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100-539: The name of Le Caudan Waterfront comes from a famous figure of the past, Jean Dominique Michel de Caudan, who came to former Isle de France from Languedoc (a historical province in the South of France). He started a saltpan in 1726, close to a small bay in the southwest of Port-Louis. This area, now known as the Robert Edward Hart Garden, is situated on the entrance road to Le Caudan Waterfront. A historical site,

200-637: A few old walls still stand today to speak to the mind. Several popular spots of Le Caudan Waterfront bear a strong historical significance. The first meteorological observatory of the Indian Ocean now hosts the Food Court and the Namasté restaurant. The building hosting the Blue Penny Museum was the former Docks office. The appellations of the different wings of the complex are indeed reminiscent of episodes of

300-470: A large campus devoted to cancer research and bio-tech R&D will be opened on the site. Elsewhere in the region industries are small and in decline, in particular around the formerly mining areas of Alès and Carmaux in the interior of the region. Services are the largest sector of the economy in the region. In particular, government services employ a significant part of the workforce, especially in small towns. Key administrations have been relocated to

400-722: A lot, from apartments in beach resorts such as Cap D'Agde to isolated bastides in the rural interior. Emirate of C%C3%B3rdoba The Emirate of Córdoba , from 929, the Caliphate of Córdoba , was an Arab Islamic state ruled by the Umayyad dynasty from 756 to 1031. Its territory comprised most of the Iberian Peninsula (known to Muslims as al-Andalus ), the Balearic Islands , and parts of North Africa, with its capital in Córdoba (at

500-480: A marina, a bookstore, restaurants and cafes, a museum, hosting two of the rarest stamps in the world, a casino and tax free shopping options for tourists. Although being the first shopping mall on the island, Caudan has been able to keep up with the trends and maintains its allure as a modern waterfront mall. From its premises, visitors can also admire the workings going in the port as large container and cruise ships make their way in and out. The Caudan Arts Centre

600-511: A means of transporting ground troops, such as between the Maghreb and the Iberian Peninsula. This was also seen with Alcácer do Sal 's ships in the campaign against Santiago de Compostela in 997. As in the army Almanzor recruited Berbers faithful to him. In its administration he favored the saqalibas to the detriment of native officials. The fleet was reinforced with a network of ports and

700-636: A minority but they had formed the ruling elites since the Muslim conquest in the early 8th century. Berbers, who had made up the majority of the conquering army, were a larger group, relatively powerful but less so than the Arab elites. The indigenous population were the majority, but the proportion of Christians among them decreased over time as many of them converted to Islam. The indigenous Muslim converts were known as Muwallad s (Arabic: مولد ) and became very numerous in later generations. Some of them were descended from

800-619: A new base in the Atlantic, in Alcácer do Sal, which protected the city of Coimbra , recovered in the 980s. It served as start of a campaign against Santiago. On the Mediterranean shore, the naval defense was centered at the base of al-Mariya, now Almería . The dockyards of the fleet had been built in Tortosa in 944. The fleet also maintained a significant budget. Initially, the maritime defense of

900-662: A source of fish and shellfish. Aerospace ( Airbus , CNES , etc.), electronics ( Freescale , etc.), and bio-tech industries in Toulouse ; high-tech, electronics, and computer ( IBM ) industries in Montpellier ; pharmaceutical industry ( Pierre Fabre Group ) in Castres . There is also a significant chemical sector in Toulouse , which has been quite battered since the terrible explosion of AZF on 21 September 2001. It has been decided that chemical industries would be moved out of Toulouse , and

1000-599: Is a former province of France . Most of its territory is now contained in the modern-day region of Occitanie in Southern France . Its capital city was Toulouse . It had an area of approximately 42,700 square kilometers (16,500 square miles). The Roman province of Gallia Narbonensis fell to the Visigothic Kingdom from the 5th to the 8th centuries . Occupied briefly by the Emirate of Córdoba between 719 and 759, it

1100-458: Is a significant producer of wine. Today it produces more than a third of the grapes in France, and is a focus for outside investors. Wines from the Mediterranean coast of Languedoc are labeled as Languedoc, those from the interior have other labels such as Fronton , Gaillac , or Limoux to the west – and Côtes du Rhône towards the east. Other crops include wheat (the traditional crop which made

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1200-500: Is also strong, as the region contains the historic cities of Carcassonne , Toulouse, Montpellier , countless Roman monuments (such as the Roman arenas in Nîmes ), medieval abbeys, Romanesque churches, and old castles (such as the ruined Cathar castles in the mountains of Corbières , testimony of the bloody Albigensian Crusade ). More recently, "green" and sports tourism is on the rise, with

1300-473: Is always marked as such. However, the intricate entanglement of administrations and jurisdictions permitted Montpellier to also claim that distinction. In the 18th century, the monarchy clearly favored Montpellier, a city much smaller than Toulouse, with less history, and with fewer autonomous local authorities such as Toulouse's parlement and capitoulate . The governors of Languedoc resided in Pézenas , near to

1400-516: Is the next stage of Caudan's development. It will host plays, operas, and conferences during the day and be a game changer for Mauritius. The centre is scheduled to open in December 2018 with a game changing talent competition, Caudan Live. Languedoc The Province of Languedoc ( / ˌ l ɒ̃ ɡ ( ə ) ˈ d ɒ k / , French: [lɑ̃ɡ(ə)dɔk] , locally [lãᵑɡəˈdɔk] ; Occitan : Lengadòc [ˌleŋɡɔˈðɔ(k)] )

1500-409: The département of Aveyron ), both to the northwest of Languedoc. At some times it included the province of Agenais (now the eastern half of the département of Lot-et-Garonne ) to the west of Languedoc, the province of Gévaudan (now département of Lozère ), the province of Velay (now the central and eastern part of the département of Haute-Loire ), the southern part of

1600-628: The ulama (religious scholars) and the fuqaha (judges) played the most important social role. In the 9th century, both the Maliki and the Hanafi legal schools of thought ( maddhab s ) were common, but the Umayyads themselves promoted the former. One reason for this might be that Hanafism was seen as too closely associated with the Abbasids, whom the Umayyads considered enemies. Maliki dominance solidified under

1700-667: The Abbasid Caliphate and became an independent emir of Córdoba. He had been on the run for six years after the Umayyads had lost the position of caliph in Damascus in 750 to the Abbasids. Intent on regaining a position of power, he defeated the existing Muslim rulers of the area who had defied Umayyad and Abbasid rule. Abd al-Rahman I united various local fiefdoms into an independent emirate . The campaigns to unify al-Andalus went into Toledo , Zaragoza , Pamplona , and Barcelona and took over twenty-five years to complete. Despite

1800-551: The Fitna of al-Andalus , a civil war between the descendants of caliph Hisham II and the successors of his hajib (court official), Al-Mansur . In 1031, after years of infighting, the caliphate collapsed and fractured into a number of independent Muslim taifa (kingdoms). The period was characterized by an expansion of trade and culture, including the construction of well-known pieces of Andalusi architecture . The Visigothic Kingdom had ruled Iberia for over two centuries when it

1900-590: The French Revolution in 1789. From the 17th century onward, there was only one intendance for the whole of Languedoc, with its seat in Montpellier. Part of the territory where Occitan was spoken came to be called langue d'oc , Lengadòc or Languedoc. The traditional provinces of the kingdom of France were not formally defined. A province was simply a territory of common traditions and customs, but it had no political organization. Today, when people refer to

2000-691: The Galician coast. Almanzor eliminated figures who could have opposed his reforms, such as killing Ghalib. Almanzor also replaced the governor of Zaragoza after he collaborated with his eldest son to replace him with a member of the same clan, the Banu Tujib. The admiral of the fleet was also poisoned in January 980 and replaced. Land transport routes were dotted with strongholds, and dignitaries controlled communications. Messengers were bought in and specially trained to handle Almanzor's messages and to transmit

2100-557: The Idrisid emir Abul-Aish Ahmad recognized the caliphate, but refused to allow them to occupy Tangier. The Umayyads besieged Tangier in 949 and defeated Abul-Aish, forcing him to retreat, and then occupied the rest of northern Morocco. Abd al-Rahman III increased diplomatic relations with the Berber tribes in North Africa, Christian kingdoms from the north, West Francia , East Francia , and

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2200-748: The Languedoc-Roussillon région , 35% in the Midi-Pyrénées région , 8% in the Rhône-Alpes région , and 5% in the Auvergne région . The territory of the former province shows a stark contrast between some densely populated areas (coastal plains as well as metropolitan area of Toulouse in the interior) where density is between 150 inhabitants per square kilometre (390 inhabitants/sq mi) (coastal plains) and 300 inhabitants per square kilometre (780 inhabitants/sq mi) (plain of Toulouse), and

2300-640: The Loire . As part of this process, the former principalities of Trencavel (the Viscounty of Albi , Carcassona , Besièrs , Agde and Nîmes ) were integrated into the Royal French Domain in 1224. The County of Toulouse followed them in 1271. The remaining feudal enclaves were absorbed progressively up to the beginning of the 16th century; the County of Gévaudan in 1258, the County of Melgueil ( Mauguiò ) in 1293,

2400-659: The Lordship of Montpellier in 1349 and the Viscounty of Narbonne in 1507. The territory falling within the jurisdiction of the Estates of Languedoc , which convened for the first time in 1346, shrank progressively, becoming known during the Ancien Régime as the province of Languedoc . The year 1359 marked a turning point in the history of the province. The three bailiwicks ( sénéchaussées ) of Bèucaire , Carcassona and Tolosa had

2500-425: The gouvernement of Guienne and its far-away capital Bordeaux . This decision was probably intentional, to avoid reviving the independently spirited County of Toulouse. In the rest of this article, Languedoc refers to the territory of this gouvernement of Languedoc. The province of Languedoc covered an area of approximately 42,700 km (16,500 sq mi) in the central part of southern France, roughly

2600-732: The saqaliba and Berbers. He also created new units, outside the regular army of the Caliphate, that were loyal to him and served to control the capital. Almanzor abolished the system of tribal units with their own commanders. This system had been in decline due to a lack of Arab recruits and the pseudo-feudalistic institutions on the frontiers. A new system of mixed units without clear loyalty under orders from Administration officials replaced it. The increase in military forces and their partial professionalization led to an increase in financial expenses, and incentivized campaigning so troops could be paid with loot and land. Lands handed over to

2700-427: The 18th century they were relocated definitively to Montpellier , where they met once a year, until 1789. For Christian religious purposes, Languedoc was also divided into a certain number of ecclesiastical provinces, including the archdiocese of Toulouse , the archdiocese of Narbonne , and the archdiocese of Albi . Between 1956 and 2016, the province of Languedoc was divided between four régions : In 2016,

2800-529: The Book who took on the status of dhimmi s or "protected non-Muslims". In exchange for the state's protection, they were required to pay a tax called the jizya . Their religious practices were tolerated but conspicuous displays of faith, such as bells and processions, were discouraged. The local Christian Catholic Church in al-Andalus was partially integrated with the Umayyad regime and its leaders collaborated with

2900-568: The Byzantine Empire . Abd al-Rahman III also brought the Christian kingdoms of the north under his direct influence through military force. The size of the Caliphal army under Abd al-Rahman III was between 30,000 and 50,000 troops. The caliphate became very profitable during the reign of Abd al-Rahman III, with public revenue up to 6,245,000 dinars , higher than previous administrations. Wealth

3000-439: The Caliphate was led by Abd al-Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn Rumahis, a veteran admiral who had served Al-Hakam II and was Qadi of Elvira and Pechina . He repulsed raids by al-Magus (idolaters) or al-Urdumaniyun ('men of the north', Vikings ), in the west of al-Andalus in mid-971. When there was another invasion later that year, the admiral left Almería and defeated them off the coast of Algarve . In April 973, he transported

3100-496: The Christian north of the peninsula, which lacked large urban centers. The adoption of the Arabic language was a wide-reaching phenomenon of long-term importance. It was spearheaded by the promotion of Classical Arabic as an administrative and literary language, followed by the development of a native vernacular Andalusi Arabic . In the 9th century, Romance languages continued to be spoken in rural lower classes but Arabic had become

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3200-534: The Fatimids. The Umayyads sent their general, Ghalib, to invade Idrisid Morocco in 973. By 974, Al-Hassan II was taken to Córdoba, and the remaining Idrisids recognized Umayyad rule. The death of Al-Hakam II in 976 marked the beginning of the end of Caliphal power. Al-Hakam was succeeded by his only son, Hisham II . Al-Hakam's top advisor, Almanzor , pronounced the 10-year-old boy caliph and swore an oath of obedience to him. Almanzor had great influence over Subh ,

3300-483: The French regions were reduced in number, with Languedoc-Rousillon and Midi-Pyrénées merging to form Occitanie , containing over 80% of historic Languedoc , and Auvergne and Rhône-Alpes merging to Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes , with just under a fifth of the historic région . On the traditional territory of the province of Languedoc there live approximately 3,650,000 people (as of 1999 census), 52% of these in

3400-490: The Languedoc is quite varied and ranges from newly built villas with swimming pools and tennis courts, to old village houses set into the old ramparts of ancient fortified towns. Some of these village houses date back a very long time. A small house in the village of Magalas, Hérault département , has a date of the 13th century carved into its stonework. Being a large area, the type of property available in Languedoc varies

3500-408: The Mediterranean coast, away from Toulouse but close to Montpellier . In time they had increased their power well beyond military matters, and had become the real administrators and executive power of the province, a trend seen in the other gouvernements of France, but particularly acute in Languedoc, where the duke of Montmorency , governor of Languedoc, even openly rebelled against the king, then

3600-481: The Saracen armies amount to 30, 40, 50 or 60,000 men, even when in serious occasions they reach 100, 160, 300 and even 600,000 fighters" in the time of Almanzor. In the campaign that swept Astorga and León , chroniclers record Almanzor leading 12,000 African horsemen, five thousand al-Andalusi horsemen, and 40,000 infantry. Stories of Almanzor's last campaign record forty-six thousand horsemen, six hundred forces guarding

3700-522: The army of Ghalib from Algeciras to subdue the rebellious tribes of the Maghreb and end Fatimid ambitions in that area. In 985, the fleet ravaged the Catalans . During the Catalan campaign, Gausfred I , Count of Empurias and Roussillon tried to raise an army to help but several flotillas of Berber pirates threatened their coasts, forcing them to stay to defend their lands. In 997 the al-Andalusi fleet hit

3800-630: The army reached 35,000 to 40,000 combatants, half of them Syrian military contingents. An Umayyad expedition helmed by ʿIṣām al-Ḫawlānī occupied the Balearic Islands (the 'Eastern Islands') and incorporated them to Cordobese rule under emir Abdullah circa 902–903. Abd al-Rahman III ascended to the throne in 912, and faced the Fatimid Caliphate , a rival North African Shiʿite Islamic empire based in Tunis . The Fatimid's claim of Caliph challenged

3900-448: The chronicles exaggerated tenfold the real numbers – these speak of eight hundred thousand soldiers – the caliphate could have had eight million inhabitants. Those who use more bullish criteria estimate between seven and 10 million. Under Almanzor, the realm also had other large cities like Toledo , Almería and Granada , which were all around 30,000; and Zaragoza, Valencia and Málaga , all above 15,000. This contrasted sharply with

4000-458: The city of Mérida . Ethnic Arabs were (at least during the early Emirate period) sparse here and the Muslim population consisted mostly of Berbers, probably semi-nomadic or transhumant , and of Muwallad s. The region along the central frontier, near Toledo, also known as the Middle March, was again only sparsely inhabited by Arabs. The city and local politics were dominated by Muwallad s, while

4100-466: The civil war by contingents of Christian mercenaries. Beset by factionalism, the caliphate crumbled in 1031 into a number of independent taifas , including the Taifa of Córdoba , Taifa of Seville and Taifa of Zaragoza . The last Córdoban Caliph was Hisham III (1027–1031). Under Umayyad rule, Arabization and Islamization progressed significantly in al-Andalus. In the long-term, these were to comprise

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4200-549: The country's colonial history: • The main building, known as Barkly Wharf, was named after Sir Henry Barkly , Member of Parliament of the British government and appointed governor of Mauritius from 1863-1870. • Le Pavillon wing: an ancient map of Port Louis reveals the existence of Pavillon Street exactly where the Pedestrian Alley of Le Caudan is now located. It is speculated that the origin of this appellation might date back to

4300-466: The empire". Évariste Lévi-Provençal argues the Almanzor's armies were between 35,000 and 70–75,000 soldiers. It is likely that the leader's armies may not have exceeded twenty thousand men. Until the eleventh century no Muslim army on campaign exceeded thirty thousand troops, while during the eighth century the trans-Pyrenean expeditions totaled ten thousand men and those carried out against Christians in

4400-515: The figure of the homes of paratge who obtained privileged military status by fighting against the Córdobans armed on horseback – after losing their capital in the fall of 985. Military industry flourished in factories around Córdoba. The city was said to produce 1,000 bows and 20,000 arrows monthly, and 1,300 shields and 3,000 campaign stores annually. In contrast to the role the navy played under Abd al-Rahman III, under Almanzor, it served as

4500-458: The former Visigothic and Hispano-Roman landholding elites that existed prior to the Muslim conquest and who had retained much of their status after the conquest. Jews were present in smaller numbers relative to the other groups. According to Thomas Glick , "Despite the withdrawal of substantial numbers during the drought and famine of the 750s, fresh Berber migration from North Africa was a constant feature of Andalusi history, increasing in tempo in

4600-471: The former province of Languedoc is currently the fastest-growing in France, and also among the fastest-growing in Europe, as an increasing flow of people from northern France and the north of Europe relocating to the sunbelt of Europe, in which Languedoc is located. Growth is particularly strong in the metropolitan areas of Toulouse and Montpellier , which are the two fastest growing metropolitan areas in Europe at

4700-422: The fortune of the landlords and parliamentarians based in Toulouse , and for whose trade the famous Canal du Midi was built), maize (the new and nowadays most common crop in the region), olives (only on the Mediterranean coast of Languedoc), fruit, and rice (in some coastal areas). In the hilly and mountainous areas of the interior, sheep and goats are raised for meat and cheese. The coastal area is, naturally,

4800-563: The gates of the city were opened. Almanzor continued the military reforms by Al-Hakam and his predecessors. He professionalized the regular army, which guaranteed his military power in the capital and ensured the availability of forces for numerous campaigns. Professionalization de-emphasized levies and other non-professional troops, which were replaced with taxes to support the professional troops – often saqaliba or Maghrebis – and freed Córdoban subjects from military service. Almanzor expanded recruitment of

4900-735: The gorges of the Tarn , the Ardèche Gorges , as well as the vast preserved expanses of Cévennes , Ardèche, Lauragais , and other sites. Tourism on the Canal du Midi combines history (for example viewing the nine locks of Fonseranes near Béziers ) with activities such as boating on the Canal, and walking or cycling on the towpaths. Toulouse and Montpellier are also common places for business congresses and conventions. In April 2019, The Guardian 's travel section included two Languedoc locations in its list of 20 of

5000-531: The hilly and mountainous interior where density is extremely low, the Cévennes area in the south of Lozère having one of the lowest densities of Europe with only 7.4 inhabitants per square kilometre (19 inhabitants/sq mi). The five largest metropolitan areas on the territory of the former province of Languedoc are (as of 1999 census): Toulouse (964,797), Montpellier (459,916), Nîmes (221,455), Béziers (124,967), and Alès (89,390). The population of

5100-417: The language of the middle and upper classes. By the end of the century, even the Christian population was so widely Arabized that their clergy were required to translate religious texts into Arabic. The early population of al-Andalus at the outset of Umayyad rule had several main constituents: Arabs , Berbers , indigenous converts to Islam, indigenous Christians, and Jews. The Andalusis of Arab origin were

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5200-514: The last king of the Visigoths, was killed, leaving an open path into Hispania. The Umayyads established the Iberian Peninsula as a province ( wilāya ) of their empire. The rulers of this province established their capital in Córdoba and received the administrative titles wāli or emīr . In 756, Abd al-Rahman I , a prince of the deposed Umayyad royal family , refused to recognize the authority of

5300-506: The law. It was also in charge of registering new royal edicts and laws, and could decide to block them if it found them to be in contravention with the liberties and laws of Languedoc. Finally, for purposes of taxation, Languedoc was ruled by the States of Languedoc, whose jurisdiction included only Languedoc proper (and Albigeois ), but not Gévaudan , Velay , and Vivarais , which kept each their own provincial states until 1789. Languedoc proper

5400-601: The legitmacy of the Abbasids' religious authority. Abd al-Rahman III took the title of caliph in 929, challenging the Fatimids in their claim to religious authority. Internally, the Spanish Umayyads considered themselves as closer to Muhammad and more legitimate than the Abbasids, even though the Caliphate of Córdoba's legitimacy was not accepted outside of al-Andalus and its North African affiliates. Fatimid invasions were thwarted when Abd al-Rahman III secured Melilla in 927, Ceuta in 931, and Tangier in 951. In 948,

5500-474: The local administration of the kingdom. For judicial and legislative matters, Languedoc was overseen by the Parlement of Toulouse , founded in the middle of the 15th century. It was the first parlement created outside of Paris by the kings of France in order to be the equivalent of the Parlement of Paris in the far-away southern territories of the kingdom. The jurisdiction of the Parlement of Toulouse included

5600-412: The marches along the Christian border, where power depended on the competence of the individual emir. For example, the power of emir Abdullah ibn Muhammad al-Umawi ( c.  900 ) did not extend beyond Córdoba itself. Raids increased the emirate's size such as one to Corsica in 806. In 818, the inhabitants of the al-Rabad suburb of Córdoba rose against  [ es ] Al-Hakam I . After

5700-437: The moment. However, the interior of Languedoc is still losing inhabitants, which increases the difference of density that was mentioned. Population of the coast of Languedoc as well as the region of Toulouse is rather young, educated, and affluent, whereas in the interior the population tends to be much older, with significantly lower incomes, and with a lower percentage of high school and especially college graduates. Languedoc

5800-408: The most beautiful villages in France . The two were Saint-Guilhem-le-Désert with "one of the finest examples of Romanesque architecture in the region" and Estaing, whose "narrow streets have hardly changed over the centuries". Rugby union is the "national" sport in Languedoc, unlike most other parts of France where football is more popular. The Toulouse rugby club ( Stade Toulousain ) is one of

5900-503: The most successful in Europe; it regularly competes for the French championship and has won four European titles (1996, 2003, 2005, and 2010) in the ten years of the European championship's existence. Bullfighting and other bull-related events are popular in the eastern part of Languedoc. Sea jousts ( Joutes nautiques ) are held on the coast. Dating from the 11th century, this sport has local leagues and attracts large crowds. Property in

6000-527: The mother and regent of Hisham II. Almanzor isolated Hisham in Córdoba, eradicated opposition, and allowed Berbers from Africa to migrate to al-Andalus to increase his base of support. While Hisham II was caliph, he was merely a figurehead. In 996, Almanzor sent an invasion force to Morocco. After three months of struggle, his forces retreated to Tangier . Almanzor then sent out a powerful reinforcement under his son Abd al-Malik, whose armies clashed near Tangier. The Umayyads entered Fes on 13 October 998 once

6100-583: The north of the peninsula were even smaller. The main weapon of the peninsular campaigns, which required speed and surprise, was the light cavalry. To try to counteract them, the Castilians created the role of "villain knights" by ennobling those free men who were willing to keep a horse to increase the mounted units through the Fuero de Castrojeriz of 974. For similar reasons, the Barcelonan count Borrell II created

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6200-406: The northeast of Languedoc. Some people also consider that the region around Albi was a traditional province, called Albigeois (now the département of Tarn ), although it is most often considered as being part of Languedoc proper. The provinces of Quercy and Rouergue , despite their old ties with Toulouse , were not incorporated into the gouvernement of Languedoc. They were attached to

6300-403: The official reports that his foreign ministries wrote about the annual campaigns. The title of caliph became symbolic, without power or influence. Almanzor's temporal power increased the importance of the military, both as a symbol of the power of Almanzor and an instrument to guarantee the payment of taxes. The chamberlain's court also rivaled that of the caliph. Almanzor's reforms also divided

6400-477: The old provinces of France, they are referring to the gouvernements as they existed in 1789, before the French Revolution . Gouvernements were military regions established by the Crown in the middle of the 16th century; their territories closely matched those of the traditional provinces. However, in some cases, small provinces were merged with a large one into a single gouvernement , so gouvernements are not exactly

6500-534: The peninsula called Le Caudan was created around a fossil coral islet, hosting a powder magazine, an astronomic and meteorological observatory, quays, warehouses and various small enterprises over the last 250 years. The daily routine of this popular harbor followed the pace of the sugar industry until the creation of the Bulk Sugar Terminal in 1980. From these 150 years of millions of sugar bags transiting by boat, train or trucks, carried by hundreds of hands, only

6600-680: The peninsula. At that time al-Andalus was known as Dar Jihad , or "country of jihad". It attracted many zealous volunteers, who made up a small but important portion of the total army. Almanzor's personal guard was made up of Christian mercenaries who also participated in his campaigns in Christian territories. Contemporary figures on the size of the army are contradictory. Some accounts claim that their armies numbered two hundred thousand horsemen and six hundred thousand foot soldiers, while others talk about twelve thousand horsemen, three thousand mounted Berbers and two thousand sūdān , African light infantry. Christian chroniclers record that "ordinarily

6700-459: The period when Port Louis was called ‘ Port Napoléon ’. • Dias Pier, the most recent wing of Le Caudan Waterfront, is a tribute to Diogo Dias , brother of the famous navigator Barthoulomeu Dias . Based on some historical evidence, it is believed that Diogo Dias was the first to record the Mascarene Islands , which include Mauritius, on a navigation map. Caudan, as it is now commonly known,

6800-518: The population into two unequal groups: a large mass of civilian taxpayers and a small professional military caste, generally from outside the peninsula and not particularally loyal to the polity. Following Almanzor's death in 1002, the institutions he created stagnated under internal divisions from military and political factions competing for power. The power of the chamberlain was retained by Almanzor's sons, Abd al-Malik al-Muzaffar , who died in 1008, and Abd al-Rahman Sanchuelo . While Abd al-Rahman

6900-478: The province of Vivarais (now the southern part of the département of Ardèche ), and even all the northern half of Provence . After the French conquest the entire county was dismantled, the central part of it being now called Languedoc. The gouvernement of Languedoc was created in the mid-16th century. In addition to Languedoc proper, it included the three small provinces of Gévaudan , Velay , and Vivarais (in its entirety), these three provinces being to

7000-473: The realm's independence from Baghdad, the emirate's rulers used the title " emir " or " sultan " until the mid-10th century and recognized the religious authority of the Abbasid Caliphs. For the next century and a half, his descendants continued as emirs of Córdoba, with nominal control over the rest of al-Andalus and sometimes parts of western Maghreb . Real control was always in question, particularly over

7100-539: The region between the river Rhône (border with Provence ) and the Garonne (border with Gascony ), extending northwards to the Cévennes and the Massif Central (border with Auvergne ). As the center of the County of Toulouse and the regional parlement , Toulouse is often considered the "capital" of Languedoc. On maps (both ancient and modern) showing the provinces (i.e., gouvernements ) of France in 1789, it

7200-719: The region in 1214 seeking the restoration of those lands. In the 13th century, the See of Rome challenged the area's spiritual beliefs, and the region became attached to the Kingdom of France following the Albigensian Crusade (1208–1229). This crusade aimed to put an end to what the Catholic Church considered the Cathar heresy . It enabled the Capetian dynasty to extend its influence south of

7300-400: The region, such as France's National Meteorology Office ( Météo-France ) relocated from Paris to Toulouse in 1982. The area is also a major tourist destination. There exists three types of tourism. First, a massive summer tourism industry on the coast, with huge sea resorts such as Cap d'Agde , Palavas-les-Flots , or Le Grau-du-Roi , built in the 1970s. Tourism related to history and art

7400-624: The region. The northern limit of Muslim settlement generally extended along a frontier that ran to the north of the Tagus River in the west, around the Cordillera Central in the center, and before the foothills of the Pyrenees in the east. The region along the western frontier, known as the Lower March and including the modern-day province of Extremadura , was largely rural with the exception of

7500-507: The reign of Abd ar-Rahman II in the 9th century, though during the reign of his son, Muhammad I, the Shafi'i and Zahiri schools were also introduced. Malikism eventually became another core characteristic of Andalusi identity and its spread contributed to the Islamization of the country. As elsewhere in the historic Islamic world, Jews and Christians were considered by Muslims to be People of

7600-494: The revolt's suppression, the inhabitants were expelled. Some settled in Fez or Alexandria, while others ended forming the Emirate of Crete in the 820s. Emir Abd al-Rahman I had used Berbers and the saqaliba for a permanent army of 40,000 to end the conflicts that had plagued the emirate. In the time of Emir Al-Hakam I , a palatine guard of 3,000 riders and 2,000 infantry was created made up of Slavic slaves. Under Emir Muhammad I ,

7700-630: The rural highlands were generally the domain of Berber tribes. To the northeast, the Upper March, centered around Zaragoza and the Ebro River valley, contained more cities and a more diverse population, including Arabs, Berbers, and Muwallad s. Among the latter were powerful families who dominated the area's politics throughout the Islamic period. The hills and mountains to the north were generally still inhabited by Christians. In matters of Islamic religion,

7800-411: The same as the traditional provinces. Historically, the region was called the County of Toulouse , a county independent from the kings of France. The County of Toulouse was made up of what would later be called Languedoc, but it also included the province of Quercy (now the département of Lot and the northern half of the département of Tarn-et-Garonne ) and the province of Rouergue (now

7900-475: The soldiers were subject to tribute and ceased to operate under a system of border colonization. The nucleus of the new army was formed by Maghrebi Berber forces. Arabs, Berbers, and Slavs within the army were played off against one another by Almanzor to maintain his power. The massive incorporation of North African horsemen relegated the infantry to sieges and fortress garrisons. This reform led to entire tribes, particularly Berber riders, being moved to

8000-498: The status of bonnes villes (towns granted privileges and protection by the king of France in return for providing a contingent of men at arms). In that year, the three entered into a perpetual union, after which their contribution of royal officers was summoned jointly rather than separately for each of the three sénéchaussées. Towards the end of 14th century, the term "country of the three seneschalties" ( pays des trois sénéchaussées ), later to become known as Languedoc, designated

8100-476: The tenth century. Hispano-Romans who converted to Islam, numbering six or seven millions, comprised the majority of the population and also occupied the lowest rungs on the social ladder." While the indigenous Jews, Christians, and Muwallad s were largely organized into family-based social structures, the Arabs and Berbers were organized into a more complex mix of family and tribe loyalties. "Arab" identity in general

8200-460: The time Qurṭubah ). From 756 it was ruled as an emirate until Abd al-Rahman III adopted the title of caliph in 929. The state was founded by Abd al-Rahman I , an Umayyad prince who fled the defeat and persecution of the Umayyad clan amid the Abbasid Revolution . The polity then flourished for the best part of three centuries, before disintegrating in the early 11th century during

8300-429: The train, 26,000 infantry, two hundred scouts or 'police', and one hundred and thirty drummers. The garrison of Córdoba was recorded at 10,500 horsemen, while other forces kept the northern border in dispersed detachments. Other modern studies found the army was between 50,000 and 90,000 under Almanzor. Scholars have argued Almanzor's armies could muster 600,000 laborers and 200,000 horses "drawn from all provinces of

8400-557: The two bailiwicks of Bèucaire-Nîmes and Carcassona , and the eastern part of Tolosa (Toulouse), retained under the Treaty of Brétigny . At that time, the County of Foix , which belonged to the seneschal of Carcassona until 1333 before passing to Toulouse, ceased to belong to Languedoc. At this time, the Duchy of Languedoc and the Spanish Duchy of Gandia (of Osuna) became one under the marriage of

8500-504: The two heirs. Later, Duke of Langeuedoc became Governor of Languedoc and Provence; as of 2024 the title is held by the son of the Late Dutchess of Gandia and Prince Obolensky Arnaud Henry Salas-Perez; though the governor role does not exist anymore, title of Duke of Languedoc et Lavandou still remains. In 1542, the province was divided into two généralités : Toulouse for Haut-Languedoc, and Montpellier for Bas-Languedoc. This lasted until

8600-435: The two major aspects of Andalusi identity and eventually characterized most of the population. The population of the capital city, Córdoba, most likely surpassed 100,000 in the 10th century, making it the largest city in Europe alongside Constantinople . Tertius Chandler estimated that circa 1000 CE, Córdoba held around 450,000 people. Around the same year, the caliphate occupied four hundred thousand square kilometers and

8700-460: The whole of the territory of the gouvernement of Languedoc, but it also included the province of Rouergue , most of the province of Quercy , and a part of Gascony . The Parlement of Toulouse was the supreme court of justice for this vast area of France, the court of last resort whose rulings could not be appealed, not even to the Parlement of Paris. The Parlement of Toulouse could also create case law through its decisions, as well as interpret

8800-404: Was budgeted into three parts: the payment of the salaries and maintenance of the army, the preservation of public buildings, and the needs of the caliph. Abd al-Rahman III was succeeded by his 46-year-old son, Al-Hakam II , in 961. Al-Hakam II continued his father's policy toward Christian kings and North African rebels. Al-Hakam's relied on his advisers more than his father because the caliphate

8900-458: Was chosen on purpose to diminish the power of Toulouse, whose parlement was very influential, and which symbolized the old spirit of independence of the county of Toulouse . The intendants replaced the governors as administrators of Languedoc, but appointed and dismissed at will by the king, they were no threat to the central state in Versailles . By 1789 they were the most important element of

9000-647: Was conquered and incorporated into the Kingdom of the Franks by Pepin the Short in 759 following the Siege of Narbonne . The term Languedoc originated to describe a cultural region that was not necessarily politically unified. After the decline of the Carolingian Empire political rule fragmented into small territorial divisions. King John of England lost his holdings in northern Languedoc to Philip II of France . He visited

9100-596: Was defeated and beheaded in Toulouse in 1632 by the order of Richelieu . The kings of France became fearful of the power of the governors, so after King Louis XIV (the Sun King) they had to reside in Versailles and were forbidden to enter the territory of their gouvernement . Thus the gouvernements became hollow structures, but they still carried a sense of the old provinces, and so their names and limits have remained popular until today. For administrative purposes, Languedoc

9200-449: Was divided in two généralités , the généralité of Toulouse and the généralité of Montpellier, the combined territory of the two generalities exactly matching that of the gouvernement of Languedoc. At the head of a generality was an intendant , but in the case of Languedoc there was only one intendant responsible for both generalities, and he was often referred to as the intendant of Languedoc, even though technically speaking he

9300-420: Was in fact the intendant of the generality of Toulouse and intendant of the generality of Montpellier. The generality of Toulouse is also referred to as Upper Languedoc ( Haut-Languedoc ), while the generality of Montpellier, down to the level of the sea, is referred to as Lower Languedoc ( Bas-Languedoc ). The intendants of Languedoc resided in Montpellier, and they had a sub-delegate in Toulouse. Montpellier

9400-402: Was largely tied to the assertion of Arab ancestry. This lineage was perceived as inherited through the father, meaning that children of Arab men and non-Arab women were still considered Arabs, although the lineage of the mother, if she came from another noble or elite background, could still be seen as prestigious. Beyond the heartland of Cordoba, the makeup of the population varied depending on

9500-469: Was leading a raid on the Christian north, a revolt tore through Córdoba and deposed him, and he was killed when he tried to restore himself to power. The death of Abd al-Rahman Sanchuelo in 1009 marked the beginning of the Fitna of al-Andalus , with rivals claiming to be the new caliph, violence sweeping the caliphate, and intermittent invasions by the Hammudid dynasty . Córdoban forces were also joined in

9600-404: Was less prosperous, and there was less money to go around. This style of rulership suited Al-Hakam II since he was more interested in his scholarly and intellectual pursuits than ruling the caliphate. The caliphate reached an intellectual and scholarly peak under Al-Hakam II. Another Fatimid invasion of Morocco occurred in 958, led by the general, Jawhar , and Al-Hassan II had to recognise

9700-475: Was one of the very few provinces of France which had the privilege to decide over tax matters, the kings of France having suppressed the provincial states in most other provinces of the kingdom. This was a special favor from the kings to ensure that an independently spirited region far-away from Versailles would remain faithful to the central state. The States of Languedoc met in many different cities, and for some time they established themselves in Pézenas , but in

9800-578: Was overthrown by the Umayyad Caliphate . The Umayyads had previously conducted small raids on the southern tip of Iberia against the Visigoths, but full-scale conquest did not begin until April of 711. An army led by Tariq ibn Ziyad crossed into Southern Hispania from North Africa across the Strait of Gibraltar . After the crossing, Tariq's troops defeated Visigothic forces at the Battle of Guadalete . Roderic ,

9900-439: Was populated by around three million people. The Iberian Christian states comprised 160,000 square kilometers and 500,000 people. By comparison, at the time of the Muslim invasion, Iberia had an estimated four million inhabitants. Other historians estimate higher at around seven or eight million. Colmeiro estimated in a pre-industrial society, for every million inhabitants, ten thousand soldiers could be mustered. Even assuming

10000-539: Was the first major shopping development of its kind on the island of Mauritius. It remains to this day an iconic shopping destination for locals and tourists alike. In the mall, visitors will find the latest fashion shops and trends, a popular arts and craft market, known as the Craft Market, Specialty shops selling unique local goods such as replica ships, Indian garments, locally fabricated jewelry or art paintings from local artists. The shopping center also boasts cinemas,

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