our Sea"). The term Mare Mediterrāneum appears later: Solinus apparently used this in the 3rd century, but the earliest extant witness to it is in the 6th century, in Isidore of Seville . It means 'in the middle of land, inland' in Latin , a compound of medius ("middle"), terra ("land, earth"), and -āneus ("having the nature of"). The modern Greek name Μεσόγειος Θάλασσα ( mesógeios ; "inland")

3306-625: The Rule of St. Augustine . Catholic-Cathar debates were held at Verfeil , Pamiers and Montréal . Ordered by the Pope to return to his diocese, Diego de Acebo died at Osma in December 1207, leaving Dominic alone in his mission. Based on a Dominican tradition, in 1208 Dominic experienced a vision of the Blessed Virgin Mary in the church at Prouille, during which she gave him a rosary . This gave rise to

3420-562: The rosary . He is alternatively called Dominic of Osma , Dominic of Caleruega , and Domingo Félix de Guzmán . Dominic was born in Caleruega , halfway between Osma and Aranda de Duero in Old Castile , Spain . He was named after Saint Dominic of Silos . The Benedictine abbey of Santo Domingo de Silos lies a few miles north of Caleruega. In the earliest narrative source, by Jordan of Saxony , Dominic's parents are not named. The story

3534-517: The "Syrian Sea". In ancient Syrian texts, Phoenician epics and in the Hebrew Bible , it was primarily known as the "Great Sea", הים הגדול HaYam HaGadol , ( Numbers ; Book of Joshua ; Ezekiel ) or simply as "The Sea" ( 1 Kings ). However, it has also been called the "Hinder Sea" because of its location on the west coast of the region of Syria or the Holy Land (and therefore behind a person facing

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3648-565: The 16th century and also maintained naval bases in southern France (1543–1544), Algeria and Tunisia. Barbarossa , the Ottoman captain is a symbol of this domination with the victory of the Battle of Preveza (1538). The Battle of Djerba (1560) marked the apex of Ottoman naval domination in the eastern Mediterranean. As the naval prowess of the European powers increased, they confronted Ottoman expansion in

3762-644: The 20th century into the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, Angelicum sited at the convent of Saints Dominic and Sixtus . Dominic arrived in Bologna on 21 December 1218. A convent was established at the Mascarella church by Reginald of Orleans . Soon afterward they had to move to the church of San Nicolò of the Vineyards. Dominic settled in this church and held here the first two General Chapters of

3876-515: The 7th century, and with it the religion of Islam , which soon swept across from the east; at its greatest extent, the Arabs, under the Umayyads , controlled most of the Mediterranean region and left a lasting footprint on its eastern and southern shores. A variety of foodstuffs, spices and crops were introduced to the western Mediterranean's Spain and Sicily during Arab rule, via the commercial networks of

3990-802: The Atlantic via the Strait of Gibraltar —the narrow strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates the Iberian Peninsula in Europe from Morocco in Africa —is only 14 km (9 mi) wide. The Mediterranean Sea encompasses a vast number of islands , some of them of volcanic origin. The two largest islands, in both area and population, are Sicily and Sardinia . The Mediterranean Sea has an average depth of 1,500 m (4,900 ft) and

4104-627: The Catalan scholars with the movement was at its first appearance at the Pontifical court of Avignon , where Petrarch sojourned, and at the Council of Constance (1414–1418), Basel (1431) and Florence (1438–1455), as at the Neapolitan court of Alphonse V of Aragon, so-called El Magnanimo (died 1458). The Catalan movement was initiated by Juan Fernandez' efforts in the 14th century. Fernandez travelled to

4218-522: The Dominicans as his general inheritors, or residuary legatees, in his will is proof enough of this. Around 1463, Caxaro aspired to marrying a widow, Franca de Biglera. However, her brother, a Canon at the bishop's cathedral chapter, objected on the grounds of “spiritual affinity”, since Caxaro's father was a godfather to Franca. Despite the fact that Caxaro did all he could to win Franca over, and also obtained

4332-563: The East and returned with many Greek manuscripts. He later established himself as a translator, compiler and commentator of classical texts, therefore giving rise to a literary culture concerned with human interests. Fernandez was followed by other men of standing, such as Pedro de Saplana, a Dominican (14th century), Antonio Canals, Bernat Metge ( c .1340-1413), Carlos de Aragon (1421–1461), nephew of King Alphonse V , and Bachiller Alfonso de la Torre (15th century). These men of letters concentrated on

4446-795: The Inquisition. Dominic died in 1221, and the office of the Inquisition was not established until 1231 in Lombardy and 1234 in Languedoc. Canon 27 of the Third Council of the Lateran of 1179 stressed the duty of princes to repress heresy and condemned "the Brabantians, Aragonese, Basques, Navarrese, and others who practice such cruelty toward Christians that they respect neither churches nor monasteries, spare neither widows nor orphans, neither age nor sex, but after

4560-591: The Islamic world. These include sugarcane, rice, cotton, alfalfa, oranges, lemons, apricots, spinach, eggplants, carrots, saffron and bananas. The Arabs also continued extensive cultivation and production of olive oil (the Spanish words for 'oil' and 'olive'— aceite and aceituna , respectively—are derived from the Arabic al-zait , meaning 'olive juice'), and pomegranates (the heraldic symbol of Granada) from classical Greco-Roman times. The Arab invasions disrupted

4674-581: The Levant, being the only state in history to ever do so, being given the nickname "Roman Lake". The Western Roman Empire collapsed around 476 AD. The east was again dominant as Roman power lived on in the Byzantine Empire formed in the 4th century from the eastern half of the Roman Empire . Though the Eastern Roman Empire would continue to hold almost all of the Mediterranean, another power arose in

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4788-414: The Lord." Jordan adds that Dominic was brought up by his parents and a maternal uncle who was an archbishop. The failure to name his parents is not unusual, since Jordan wrote a history of the Order's early years, rather than a biography of Dominic. A later source of the 13th century gives their names as Juana and Felix. Nearly a century after Dominic's birth, a local author asserted that Dominic's father

4902-452: The Mediterranean Sea (from west to east): St. Dominic Saint Dominic , OP ( Spanish : Santo Domingo ; 8 August 1170 – 6 August 1221), also known as Dominic de Guzmán ( Spanish: [ɡuθˈman] ), was a Castilian Catholic priest and the founder of the Dominican Order . He is the patron saint of astronomers and natural scientists , and he and his order are traditionally credited with spreading and popularizing

5016-405: The Mediterranean Sea is the Nile , which takes its sources in equatorial Africa. The basin of the Nile constitutes about two-thirds of the Mediterranean drainage basin and encompasses areas as high as the Ruwenzori Mountains . Among other important rivers in Africa, are the Moulouya and the Chelif , both on the north side of the Atlas Mountains . In Asia, are the Ceyhan and Seyhan , both on

5130-450: The Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea without ship lock, because the water level is essentially the same. The westernmost point of the Mediterranean is located at the transition from the Alborán Sea to the Strait of Gibraltar, the easternmost point is on the coast of the Gulf of Iskenderun in southeastern Turkey. The northernmost point of the Mediterranean is on the coast of the Gulf of Trieste near Monfalcone in northern Italy while

5244-411: The Mediterranean towards East Africa and Asia. This led to a preference for the Mediterranean countries and their ports like Trieste with direct connections to Central and Eastern Europe experienced a rapid economic rise. In the 20th century, the 1st and 2nd World Wars as well as the Suez Crisis and the Cold War led to a shift of trade routes to the European northern ports, which changed again towards

5358-405: The Mediterranean was cut off from the Atlantic and was partly or completely desiccated over a period of some 600,000 years during the Messinian salinity crisis before being refilled by the Zanclean flood about 5.3 million years ago. The Mediterranean Sea covers an area of about 2,500,000 km (970,000 sq mi), representing 0.7% of the global ocean surface, but its connection to

5472-481: The Order of St. Dominic rests for perfecting the lives of its members and obtaining the salvation of others." In 1215, Dominic established himself, with six followers, in a house given by Peter Seila, a rich resident of Toulouse . Dominic saw the need for a new type of organization to address the spiritual needs of the growing cities of the era, one that would combine dedication and systematic education, with more organizational flexibility than either monastic orders or

5586-424: The State Archives of Palermo, Sicily ( Protocollo del Regno , mainly vol. 34), the National Library of Malta ( Universitas , 11), the Archives of the Dominicans, Rabat (Ms. 321, Giuliana Antica , I), and Della Descrittione di Malta Isola nel Mare Siciliano con le sue Antichità, ed altre Notitie of Giovanni Francesco Abela , printed by Paolo Bonecota, Malta, in 1647 ( passim ). The first known date regarding Caxaro

5700-509: The age of fifty-one, according to Guiraud "exhausted with the austerities and labors of his career". He had reached the convent of St Nicholas at Bologna , Italy , "weary and sick with a fever". Guiraud states that Dominic "made the monks lay him on some sacking stretched upon the ground" and that "the brief time that remained to him was spent in exhorting his followers to have charity, to guard their humility, and to make their treasure out of poverty". He died at noon on 6 August 1221. His body

5814-406: The ages. The earliest advanced civilizations in the Mediterranean were the Egyptians and the Minoans , who traded extensively with each other. Other notable civilizations that appeared somewhat later are the Hittites and other Anatolian peoples , the Phoenicians , and Mycenean Greece . Around 1200 BC the eastern Mediterranean was greatly affected by the Bronze Age Collapse , which resulted in

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5928-427: The ancient Roman basilica of Santa Sabina , which they did by early 1220. Before that time the friars had only a temporary residence in Rome at the convent of San Sisto Vecchio , which Honorius III had given to Dominic circa 1218, intending it to become a convent for a reformation of nuns at Rome under Dominic's guidance. The official foundation of the Dominican convent at Santa Sabina with its studium conventuale ,

6042-407: The area as generic Mediterranean Sea, in the Western Basin. It does not recognize the label Sea of Sardinia . Note 2: Thracian Sea and Myrtoan Sea are seas that are part of the Aegean Sea . Note 3: The Black Sea is not considered part of it. The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Mediterranean Sea as follows: Stretching from the Strait of Gibraltar in

6156-410: The bishop of Malta, who was suspected of corruption. Caxaro was vehement against such corruption, and vigorous in his demand for an immediate remedy. In June 1480, as an act of retaliation, the bishop excommunicated him, an action which was considered immensely serious in those days. Nevertheless, Caxaro was unyielding in his opposition and demands. Consequently, the bishop interdicted him. However, Caxaro

6270-457: The council between 1447 and 1485. At most of these, he had a minor say; at other times, his share is more substantial. Some acts are also written in Caxaro's own hand. Philosopher is the title attributed to Caxaro by Rev. Brandan. In the rest of the Cantilena ’s prologue, which is formally in accord with the general practice of the times, the poetic rather than the philosophical or oratorical excellences of Caxaro are emphasized. These are left in

6384-526: The deepest recorded point is 5,109 ± 1 m (16,762 ± 3 ft) in the Calypso Deep in the Ionian Sea . It lies between latitudes 30° and 46° N and longitudes 6° W and 36° E . Its west–east length, from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Gulf of Alexandretta , on the southeastern coast of Turkey , is about 4,000 kilometres (2,500 mi). The north–south length varies greatly between different shorelines and whether only straight routes are considered. Also including longitudinal changes,

6498-512: The destruction of many cities and trade routes. The most notable Mediterranean civilizations in classical antiquity were the Greek city states and the Phoenicians , both of which extensively colonized the coastlines of the Mediterranean. Darius I of Persia , who conquered Ancient Egypt, built a canal linking the Red Sea to the Nile, and thus the Mediterranean. Darius's canal was wide enough for two triremes to pass each other with oars extended and required four days to traverse. Following

6612-420: The east), which is sometimes translated as "Western Sea". Another name was the "Sea of the Philistines ", ( Book of Exodus ), from the people inhabiting a large portion of its shores near the Israelites . In Modern Hebrew , it is called הים התיכון HaYam HaTikhon 'the Middle Sea'. In Classic Persian texts was called Daryāy-e Šām (دریای شام) "The Western Sea" or "Syrian Sea". In Modern Standard Arabic , it

6726-443: The entire Mediterranean. Once, most of the trade between Western Europe and the East was passing through the region , but after the 1490s the development of a sea route to the Indian Ocean allowed the importation of Asian spices and other goods through the Atlantic ports of western Europe. The sea remained strategically important. British mastery of Gibraltar ensured their influence in Africa and Southwest Asia. Especially after

6840-423: The equilibrate soberness of Caxaro. Herein, we search in vain for any of Caxaro's own original thinking, apart from the arid judicial and official terminology. The same may be said of the municipal acts. Only here the information provided regards Caxaro's context in matters which interested his town (Mdina) particularly, and the Maltese Islands in general. Caxaro's name is mentioned at least in some 267 sittings of

6954-505: The error. Brincat's important conclusion was followed by other scholars, and to which we also subscribe here. Apart from the Cantilena , other fragments concerning Caxaro's contributions are extant, namely, a few judicial sentences passed by Caxaro at the ecclesiastical courts, and secretarial minutes taken at the Mdina town-council meetings in which Caxaro took part. Both are naturally extra-philosophical in nature. The sentences, however interesting they may be, only give us an inkling into

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7068-462: The first Dominican studium in Rome, occurred with the legal transfer of property from Pope Honorius III to the Order of Preachers on 5 June 1222, though the brethren had taken up residence there already in 1220. The studium at Santa Sabina was the forerunner of the studium generale at Santa Maria sopra Minerva . The latter would be transformed in the 16th century into the College of Saint Thomas ( Latin : Collegium Divi Thomæ ), and then in

7182-403: The first recourse of bishops was that of persuasio . Through discourse, debates, and preaching, they sought to present a better explanation of Church teaching. This approach often proved very successful. In 1231 Pope Gregory IX appointed a number of Papal Inquisitors, mostly Dominicans and Franciscans , for the various regions of Europe. As mendicants , they were accustomed to travel. Unlike

7296-399: The flourishing of trade between Europe and the outremer region. Genoa, Venice and Pisa created colonies in regions controlled by the Crusaders and came to control the trade with the Orient. These colonies also allowed them to trade with the Eastern world. Though the fall of the Crusader states and attempts at banning of trade relations with Muslim states by the Popes temporarily disrupted

7410-429: The haphazard episcopal methods, the papal inquisition was thorough and systematic, keeping detailed records. This tribunal or court functioned in France, Italy and parts of Germany and had virtually ceased operation by the early fourteenth century. In the 15th century, the Spanish Inquisition commissioned the artist Pedro Berruguete to depict Dominic presiding at an auto da fé . Thus, the Spanish inquisitors promoted

7524-497: The hungry. Dominic reportedly told his astonished fellow students, "Would you have me study off these dead skins when men are dying of hunger?" At the age of 24, Dominic was ordained as a priest and subsequently joined the canonry of the Cathedral of Osma . In 1198, Don Martin de Bazan, the Bishop of Osma , having reformed the chapter, made Dominic the subprior of the chapter. Diego de Acebo succeeded Bazan as Bishop of Osma in 1201. In 1203 or 1204, Dominic accompanied Diego on

7638-436: The immediate coastline on all sides of the Mediterranean tends to have strong maritime moderation. The sea was an important route for merchants and travellers of ancient times, facilitating trade and cultural exchange between the peoples of the region. The history of the Mediterranean region is crucial to understanding the origins and development of many modern societies. The Roman Empire maintained nautical hegemony over

7752-455: The literary population and professional people, including academics. Towards the end of the 15th century, the Dominicans could boast of erudite friars amongst their fold, such as Peter Xara, Peter Zurki, Dominic Bartolo (who was also Pro-Inquisitor for some cases of the Inquisition in Malta) and Bartolomeus Pace. Caxaro was certainly a good friend of some of these men, both for intellectual as well as personal reasons. The fact that he designated

7866-588: The major ranges bordering Southern Europe. Total annual precipitation is significantly higher on the European part of the Mediterranean basin, especially near the Alps (the 'water tower of Europe') and other high mountain ranges. As a consequence, the river discharges of the Rhône and Po are similar to that of the Nile, despite the latter having a much larger basin. These are the only three rivers with an average discharge of over 1,000 m /s (35,000 cu ft/s). Among large natural fresh bodies of water are Lake Victoria (Nile basin), Lake Geneva (Rhône), and

7980-493: The manner of pagans, destroy and lay waste everything". This was followed in 1184 by a decretal of Pope Lucius III , Ad abolendam . This decreed that bishops were to investigate the presence of heresy within their respective dioceses. Practices and procedures of episcopal inquisitions could vary from one diocese to another, depending on the resources available to individual bishops and their relative interest or disinterest. Convinced that Church teaching contained revealed truth,

8094-414: The migrants and arrest the traffickers of immigrants. In 2015, more than one million migrants crossed the Mediterranean Sea into Europe. Italy was particularly affected by the European migrant crisis . Since 2013, over 700,000 migrants have landed in Italy, mainly sub-Saharan Africans. The Mediterranean Sea connects: The 163 km (101 mi) long artificial Suez Canal in the southeast connects

8208-409: The murder of Caxaro's brother, Cola, in 1473 at Siggiewi , Malta , which may have given a not-so-good reputation to his family. The most recent significant addition to the personal data and profile of Peter Caxaro was made by Frans Sammut in 2009. He suggested that Caxaro came from a Jewish family that had been converted to Christianity . In support of his claim he proposed that Caxaro's Cantilena

8322-532: The naval battles of Abukir (1799, Battle of the Nile ) and Trafalgar (1805), the British had for a long time strengthened their dominance in the Mediterranean. Wars included Naval warfare in the Mediterranean during World War I and Mediterranean theatre of World War II . With the opening of the lockless Suez Canal in 1869, the flow of trade between Europe and Asia changed fundamentally. The fastest route now led through

8436-542: The new pope, Honorius III , for him to form the Ordo Praedicatorum ("Order of Preachers"). In the winter of 1216–1217, at the house of Ugolino de' Conti , Dominic first met William of Montferrat , who joined Dominic as a friar in the Order of Preachers and remained a close friend. Cecilia Cesarini , who was received by Dominic into his new order, in her old age described him as "...thin and of middle height. His face

8550-428: The number of drowned refugees in the region as a direct result of the policies. An Azerbaijani official described the sea as "a burial ground ... where people die". Following the 2013 Lampedusa migrant shipwreck , the Italian government decided to strengthen the national system for the patrolling of the Mediterranean Sea by authorising " Operation Mare Nostrum ", a military and humanitarian mission in order to rescue

8664-557: The official blessing of the bishop of Malta, the marriage did not take place. To the great consternation of Caxaro, Franca changed her mind. Caxaro remained a bachelor to the end of his days. At the Town Council of Mdina Caxaro had three particular themes which he seemed to come to life about: the welfare and maintenance of his hometown Mdina, the education of the common people, and the accountability of civil servants. In 1480, Caxaro took an active and bold part in an issue which involved

8778-478: The order. According to Guiraud, Dominic abstained from meat, "observed stated fasts and periods of silence", "selected the worst accommodations and the meanest clothes", and "never allowed himself the luxury of a bed". "When traveling, he beguiled the journey with spiritual instruction and prayers". Guiraud also states that Dominic frequently traveled barefoot and that "rain and other discomforts elicited from his lips nothing but praises to God". Dominic died at

8892-566: The other). Brandan's opening sentence of the short prologue seems to suggest that he was gladdened more by the relationship than by any of the related parts. Wettinger and Fsadni had suggested that it was the consolation which Brandan saw in the content of the composition that prompted him to leave us a memory of it, writing it down in one of the registers of his acts. But this is a question which must still be open to discussion. The first to seriously suspect certain imperfections in Brandan's transcript

9006-413: The poem is none other than Rev. Brandan's innocent transcription in Latin characters of a Megrebian or Andalusian qasida . The proponent unscientifically based his suppositions, as he himself said, on an “extrasensorial impression”. Thus the author hastily concluded that the qualifications attributed to Caxaro by Rev. Brandan are spurious. The truth, however, seems to be otherwise. Caxaro's competence as

9120-596: The region when the Battle of Lepanto (1571) checked the power of the Ottoman Navy . This was the last naval battle to be fought primarily between galleys . The Barbary pirates of Northwest Africa preyed on Christian shipping and coastlines in the Western Mediterranean Sea. According to Robert Davis, from the 16th to 19th centuries, pirates captured 1 million to 1.25 million Europeans as slaves. The development of oceanic shipping began to affect

9234-455: The reign of Aragon, was successful in changing the Neapolitan court in one of Renaissance 's most brilliant great centres. Naples and its favoured twin Palermo were visited by the most eminent of humanists from all over the Italian peninsula , Catalonia , Castile and Aragon. Mediterranean For other countries, click here . The Mediterranean Sea ( / ˌ m ɛ d ɪ t ə ˈ r eɪ n i ən / MED -ih-tə- RAY -nee-ən )

9348-515: The remains of Saint Dominic, located in the Basilica of San Domenico in Bologna. The Pattern of Urlaur is an annual festival held on 4 August at Urlaur, Kilmovee , County Mayo since medieval times, to commemorate the feast day of Saint Dominic. The feast of Saint Dominic is celebrated with great pomp and devotion in Malta, in the old city of Birgu and the capital city Valletta. The Dominican order has very strong links with Malta and Pope Pius V ,

9462-468: The sea for centuries and is the only state to have ever controlled all of its coast. The countries surrounding the Mediterranean and its marginal seas in clockwise order are Spain , France , Monaco , Italy , Slovenia , Croatia , Bosnia and Herzegovina , Montenegro , Albania , Greece , Turkey , Syria , Lebanon , Israel , Palestine ( Gaza Strip ), Egypt , Libya , Tunisia , Algeria , and Morocco ; Cyprus and Malta are island countries in

9576-641: The sea. In addition, Northern Cyprus ( de facto state ) and two overseas territories of the United Kingdom ( Akrotiri and Dhekelia , and Gibraltar ) also have coastlines along the Mediterranean Sea. The drainage basin encompasses a large number of other countries, the Nile being the longest river ending in the Mediterranean Sea. The Ancient Egyptians called the Mediterranean Wadj-wr/Wadj-Wer/Wadj-Ur. This term (literally "great green")

9690-508: The secular clergy. He subjected himself and his companions to the monastic rules of prayer and penance ; Bishop Foulques gave them written authority to preach throughout the territory of Toulouse. Also in 1215, the year of the Fourth Lateran Council , Dominic and Foulques went to Rome to secure the approval of Pope Innocent III . Dominic returned to Rome a year later and was finally granted written authority in December 1216 by

9804-420: The shadow, even by modern scholars. It has been naively ventured that the appellative philosopher is to be understood merely in the sense of a man of wisdom or learning ( “bniedem gharef” , literally indicating a sophist rather than a philosopher). However, being a trustworthy notary in possession of a precise vocabulary (to which the rest of the prologue, at least, is witness), Rev. Brandan is to be understood in

9918-573: The shortest shipping route between the multinational Gulf of Trieste and the Libyan coastline of the Gulf of Sidra is about 1,900 kilometres (1,200 mi). The water temperatures are mild in winter and warm in summer and give name to the Mediterranean climate type due to the majority of precipitation falling in the cooler months. Its southern and eastern coastlines are lined with hot deserts not far inland, but

10032-452: The sixteenth century a kind of anti-cult of St. Dominic grew up." The Cord (belt) of Saint Dominic is a Catholic sacramental which reminds the wearer of the protection of Saint Dominic. The history of the cord is associated with the miraculous image of Saint Dominic in Soriano , the perimeter of which painting defines the length of the Cord. The beginning of the prayer "O wonderful hope"

10146-752: The south side of the Taurus Mountains . In Europe, the largest basins are those of the Rhône , Ebro , Po , and Maritsa . The basin of the Rhône is the largest and extends up as far north as the Jura Mountains , encompassing areas even on the north side of the Alps . The basins of the Ebro, Po, and Maritsa, are respectively south of the Pyrenees , Alps, and Balkan Mountains , which are

10260-570: The southern ports through European integration, the activation of the Silk Road and free world trade. In 2013, the Maltese president described the Mediterranean Sea as a "cemetery" due to the large number of migrants who drowned there after their boats capsized. European Parliament president Martin Schulz said in 2014 that Europe's migration policy "turned the Mediterranean into a graveyard", referring to

10374-599: The southernmost point is on the coast of the Gulf of Sidra near the Libyan town of El Agheila . Large islands in the Mediterranean include: The Alpine arc , which also has a great meteorological impact on the Mediterranean area, touches the Mediterranean in the west in the area around Nice . The typical Mediterranean climate has hot, dry summers and mild, rainy winters. Crops of the region include olives , grapes , oranges , tangerines , carobs and cork . The Mediterranean Sea includes 15 marginal seas : Note 1: The International Hydrographic Organization defines

10488-640: The term was later extended to the whole Mediterranean, it was also called Baḥr al-Maghrib ( بحر المغرب ) ("the Sea of the West"). A name that was used mainly for the western basin. In Turkish , it is the Akdeniz 'the White Sea'; in Ottoman, ﺁق دڭيز , which sometimes means only the Aegean Sea . The origin of the name is not clear, as it is not known in earlier Greek, Byzantine or Islamic sources. It may be to contrast with

10602-519: The then prevailing environment of Spain's Mediterranean city-harbours. Here, as elsewhere, humanism was not restricted to mere cultural circles, but had become the philosophy of the people. Caxaro, apart from his father, had other members of his family, together with many of his townfolk, taking part in this same commerce of goods and ideas. King Alphonse the Magnanimous of Aragon , asserting his seat at Naples , and set in giving additional splendour to

10716-512: The title Our Lady of the Rosary . According to Bollandists , the story of the vision was originated with Alanus de Rupe , which is not to be regarded as historical. The spread of the rosary is attributed to the preaching of the Dominicans. For centuries the rosary has been at the heart of the Dominican Order . Pope Pius XI stated, that the rosary is "the principle and foundation on which

10830-658: The trade in western Europe and brought it to a halt. However, the Norsemen developed the trade from Norway to the White Sea , while also trading in luxury goods from Spain and the Mediterranean. The Byzantines in the mid-8th century retook control of the area around the north-eastern part of the Mediterranean. Venetian ships from the 9th century armed themselves to counter the harassment by Arabs while concentrating trade of Asian goods in Venice. The Fatimids maintained trade relations with

10944-589: The trade relations between Western and Eastern Europe while disrupting trade routes with Eastern Asian Empires. This, however, had the indirect effect of promoting trade across the Caspian Sea . The export of grains from Egypt was re-routed towards the Eastern world . Products from East Asian empires, like silk and spices, were carried from Egypt under the Arab rule to ports like Venice and Constantinople by sailors and Jewish merchants. The Viking raids further disrupted

11058-674: The trade with the Orient, it however continued. Europe started to revive, however, as more organized and centralized states began to form in the later Middle Ages after the Renaissance of the 12th century . Ottoman power based in Anatolia continued to grow, and in 1453 extinguished the Byzantine Empire with the Conquest of Constantinople . Ottomans gained control of much of the eastern part sea in

11172-645: The west to the entrances to the Dardanelles and the Suez Canal in the east, the Mediterranean Sea is bounded by the coasts of Europe, Africa, and Asia and is divided into two deep basins: The drainage basin of the Mediterranean Sea is particularly heterogeneous and extends much further than the Mediterranean region. Its size has been estimated between 4,000,000 and 5,500,000 km (1,500,000 and 2,100,000 sq mi), depending on whether non-active parts (deserts) are included or not. The longest river ending in

11286-549: The will. Caxaro had willed that he be buried in the Dominican newly built church at Rabat, as eventually happened. in a chapel built at his own expense, dedicated to the Gloriosissima Vergine del Soccorso . It is further known with certainty that Peter Caxaro was a native of Malta, born of Maltese parents, and lived at Mdina. His date of birth is still unknown. His immobile property was considerable, though not exuberant. It

11400-416: The works of Aristotle , Boethius , Petrarch , Boccaccio , Marcianus Capella , Pedro Campostella, and the like. They were additionally highly instrumental in animating the cultural centres of Barcelona and Valencia with the spirit of humanism. Caxaro's father, in the course of his constant voyaging between Catalonia , Sicily and Malta , like so many other tradesmen of his time, came in contact with

11514-516: Was "vir venerabilis et dives in populo suo" ("an honored and wealthy man in his village"). The travel narrative of Pero Tafur , written circa 1439 (about a pilgrimage to Dominic's tomb in Italy), states that Dominic's father belonged to the family de Guzmán , and that his mother belonged to the Aça or Aza family. Dominic's mother, Joan of Aza , was beatified by Pope Leo XII in 1829. His older brother, Manés

11628-490: Was Joseph Brincat in 1986, suspicious of the verses which do not have any rhyme. He specifically refers here to the four lines of the refrain (vv. 7-10) and the first four lines of the second stanza (vv. 11-14). Brincat, guided by his erudition as by common sense, concludes that the quatrain which stands on its own between the two stanzas, of six verses and ten verses each respectively, is erroneously transcribed by Brandan. Brincat very aptly provides convincing internal evidence for

11742-459: Was a notary or secretary to the same council in 1460 and 1468. He possessed considerable property at the northern side of Malta, and was the owner of six slaves. During all this time, Caxaro was on very good terms with the Dominican friars. These had a monastery at Rabat, Malta , very close to Mdina , Caxaro's home-town and centre of operation. The Dominicans had originally arrived in Malta around 1450, and quickly forged good friendships amongst

11856-582: Was also beatified by Pope Gregory XVI on 1834. At fourteen years of age, Dominic was sent to the Premonstratensian monastery of Santa María de La Vid and subsequently transferred for further studies in the schools of Palencia. In Palencia, he devoted six years to the arts and four to theology . At some point in time he also joined Santa María de La Vid. In 1191, when Spain was desolated by famine, young Dominic gave away his money and sold his clothes, furniture, and even precious manuscripts to feed

11970-413: Was appointed judge at the courts of Gozo for the years 1440-1441. In 1441, he also sat as judge in the courts of Malta, and the similarly in 1475. He was judge at the civil courts in 1460-1461, 1470–1471 and 1481–1482, and judge at the ecclesiastical courts in 1473 and 1480-1481. Caxaro was also jurat at the Town Council of Mdina in 1452-1453, 1458–1459, 1461–1462, 1469–1470, 1474–1475 and 1482-1483. He

12084-514: Was handsome and somewhat fair. He had reddish hair and beard and beautiful eyes ... His hands were long and fine and his voice pleasingly resonant. He never got bald, though he wore the full tonsure , which was mingled with a few grey hairs." Although he traveled extensively to maintain contact with his growing brotherhood of friars, Dominic made his headquarters in Rome. In 1219, Pope Honorius III invited Dominic and his companions to take up residence at

12198-528: Was in fact a zajal , which in Arabic refers to a song which the Jews of Spain (and Sicily ) adopted and promoted. Little of Caxaro's scholarship is known to exist. Much work has yet to be accomplished in this difficult field. We only possess isolated parts of his contributions, the most complete being the Cantilena , which, in itself, comes down to us through an imperfect, indirect source. That Brandan's transcript of

12312-471: Was in the Maltese tongue, and that Rev. Brandan transcribed it as faithfully as possible as he recalled it. The composition proves that Caxaro's qualification as a philosopher, poet and orator is fully justified since its construction is professionally accomplished. He certainly was a man of learning. Lately, a few proposals have been made which held that the said composition, in part or as a whole, does not have Peter Caxaro as its author. It has been said that

12426-431: Was killed in 1473 following a brawl with people from Siġġiewi , Malta, because of a girl he was secretly seeing. Caxaro's first studies were undertaken in Malta. Later, he went to Palermo , Sicily , to pursue them further. At the time, Palermo was a flourishing city imbued with the spirit of Renaissance humanism . There, Caxaro completed his studies and became a notary in 1438. A couple of months after his graduation, he

12540-521: Was moved to a simple sarcophagus in 1233. Under the authority of Pope Gregory IX , Dominic was canonized in 1234. In 1267 Dominic's remains were moved to the shrine , made by Nicola Pisano and his workshop for the Church of St. Dominic in Bologna . Dominic is commonly but apocryphally associated with the Inquisition . Historical sources from Dominic's own time period reveal nothing about his involvement in

12654-407: Was nonetheless undaunted. The issue lingered on until the first half of the following year, when the bishop had to accede to Caxaro's and the Town Council's demands. Accordingly, the excommunication and the interdict were removed. Caxaro's determination and resolve in the matter were highly praised. On August 12, 1485, Caxaro drew up his will, and died a few days later. The precise date of his death

12768-587: Was the Dominican Paul Galea in his history of the Dominicans at Rabat, Malta , published in 1949. Further data was produced by Michael Fsadni O.P. in 1965, also attempting his hand at a similar history. Both friars based their information on a common source; namely, on the Descrittione delli Tre Conventi che l’Ordine dei Predicatori tiene nell’Isola di Malta , I, 1, by Francesco Maria Azzopardo O.P., written about 1676. Mention of Caxaro had also been made in

12882-721: Was the name given by the Ancient Egyptians to the semi-solid, semi-aquatic region characterized by papyrus forests to the north of the cultivated Nile delta, and, by extension, the sea beyond. The Ancient Greeks called the Mediterranean simply ἡ θάλασσα ( hē thálassa ; "the Sea") or sometimes ἡ μεγάλη θάλασσα ( hē megálē thálassa ; "the Great Sea"), ἡ ἡμετέρα θάλασσα ( hē hēmetérā thálassa ; "Our Sea"), or ἡ θάλασσα ἡ καθ’ ἡμᾶς ( hē thálassa hē kath’hēmâs ; "the sea around us"). The Romans called it Mare Magnum ("Great Sea") or Mare Internum ("Internal Sea") and, starting with

12996-524: Was unveiled within the same chapel over Caxaro's tomb on September 30, 1992. Peter Caxaro was virtually unknown until he was made famous in 1968 by the publication of his Cantilena by the Dominican Mikiel Fsadni and Godfrey Wettinger . It was Fsadni who discovered the Cantilena on September 22, 1966, at the back of the third page from the last in the first of Reverend Brandan Caxaro's notarial registers (1533–1536), currently numbered R175, in

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