Misplaced Pages

#418581

125-499: The Carthaginian military was a combined arms force, which comprised light and heavy infantry , siege engines , skirmishers , light and heavy cavalry , as well as war elephants and chariots . Supreme command of the military was initially held by the civilian Suffetes until the third century BC. Thereafter, professional military generals were appointed directly by the Carthaginian Senate. Carthage's military battled

250-629: A Strategos , a catch all Hellenic term meaning general or commander; accordingly the term may also refer to a Carthaginian military governor and or an official authorized to sign treaties. In areas of conflict, we often find dual command and not all Carthaginian strategoi seem to be concerned with governing provinces. According to Roman sources, the Carthaginian office of Boetharch may have been linked closely with military command. While both states were fundamentally governed by an elected body of noble citizens or "Senate"; one major systemic difference between

375-737: A city cluster , such as the Yangtze River Delta Megalopolis and the Pearl River Delta Megalopolis . India (Republic of India) is the seventh-largest country by geographical area and the most populous country with over 1.5 billion people . The 74th Amendment to the Indian Constitution defines a metropolitan area as an area having a population of 10 Lakh or 1 Million or more, comprised in one or more districts and consisting of two or more Municipalities or Panchayats or other contiguous areas, specified by

500-468: A phalanx formation. The unit numbered around 2,500 soldiers according to Diodorus . According to the historian A. Heuss: "The central problem concerning Carthaginian political institutions is their relation to military aspects." ("Das zentrale Problem des karthagischen Staatslebens ist sein Verhältnis zum Militärwesen.") It has traditionally been argued that Carthage was a peaceful city of merchants or

625-471: A Carthaginian trap to exterminate them without payment and save their silver, after having crippled their army of the specialized supportive arms units. The conditions for the payment were rejected, although their former commander, Gisco , had provided them with his own person and 500 other nobles as hostages to reassure them of Carthage's sincere and honest intentions. The mercenaries and supporting native insurgents began attacking Carthaginian targets and urging

750-624: A battle would have lasted months with many hundreds of thousands of casualties. Co-ordination and planning were the key elements, and the use of combined arms tactics in the Hundred Days Offensive in 1918 allowed the Allied forces to exploit breakthroughs in the enemy trenches, forcing the surrender of the Central Powers . In World War II combined arms was a fundamental part of some operational doctrines like Heinz Guderian 's Blitzkrieg , or

875-465: A body of at least 40,000 professional soldiers until sometime after the Second Punic War. Other sources can be interpreted to refer to a high degree of military professionalism in the small Punic population whose constitution Aristotle groups along with those of Sparta and Crete. So there is an ongoing debate among historians about the extent of Carthage's military spirit. It should be pointed out that

1000-563: A brutal colonial power and both theories were rather dependent on modern perceptions. Almost all approaches towards Carthage have in common the fact that they do not look at Carthaginian policy-making as such, but rather its structure in a fundamental contrast to that of Rome. However, the polis Carthage was, over the course of several centuries, the dominant power in the Western Mediterranean and could establish its symmachy over large territories, which were also deeply influenced by

1125-488: A combination of these skilled and unskilled forces to win battles. An army that has multiple skills available can engage a larger force that incorporates mainly one or two types of troops. Each type of military formation – infantry, archers, cavalry, or peasants – has certain advantages that the other does not have. Infantry allows a force to hold ground and in the event of overwhelming enemy forces withdraw into terrain that mounted troops cannot maneuver as easily, thus negating

1250-573: A combined arms approach, seldom operating without supporting infantry. The French army of the Valois kings, composed of heavily armoured gendarmes (professional versions of the medieval knight ), Swiss and Landsknecht mercenary pikemen , and heavy cannons took form during the transition from the medieval way of war to the early modern period . The late 15th century saw the development of combined pike and shot formations in Europe, starting with

1375-568: A country or region, and an important hub for regional or international connections, commerce, and communications. A big city belonging to a larger urban agglomeration , but which is not the core of that agglomeration, is not generally considered a metropolis but a part of it. The plural of the word is metropolises , although the Latin plural is metropoles , from the Greek metropoleis ( μητρoπόλεις ). For urban areas outside metropolitan areas that generate

SECTION 10

#1732852756419

1500-508: A crushing defeat on a hastily raised Carthaginian army at the Battle of Adys near Carthage. Following these events, Carthage sued for peace, but the terms demanded by Regulus were too harsh, and the war continued. The Carthaginians began to quickly expand their military capabilities on land, conscripting their own citizens and recruiting more mercenaries, including Spartan captain Xanthippus , who

1625-492: A metropolis is usually observed within its regional context, thus the focus is mainly set on the metropolitan regions. These regions can be mono central or multi central. Eleven metropolitan regions have been defined due to these indicators: Berlin-Brandenburg , Bremen-Oldenburg , Dresden-Halle-Leipzig , Frankfurt-Rhine-Main , Hamburg , Hannover-Braunschweig-Göttingen-Wolfsburg , Munich , Nuremberg , Rhine-Neckar , Rhine-Ruhr (with Cologne/Bonn ), and Stuttgart . Athens

1750-544: A million include Astana , Shymkent . Tashkent is Uzbekistan 's most populous and largest city. Tashkent is the only city with over 3 million residents.Other largest cities are Samarkand , Bukhara and Fergana . Vienna is the capital city of Austria , an old imperial city, and the seat of many international organisations, including OPEC , as well as hosting a main office of the United Nations . Together with its cultural acumen and history, these features make Vienna

1875-527: A pike-armed phalanx. The Libyans, Carthaginian citizens and the Libyo-Phoenicians provided disciplined, well trained cavalry equipped with thrusting spears and aspis shields that were later replaced by a flat oval shield called the thyreos. Numidia provided superb light cavalry, highly skilled in skirmishing tactics, armed with bundles of javelins, a small round shield and riding without bridle or saddle. Iberians and Gauls also provided cavalry that relied on

2000-554: A practice quite common among marines at that age and according to Plutarch also successfully employed by the Romans. The claim of sarissa armed Carthaginian infantry is naturally disputed by experts capable of reading the Greek original, and Polybius himself is not clear, when he mentions Hannibal next to Pyrrhus in his famed comparison between the Roman manipular system and the Macedonian system. It

2125-406: A rebellion by the unpaid mercenaries. Afterwards, Carthage continued to fill its ranks with foreign conscripts, but never depended on hired mercenaries in the same way again. In 550 BC, Mago I of Carthage became king of Carthage and sought to establish Carthage as the dominant military power in the western Mediterranean . Though still economically dependent on its mother city of Tyre , Carthage

2250-603: A similar attraction on a smaller scale for their region, the concept of the regiopolis ("regio" for short) was introduced by urban and regional planning researchers in Germany in 2006. Metropolis (μητρόπολις) is a Greek word, (plural: metropoleis ) coming from μήτηρ, mḗtēr meaning "mother" and πόλις, pólis meaning "city" or "town", which is how the Greek colonies of antiquity referred to their original cities, with whom they retained cultic and political-cultural connections. The word

2375-516: A simple form of combined arms, with a combination of dismounted knights forming a foundation for formations of English longbowmen . The lightly protected longbowmen could down their French opponents at a distance, whilst the armoured men-at-arms could deal with any Frenchmen who made it to the English lines. This is the crux of combined arms: to allow a combination of forces to achieve what would be impossible for its constituent elements to do alone. During

2500-512: A small cavalry unit. The legion was sometimes also incorporated into a higher-echelon combined arms unit – e.g., in one period it was customary for a general to command two legions plus two similarly sized units of auxiliaries, lighter units useful as screens or for combat in rough terrain. Later during the Roman Empire, auxiliary soldiers outnumbered the core legionary troops. The army of the Han dynasty

2625-482: A small shield, the same as Iberian light infantry. The Iberian infantry wore purple bordered white tunics and leather headgear. The Iberian heavy infantry fought in a dense phalanx, armed with broad headed spears called lonche that could be thrown, long body shields and short slashing swords called "falcata". Campanian, Sardinian and Gallic infantry fought in their native gear, but were often equipped by Carthage. Polybius does not suggest that Hannibal's heavy Libyan infantry

SECTION 20

#1732852756419

2750-582: A stable profession and financial security for its sailors. This helped to contribute to the city's political stability, since the unemployed, debt-ridden poor in other cities were frequently inclined to support revolutionary leaders in the hope of improving their own lot. In the Numidian War (114 BC – 104 BC) Punics and bearers of Punic names were among the Roman enemies. The former (the Romans - editor's note) bestow their whole attention upon this department (upon military service on land - editor's note): whereas

2875-578: A tank company to an infantry battalion. Combined arms operations date back to antiquity, where armies would usually field a screen of skirmishers to protect their spearmen during the approach to contact. Especially in the case of the Greek hoplites , however, the focus of military thinking lay almost exclusively on the heavy infantry. In more elaborate situations armies of various nationalities fielded different combinations of light, medium, or heavy infantry, cavalry, chariotry, camelry, elephantry, and artillery (mechanical weapons). Combined arms in this context

3000-627: A true global metropolis, the only one in Austria. The region of Brussels contains the capital city of Belgium with a population of over 1.2 million people, it is the largest urban area in the Benelux . The region is the seat of the European Union , NATO and various other international institutions such as the World Customs Organization . It is nicknamed the 'Capital of Europe'. Sarajevo

3125-432: A unified command structure . Also, most modern military units can, if the situation requires it, call on yet more branches of the military, such as infantry requesting bombing or shelling by military aircraft or naval forces to augment their ground offensive or protect their land forces. The mixing of arms is sometimes pushed down below the level at which homogeneity ordinarily prevails, such as by temporarily attaching

3250-436: Is Berlin , while Rhine-Ruhr is the largest metropolitan area (with more than 10 million people). The importance of a city is measured with three groups of indicators, also called metropolitan functions: The decision making and control function, the innovation and competition function, and the gateway function. These functions are seen as key domains for metropolitan regions in developing their performance. In spatial planning,

3375-498: Is a sovereign island country and city-state located in maritime Southeast Asia . The country has no capital city. In the Republic of Korea there are seven special and metropolitan cities at autonomous administrative levels. These are the most populous metropolitan areas in the country. In decreasing order of the population of 2015 census, they are Seoul , Busan , Incheon , Daegu , Daejeon , Gwangju and Ulsan . According to

3500-455: Is a megacity with a population of about 15 million. Kinshasa is Africa's third-largest urban area after Cairo and Lagos. It is projected to be one of the ten biggest cities in the world in 2050. Cairo and Alexandria are considered Egypt's biggest metropolises. Addis Ababa is the capital city of Ethiopia, and where the African Union is headquartered. As of 2008 the metro population

3625-465: Is also an example, fielding mêlée infantry (equipped with a variety of different weapons ranging from swords to pikes to halberd-like weapons), archers, crossbowmen, and cavalry (ranging from horse archers to heavy lancers). One recorded tactical formation during the Han dynasty included three ranks of halberds, swordsmen, and spearmen, supported by crossbows, and with cavalry on the flanks. Civilizations such as

3750-515: Is approximately 4.5 million. Accra is an economic and administrative hub, and serves as the anchor of the larger Greater Accra Metropolitan Area (GAMA). According to the 2014 census, Abidjan 's population was 4.7 million, which is 20 percent of the overall population of the country, and this also makes it the sixth most populous city proper in Africa, after Lagos, Cairo, Kinshasa, Dar es Salaam, and Johannesburg. It has officially been designated as

3875-580: Is by designation to be translated as "metropolis". However, existing translations predate the designation . Structured like a prefecture instead of a normal city, there is only one to in Japan, namely Tokyo. As of 2020 , Japan has 12 other cities with populations greater than one million. The same Kanji character in Chinese, or in generic Japanese (traditional or non-specific), translates variously—city, municipality, special municipality—all qualify. In Malaysia ,

Military of Carthage - Misplaced Pages Continue

4000-670: Is its economic hub of Johannesburg which has an estimated metro population of 5 635 127 in 2019, followed by the Cape Town metropolis ( City of Cape Town ) with an estimated metro population of 4 488 546 and the Durban metropolis ( eThekwini ) with an estimated metro population of 3 145 000. Smaller metropolises within South Africa include Pretoria ( City of Tshwane ), East Rand ( City of Ekurhuleni ), Gqeberha ( Nelson Mandela Bay ), East London ( Buffalo City ) and Bloemfontein ( Mangaung ). Kampala

4125-464: Is not clear what the Macedonian system constitutes, pike blocks or combined arms tactics, although the variant of the Hellenistic empires was heavily reliant on their exclusive ethnic group forming the pike blocks, with others serving as numerous less relevant skirmishers. At that time, most Greek states fought with thureophoroi called scutarii by the Romans and it required wealth and manpower to field

4250-694: Is one of the most important economic and cultural hubs in the Eastern Mediterranean and key trade route between Europe and the East. At the heart of the ancient city of Athens lies the world-famous Acropolis of Athens , a classical 5th C. BCE UNESCO World heritage site , built in honour of the Goddess Athena . At its heart lies the Parthenon , a masterpiece of classical architecture, built by architect Iktinoos (Ictinus) and sculptor Kallikratis (Callicrates) at

4375-469: Is supplemented by satellite photos and passive reception of enemy radio emissions, forward observers with digital target designation, specialized scouting aircraft, anti-artillery radars and gun-laying software for artillery. Based on this doctrine, many US ground vehicles moved across the landscape alone. If they encountered an enemy troop or vehicle concentration, they would assume a defensive posture, lay down as much covering fire as they could, designate

4500-463: Is the capital and largest city of Greece, with an urban population of over 4,000,000. It is also the 8th largest urban area in the European Union . Athens dominates the Attica peninsula and is one of the world's oldest cities, with a recorded history of over 3,400 years, and earliest human presence in the 11th millennium BC. Together with the port of Piraeus , one of Europe’s busiest passenger ports, Athens

4625-482: Is the capital and largest city of Uganda. Kampala's metropolitan area is estimated at 6,709,900 people in 2019 by the Uganda Bureau of Statistics in an area of 8,451.9 square kilometres (3,263.3 sq mi). Kampala is reported to be among the fastest-growing cities in Africa, with an annual population growth rate of 4.03 percent. The capital city, Kabul , has grown to become the country's sole metropolis, and

4750-535: Is the capital and the largest city of Bosnia and Herzegovina , seat of the country's Presidency , government , parliament and the only metropolis in the country. Prague is the Czech Republic 's only metropolis, with more than 1.3 million people living within the city limits and with more than 2.6 million living in its metropolitan area. This makes the Prague metropolitan area one of largest in Europe. In Denmark

4875-418: Is the contiguous urbanization region or Extended Metropolitan Manila surrounding Metro Manila. This built-up zone includes Metro Manila and the neighboring provinces of Bulacan to the north, Cavite and Laguna to the south, and Rizal to the east. Though sprawl continues to absorb new zones, some urban zones are independent clusters of settlements surrounded by non-urban areas. The Republic of Singapore

5000-497: Is the largest city in Sri Lanka . The Colombo Metropolitan Area is Sri Lanka's most urbanized region with a population of over 5 million people. Taipei City is the political, economic, and cultural centre of Taiwan . The Taipei–Keelung metropolitan area consists of 4 administrative divisions ( Taipei , Keelung , New Taipei , and sometimes including Taoyuan ) with a total of more than 9 million residents. The metropolis houses

5125-478: Is the largest metropolitan area of Pakistan with a population of about 19.31 million, followed by Lahore (15.12 million), Faisalabad (9.873 million), Islamabad-Rawalpindi (8.412 million), Gujranwala (7.01 million), Multan (4.745 million), Peshawar (4.269 million), Sargodha (3.903 million), Sialkot (3.893 million), Bahawalpur (3.668 million), Quetta (2.275 million) and Hyderabad (2.199 million). The Philippines has three metropolises as defined by

Military of Carthage - Misplaced Pages Continue

5250-513: Is the only city in Afghanistan with more than one million people. In the People's Republic of Bangladesh , there are eleven metropolitan areas: Dhaka , Chittagong , Rajshahi , Rangpur , Sylhet , Khulna , Mymensingh , Cumilla , Barisal , Gazipur and Narayanganj . Lands are highly priced and residents are considered to have a better urban lifestyle. Special police departments are allotted for

5375-418: Is usually given as a major contributing factor in the failure. It is an example of why generals needed to use combined arms to overcome the tactics used by enemy officers to frustrate an attack by a single arm of an army. In contrast the 27th (Inniskilling) suffered 478 casualties from an initial strength of 750 because of their exposure to attack by French combined arms. They were located near

5500-596: The Carthaginian cavalry was predominantly provided by their Numidian allies, a people famous for their elite light cavalry units. In the aftermath of the First Punic War, Carthage was on the brink of bankruptcy and found itself unable to pay what they owed the true mercenaries who had served them in the war. This led to the Mercenary War with Carthage’s domestic forces and some of her remaining allies, forced to put down

5625-579: The Carthaginians and Sassanids also were known to have fielded a combination of infantry supported by powerful cavalry. At the Battle of Hastings (1066) English infantry fighting from behind a shield wall were defeated by a Norman army consisting of archers, foot soldiers (infantry), and mounted knights (cavalry). One of the tactics used by the Normans was to tempt the English to leave the shield wall to attack retreating Norman infantry only to destroy them in

5750-478: The Corvus , or the crow , a spiked boarding bridge that could be impaled onto an enemy ship so that the Romans could send over marines to capture or sink the Carthaginian vessels. The sailors and marines of the fleets were recruited from the lower classes of Carthage itself, meaning that the navy was manned in the majority by actual Carthaginian citizens , in contrast to the largely mercenary army. The navy offered

5875-465: The First Punic War against Rome, payment of the mercenaries was delayed for over a year. When finally arrangements for payment were made, the mistrust between the mercenaries and their employer helped to kindle the war. The native North African Libyans, the largest contingent of the 'mercenaries', objected to being paid last while their comrades had been shipped home. Fear had spread that this might be

6000-683: The Greeks over control of the island of Sicily . These encounters influenced the development of the Carthaginians' weapons and tactics, causing Carthage to adopt the Greek-style hoplite soldier fighting in the phalanx formation. Though they ultimately prevailed over the Greeks in Sicily, shortly thereafter the Carthaginian war machine was confronted with the single greatest military challenge it would ever face from

6125-595: The Napoleonic Wars . After 25 years of near continuous warfare, the armies that met at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 were organized in a similar manner – into corps which contained infantry, cavalry and artillery (see Order of battle of the Waterloo Campaign ), and used similar combined arms tactics. Within each corps were divisions of infantry or cavalry made up of brigades and an artillery unit. An army would usually also have reserves of all three arms under

6250-613: The National Economic and Development Authority . They are Manila , Cebu , and Davao . Metropolitan Manila , or Metro Manila, is the metropolitan region encompassing the city of Manila and its surrounding areas in the Philippines . It is composed of 16 cities and 1 municipality namely the city of Manila , Caloocan , Las Piñas , Makati , Malabon , Mandaluyong , Marikina , Muntinlupa , Navotas , Pasay , Pasig , Parañaque , Quezon City , San Juan , Taguig , Valenzuela and

6375-410: The caetra being a round buckler. They also wielded all iron soliferra javelins and falcata swords. Gallic and Ligurian footmen were armed with similar tall shields, chain mail, and bronze helmets, but carried heavier spears and longer, straighter swords. The Sacred Band was an elite unit of the Carthaginian army. Since its formation in the 4th century BC, the unit consisted exclusively of the sons of

SECTION 50

#1732852756419

6500-594: The colonial past of Ancient Greece with first usage in Middle English around the 14th century. This was later generalized to a city regarded as a center of a specified activity, or any large, important city in a nation. Luanda is the capital and largest city in Angola. It is Angola's primary port, and its major industrial, cultural and urban centre. Its metropolitan area is the most populous Portuguese-speaking city in Africa, with over 8.3 million inhabitants. Kinshasa

6625-722: The colunelas of the Spanish general Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba , evolving into the tercios of Hapsburg Spain and the Imperial Army of the Holy Roman Empire during the 16th century . In Japan, at the battle of Nagashino (長篠の戦い) in 1575, forces of the Oda clan successfully employed combined arms against the Takeda clan , which heavily relied on cavalry. The Oda army erected palisades to protect their ashigaru musketeers that shot down

6750-512: The military of the expanding Roman Republic . Carthage and Rome fought several major protracted conflicts known as the Punic Wars , the last of which resulted in the complete and total destruction of the city of Carthage in 146 BC, by which time the Carthaginian military was only a shadow of its former self. Carthage came close to victory on several occasions during the earlier Punic Wars, however, with its military achieving notable success under

6875-590: The second most populous country with over 1.4 billion people and is also known for its large number of metropolises, with recognised " tiers " that classify mainland metropolises. Nationally, the largest metropolises include Beijing , Shanghai , Guangzhou and Shenzhen , the four cities are classified as the "First-Tier Cities" (一线城市). Second-tier cities are numerous and consist of regional centres, such as Changsha , Chengdu , Chongqing , Hangzhou , Jinan , Nanjing , Qingdao , Shenyang , Tianjin , Wuhan , and Xi'an , etc. Many of China's metropolises constitute

7000-456: The "economic capital" of the country. In 2020 the Urban area population was over 5 million inhabitants. Nairobi is the capital and the largest city of Kenya. The city proper had a population of 4,397,073 in the 2019 census, while the metropolitan area has a population of 9,354,580. Lagos is projected to be one of the ten biggest cities in the world in 2050. As of 2015, unofficial figures put

7125-456: The Carthaginian navy at the Battle of Cape Ecnomus , enabling him to land a Roman army in Africa. Prior to this point in the war, most ground fighting had been on Sicily, now the Roman armies threatened Carthage itself. After landing, Regulus' army immediately began scorched earth campaign, pillaging the Punic countryside and following a brief siege, sacking the city of Aspis . Regulus then inflicted

7250-408: The Carthaginians wholly neglect their infantry, though they do take some slight interest in the cavalry. The reason of this is that they employ foreign mercenaries, the Romans native and citizen levies. It is in this point that the latter polity is preferable to the former. They have their hopes of freedom ever resting on the courage of mercenary troops: the Romans on the valour of their own citizens and

7375-594: The Governor by public notification to be a Metropolitan area. As of 2011 Census of India , India has 46 other cities with populations greater than one million. Delhi , Mumbai , Kolkata , Chennai , Bangalore , Hyderabad , Pune , Ahmedabad , Kochi , are among the largest of 23 metropolitan cities in India . In Indonesia, the metropolitan cities are in Jabodetabek ( Jakarta , Bekasi , Bogor , Depok , and Tangerang ),

7500-728: The Libyan natives to rise. According to our sources, the war was conducted in a particularly brutal fashion and ended, after three years, with the total destruction of the mercenary and insurgent forces. It would be difficult to say precisely what a typical make-up of a Carthaginian army would be, but in the Punic wars , they are reported to have included Greeks, Iberians, Balearics, Gauls, Ligures , Italians (e.g. Samnites , Lucanians ), Sicilians, Numidians , Libyans , Lybo-Phoenicians (also called Africans), and Punics from Carthage and its allied or external settlements. Sources often broadly label recruits from

7625-611: The Libyans and Numidians in Africa. As a result, Hamilcar was given a fairly small army and the Carthaginian fleet was gradually withdrawn so that, by 242 BC, Carthage had no ships to speak of in Sicily. Though native Carthaginian hoplite infantry could be fielded and was, it had been largely replaced by allied and mercenary infantry by the time of the First Punic War. Carthaginian infantry was made up of Libyans armed with one or two short spears that could be thrown, linothorax armor, bronze helmets, Iberian-style swords, and an aspis shield that

SECTION 60

#1732852756419

7750-647: The Mediterranean, attracting mercenaries and fugitive slaves. Gauls , Ligurians , Numidians , Libyans , Greeks , and especially Iberians . were extensively recruited by Carthage. Troops were recruited both by simple monetary contracts and through partnerships established through treaties with other states and tribes. In 256 BC, during the First Punic War with the Roman Republic , the Roman Consul Marcus Atilius Regulus decisively defeated

7875-540: The Middle Ages military forces used combined arms as a method of winning battles and furthering a war leader or king's long-term goals. Some historians claim that during the Middle Ages there was no strategic or tactical art to military combat. Kelly DeVries uses the Merriam-Webster definition of combat "as a general military engagement". In the pursuit of a leader's goals and self-interest tactical and strategic thinking

8000-675: The Punic culture. It played a very important role in the urbanization of Northern Africa, where the Punic language was to persist until the 5th century AD. The idea that mercantile business and warlike spirit are contradictory dates to the Age of Enlightenment and is generally not shared by ancient sources, such as Virgil, who writes in Aeneid 1,444f. on Carthage: for this reason shall the people be glorious in war and acquire food easily for centuries ( sic nam fore bello / egregiam et facilem victu per saecula gentem ). Livy already points out that Carthage did house

8125-680: The Punic defeats during the Sicilian Wars of the 5th and 4th centuries BC, in which large numbers of Carthaginian citizens had been killed, the Carthaginian Senate set about enlisting mercenary forces in order to replenish the ranks of the Carthaginian army, an extraordinary technique that Carthage had employed since the late 6th century BC. Beginning with the reign of King Hanno the Navigator in 480 BC, Carthage regularly began employing Iberian infantry and Balearic slingers to support Carthaginian spearmen in Sicily. Punic recruiters toured all corners of

8250-547: The Roman Republic and the Carthaginian oligarchy was that their chief executives did not by virtue of office hold any direct authority over the military. Carthage's nobles could afford, and were legally allowed, to sustain their own armies. This practice was established by Hamilcar Barca following the Mercenary War. The change in practice ensured that specific wealthy Carthaginians were now responsible for paying mercenaries, not

8375-439: The Roman threat in Africa for the time being. In 247 BC, after eighteen years of fighting in the First Punic War , the Carthaginian Senate appointed Hamilcar Barca to assume command of Carthage's land and naval forces in the struggle against the Roman Republic . Though Carthage dominated the sea following its victory in the Battle of Drepanum in 249 BC, Rome controlled most of Sicily. Until this point, Carthage had been led by

8500-604: The Soviet deep battle doctrine, which was based on combining tanks, mobile units (mechanised infantry or cavalry) and infantry, while supported by artillery. In 1963 the United States Marine Corps formalized the concept of the Marine Air-Ground Task Force , which combined Marine aviation and Marine ground units for expeditionary missions. The Vietnam War had a profound influence on the development of

8625-463: The Takeda cavalry while their samurai cut down any enemies who managed to approach melee range. The 17th century saw increasing use of combined arms at lower (regimental) level. King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden was the proponent of the idea. For fire support he attached teams of "commanded musketeers" to cavalry units and fielded light 3-pounder guns to provide infantry units with organic artillery. In

8750-399: The US Army in Vietnam also learned to combine helicopter operations and airmobile infantry with the armoured and artillery units operating from fire support bases as well as the US brown-water navy and USAF close air support units supporting them. AirLand Battle was the overall conceptual framework that formed the basis of the US Army's European warfighting doctrine from 1982 into

8875-476: The US Army's combined arms doctrine. Due to the very difficult terrain that prevented access to the enemy-held areas of operation , troops were often deployed by air assault . For this reason, US troops in Vietnam saw six times more combat than in preceding wars, due to less time spent on logistic delays. The result: an infantry unit increased in effectiveness by a factor of four for its size, when supported with helicopter-delivered ammunition, food and fuel. In time

9000-467: The Western Front, fighting descended into stagnant trench warfare . Generals on both sides applied conventional military thinking to the new weapons and situations that they faced. In these early stages, tactics typically consisted of heavy artillery barrages followed by massed frontal assaults against well entrenched enemies. These tactics were largely unsuccessful and resulted in large loss of life. As

9125-429: The advantage of the horse. Archers provide standoff with their bows or crossbows. Cavalry can maneuver faster and provide fast attack before the enemy has had time to prepare defenses. Peasants are more numerous and cheaper on the royal coffers. Over the long term the army can cross-train and learn the skills of the specialties to increase combat effectiveness . This is known as a combat multiplier today. The combination of

9250-462: The aid of their allies. Combined arms Combined arms is an approach to warfare that seeks to integrate different combat arms of a military to achieve mutually complementary effects—for example, using infantry and armour in an urban environment in which each supports the other. According to the strategist William S. Lind , combined arms can be distinguished from the concept of "supporting arms" as follows: Combined arms hits

9375-586: The all out charge. The Libyans provided the bulk of the heavy, four horse war chariots for Carthage, used before the Second Punic War. Allied cities of the Punic hegemony also contributed contingents for the army. The Carthaginian officer corps held overall command of the army, although many units may have fought under their chieftains. Carthaginian forces also employed war-elephants, both within Africa and during overseas operations, including campaigns in Iberia and most famously Hannibal's invasion of Italy. These beasts were

9500-566: The army. Polybius noted for the mercenary war that the mercenaries were told to ask their commanding officers for payment, which frustrated them to such an extent that they elected new ones. In the army, payment was done per unit with subordinates responsible for the further distribution. The Libyans supplied both heavy and light infantry and formed the most disciplined units of the army. The heavy infantry fought in close formation, armed with long spears and round shields, wearing helmets and linen cuirasses. The light Libyan infantry carried javelins and

9625-547: The biggest metropolitan area in Southeast Asia and the fifth biggest metropolitan area in the world (2007). The other metropolises are Bandung , Batam , Medan , Semarang , and Surabaya . In Iran, the metropolitan cities are in Greater Tehran and Greater Isfahan Metropolitan Area , and other cities such as Mashhad , Karaj , Shiraz , Tabriz , Qom , Ahvaz , Kermanshah and Rasht . The Japanese legal term to (都)

9750-532: The bulk of Carthage's infantry units were generally made up of mercenaries, auxiliaries from allied communities (who might be Punic colonists), and conscripts from subject territories. With their elite status, members of the Sacred Band received the best equipment in the Carthaginian army. Their weapons and training were similar to those of the Greek hoplites : heavy spear, sword, aspis shield, and bronze greaves , helmet, and breastplate. The hoplites also fought in

9875-443: The capacity of the barracks located in the three rings of walls that protected the city, offering accommodation to 24,000 infantry, 4,000 cavalry, and 300 elephants. In addition to their own conscripted forces, large contingents of mercenaries and auxiliaries would be employed. Appian mentions that in total 40,000 infantry, 1,000 cavalry, and 2,000 heavy chariots were recruited to oppose the invasion of Agathocles of Syracuse . After

10000-601: The capital Kuala Lumpur is the largest city, with a population of 7.8 million. The other metropolises in Malaysia are Johor Bahru , Seremban , Malacca City , Shah Alam , Kuantan , Kuala Terengganu , Kota Bahru , Ipoh , Georgetown , Alor Setar , Kangar , Kota Kinabalu and Kuching . According to the census of 2017, there are about 12 metropolitan areas in Pakistan each with a metro population of at least 2 million and city proper population of at least 0.5 million. Karachi

10125-590: The census of 2015, cities of Changwon and Suwon also qualify for being elevated to the level of metropolitan cities (having population over 1 million), but any future plans to promote them into metropolitan city are unlikely to be accepted because of political concerns about the structure of administrative divisions . There are also some county-level cities with increasing population near 1 million, namely Goyang , Yongin , and Seongnam , but they are also unlikely to be promoted into metropolitan city because they are all satellite cities of Seoul . The City of Colombo

10250-541: The centre of Wellington's line, but unlike most of the rest of Wellington's infantry were in a declivity on the exposed side of the Mont-Saint-Jean escarpment . Exposed as they were, they were forced to stand in square for most of the day for fear of cavalry attack and so made an easy dense target for Napoleon's massed artillery. The development of modern combined arms tactics began in the First World War . Early in

10375-429: The city of Carthage itself was threatened would citizens be conscripted into infantry service. Ancient authors, such as Polybius and Livy, tend to stress Carthage's reliance on mercenary units. Notably, Polybius also states that the Carthaginians "wholly neglect their infantry" because of their reliance on mercenary units. The term "mercenary", however, is misleading when applied to the entire Carthaginian army. As often

10500-477: The command of Hamilcar Barca and his son Hannibal in the First and Second Punic Wars respectively. Hannibal Barca specifically, is widely regarded as one of the greatest military geniuses of all time. The most distinct feature of the Carthaginian army was its composition. Contrary to most other states in the Mediterranean at the time, the army was composed almost exclusively of foreign mercenary units while its navy

10625-537: The country. A 2014 law allowed any group of communes to cooperate in a larger administrative division called a métropole . One métropole, Lyon , also has status as a department . France's national statistics institute, Insee , designates 12 of the country's urban areas as metropolitan areas . Paris , Lyon and Marseille are the biggest, the other nine being Toulouse , Lille , Bordeaux , Nice , Nantes , Strasbourg , Rennes , Grenoble and Montpellier . The largest German city by administrative borders

10750-403: The different skills help provide a commander the flexibility to minimize risk when it comes to engagements. The overall objective of any military force is to fight and win, while also preserving the largest number of combatants to carry on the larger strategic aims of the king. This can be seen in some of the engagements during the Middle Ages. Generally the savanna cavalries of West Africa used

10875-402: The direct command of the army commander which could be sent in support of any corps or division of a corps to increase any arm which the army general considered necessary. The great French cavalry charge commanded by Marshal Ney during the battle failed to break Wellington's squares of infantry and Ney's failure to supplement his cavalry with sufficient horse artillery to break the squares open

11000-418: The eighteenth century, the concept of the legion was revived. Legions now consisted of musketeers , light infantry , dragoons and artillery in a brigade sized force. These legions often combined professional military personnel with militia . Perhaps the most notable example is the use of light cavalry , light infantry and light horse artillery in advance detachments by France's La Grande Armée during

11125-411: The elephants behind the central phalanx. Xanthippus also realized the mistakes that the Carthaginians were making by avoiding open ground battles against the Romans, instead seeking only uneven terrain. This was done out of fear of the Romans' superior infantry. Such a strategy, however, restricted Carthage's strongest elements: its cavalry and elephants. Uneven terrain also disrupts the phalanx in favor of

11250-559: The elite troops of their time. These consisted of infantry troops and cavalry units. The latter were formed by young nobles of the city devoting their life to military training. Ancient authors, such as Polybius , tend to stress Carthage's reliance on foreign mercenaries . However, the term 'mercenary' is misleading when applied to the North African and Iberian recruits, i.e. from areas controlled by Carthage. They were comparable to Roman Auxilia though Carthage did also employ mercenaries in

11375-563: The enemy line that could be exploited by Carthaginian cavalry and infantry. Modern scholars have disputed whether or not Carthaginian elephants were furnished with turrets in combat; despite frequent assertions to the contrary, the evidence indicates that African forest elephants could and did carry turrets in certain military contexts. Polybius wrote in the sixth book of his History that the Carthaginians were, "more exercised in maritime affairs than any other people". The Romans, unable to defeat them through conventional maritime tactics, developed

11500-402: The enemy with two or more arms simultaneously in such a manner that the actions he must take to defend himself from one make him more vulnerable to another. In contrast, supporting arms is hitting the enemy with two or more arms in sequence, or if simultaneously, then in such combination that the actions the enemy must take to defend himself from one also defends himself from the other(s). Though

11625-705: The ground assault phase, tanks and other armoured fighting vehicles supported by attack aircraft swept over remaining forces. The front line moved forward at upwards of 40–50 km/h at the upper limit of the Army's tracked vehicles. In 2000, the US Army began developing a new set of doctrines intended to use information superiority to wage warfare. Six pieces of equipment were crucial for this: AWACS (for Airborne early warning and control ), JSTARS (for Airborne ground surveillance ), GPS , VHF SINCGARS (for ground and airborne communications), and ruggedized computers . The mix

11750-423: The heavy cavalry could smash and break the enemy line by achieving local superiority. The early Republic Roman Legion was a combined arms force and consisted of five classes of troops. Lightly equipped velites acted as skirmishers armed with light javelins. The hastati and principes formed the main attacking strength of the legion with swords and pila , whilst the triarii formed the defensive backbone of

11875-408: The landed aristocracy and they preferred to expand into Africa instead of pursuing an aggressive policy against Rome in Sicily. Hanno "The Great" had been in charge of operations in Africa since 248 BC and had conquered considerable territory by 241 BC. Carthage at this time was feeling the strain of the prolonged conflict. In addition to maintaining a fleet and soldiers in Sicily, it was also fighting

12000-585: The largest international airport in Taiwan and the 36th busiest airport in the world – Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport , which has an annual passenger traffic of nearly 50 million. There are 8 metropolises in the UAE: Dubai , Abu Dhabi , Sharjah , Al Ain , Ajman , Ras Al-Khaimah , Fujairah , and Umm Al-Quwain . Of these, Dubai is the largest. Almaty is Kazakhstan’s largest metropolitan area with over 2 million inhabitants. Other cities with population over

12125-431: The late 1990s. AirLand Battle emphasized close coordination between land forces acting as an aggressively maneuvering defense, and air forces attacking rear-echelon forces feeding those front line enemy forces. In the 1991 Gulf War , General Schwarzkopf used a mix of strikes by fixed-wing aircraft including carpet bombing and precision bombing in combination with large numbers of strikes by attack helicopters . During

12250-458: The latter three groups as "Africans." Very few Punic records survived the Roman Era and scholars have limited knowledge of the Punic language. As a result, it is unclear exactly what specific title the Carthaginians bestowed on their military commanders as the few accurate Roman and Greek sources we do have often confuse Carthaginian offices. Greek sources referred to the commander of Punic forces as

12375-463: The legion fighting as spearmen (initially as a denser Greek phalanx and later as a looser spear wall formation) with long spears and large shields. The fifth class of troops were the equites (the cavalry), which were used for scouting, pursuit and to guard the flanks. The Legion then became notionally a unit of heavy infantrymen armed with just sword and pilum, and fielded with a small attached auxiliary skirmishers and missile troops, and incorporated

12500-494: The lower- echelon units of a combined arms team may be of similar types, a balanced mixture of such units are combined into an effective higher-echelon unit, whether formally in a table of organization or informally in an ad hoc solution to a battlefield problem. For example, an armoured division , the modern paragon of combined arms doctrine, consists of a mixture of infantry, tank , artillery , reconnaissance , and helicopter units, all of which are co-ordinated and directed by

12625-401: The metropolitan cities, and there are city corporations for which mayors are elected for five-year regimes. Most of these cities have population density of 35,000/square mile or more. Dhaka is the wealthiest city out of all and is considered a megacity because its population surpassed 10 million. China (People's Republic of China) is the fourth-largest country by geographical area and

12750-406: The more flexible legion . By seeking battles on open plains, Xanthippus was able to make the fullest use of Carthage's strengths, where Roman formations broke under attack from the elephant and cavalry charges. Under the leadership of Xanthippus, the reformed Carthaginian army completely destroyed the Roman army at the Battle of Bagradas River in 255 BC, capturing Regulus in the process and ending

12875-558: The municipality of Pateros . The region is the political, economic, social, cultural, and educational center of the Philippines. As proclaimed by Presidential Decree No. 940, Metro Manila as a whole is the Philippines' seat of government but the city of Manila is the capital. The largest city in the metropolis is Quezon City, while the largest business district is the Makati Central Business District. Greater Manila Area

13000-429: The noble Carthaginian citizens. The unit usually did not fight outside of Africa . As a unit of heavy spearmen, the unit was placed in the center of the army formation immediately behind the row of elephants and protected by auxiliary wings of mercenaries and cavalry. The presence of Carthaginian citizens fighting as infantry in the army is unusual as Carthaginian citizens usually served only as officers or cavalry, while

13125-587: The now-extinct North African elephant ( Loxodonta [ africana ] pharaoensis ), probably a subspecies of the African forest elephant ( Loxodonta cyclotis ), which is smaller than the African bush elephant ( Loxodonta africana ) and the Indian elephants ( elephas maximus ) used by the Seleucids. In battle, the elephants functioned as a psychological weapon, frightening the opposing men and horses into flight or creating gaps in

13250-476: The only metropolis is the capital, Copenhagen , situated in the Capital Region of Denmark . It has more than 750,000 people living in city proper and 1.28 million in its urban area. Finland's capital, Helsinki , along with the neighboring areas (including Espoo , Kauniainen and Vantaa ) forms a metropolitan area with an approximate population of 1.45 million people. This area is the only metropolis in

13375-524: The open with cavalry. Likewise Scottish sheltrons – which had been developed to counter the charges by English heavy cavalry, and had been used successfully against English cavalry at the Battle of Stirling Bridge (1297) – were destroyed at the Battle of Falkirk (1298) by English archers acting in concert with mounted knights. Both Hastings and Falkirk showed how combined arms could be used to defeat enemies relying on only one arm. The English victories of Crécy , Poitiers and Agincourt were examples of

13500-467: The people with little money, while owners of producing facilities are mentioned among those with more money. [1] Similar doubts were raised earlier because our only source on a Punic trader is the play Poenulus and the Carthaginian presented there is a rather humble merchant. An important part of the Punic culture seems to have consisted in their devotion to the gods, and their well-known units, called Sacred Bands by our Greek sources, are regarded as

13625-479: The population of "Greater Metropolitan Lagos", which includes Lagos and its surrounding metro area, extending as far as into Ogun State , at approximately 21 million. With a population increase of 5.6 percent per year from 2002 to 2012, Dar es Salaam is the third-fastest-growing city in Africa, after Bamako and Lagos , and the ninth-fastest-growing in the world. The metro population is expected to reach 15.12 million by 2020. The largest city in South Africa

13750-588: The request of Pericles , at the height of the City’s power. Coined the Golden age of Athens, the Acropolis symbolises the culmination of Greek civilisation, that lay the foundations of empirical thinking in the arts, philosophy , theatre , music, mathematics , sciences and astronomy, and became the reference point of modern western civilisation. Today Athens receives more than 6.4 million visitors every year. Budapest has

13875-482: The sources on the Punic forces are rare and not easily accessible because they are almost exclusively written by their opponents in war. An inscription discovered in Carthage seems to confirm the doubts raised by the lack of sources concerning members of the nobility in the trading business. The translation (which is, like all translations from the Punic, disputed in details) only mentions in the existing parts merchants among

14000-417: The state. Furthermore, we tend to find evidence that many individuals from the leading families of Carthage served in the military forces. Notably the hired units were deployed with their own command structure. As Carthage sent out specific recruiters who bargained contracts with each soldier/corps of soldiers, it is possible that these also served as officers responsible for the integration of their units into

14125-465: The targets for requested air and artillery assets. Within a few minutes, on station aircraft would direct their missions to cover the ground vehicle. Within a half-hour heavy attack forces would concentrate to relieve the isolated vehicle. In an hour and a half the relieved vehicle would be resupplied. In 2020, the Israel Defense Forces established a dedicated combined arms battalion to test

14250-522: The true sense as well. Units were generally segregated by ethnicity, which was also a criterion for the respective specialisation. While within a unit communication in the native tongue was possible, between units Greek and Punic helped to establish communication. According to Polybius, this enabled the insurgents during the Mercenary War , which is also the only recorded large mutiny of Carthage's troops, to communicate with each other on higher levels. The reported causes for this conflict were that following

14375-450: The viability of full integration of infantry, armor, and aircraft into a single battalion command structure. The unit fields Merkava Mk.4 main battle tanks, F-16D multirole fighters, Heron and Hermes 450 drones, and AH-64 Apache helicopters. Metropolis A metropolis ( / m ɪ ˈ t r ɒ p əl ɪ s / ) is a large city or conurbation which is a significant economic, political, and cultural area for

14500-518: The war progressed new combined arms tactics were developed, often described then as the "all arms battle". These included direct close artillery fire support for attacking soldiers (the creeping barrage ), air support and mutual support of tanks and infantry. One of the first instances of combined arms was the Battle of Cambrai , in which the British used tanks, artillery, infantry, small arms and air power to break through enemy lines. Previously such

14625-415: The wealthiest polity in the region, Carthage could and regularly did employ large numbers of mercenaries in the true sense of the term. However, many of their African and Iberian recruits were not true mercenaries as these peoples often came from states or territories subject to or allied with Carthage, who were bound by treaty to supply Carthage's army with soldiers furnished from their own ranks. For example,

14750-487: Was charged with retraining and restructuring the Carthaginian army. Xanthippus adopted the combined arms model of the Macedonian army , developed during the time of Phillip II . Xanthippus split his cavalry between his two wings, with mercenary infantry screening the cavalry, and a hastily raised citizen phalanx in the center screened by a line of elephants in front of the spearmen. Previously, Carthaginian generals had placed

14875-448: Was equipped with the sarissa (pike), but a number of translations turned the Greek longche for javelin into pike by the wrong assertion that it means lance ( lancea was originally a throwing weapon). There is a mention of a 5,000 men contingent on Zama fighting in Macedonian fashion, sent by the Macedonian king. It is not clear what that exactly means. It could be a Macedonian-style phalanx or some troops using long two handed naval lances,

15000-478: Was growing in stature. Under Mago, Carthage allied with the Etruscans of northern Italy against the Greek city-states in southern Italy, an alliance that would last until Rome expelled its Etruscan kings. Mago also set about a series of military reforms designed to strengthen Carthaginian power. During the 4th century BC, the maximum number of standing troops Carthage expected at its service can be estimated from

15125-423: Was how to best use the cooperating units, variously armed with side-arms, spears, or missile weapons in order to coordinate an attack to disrupt and then destroy the enemy. Philip II of Macedon greatly improved upon the limited combined arms tactics of the Greek city-states and combined the newly created Macedonian phalanx with heavy cavalry and other forces. The phalanx would hold the opposing line in place, until

15250-474: Was later replaced by a flat, oval shield gripped in the center. It was called a scutum in the western Mediterranean and a thureos in the east. The shield change probably came as a result of prolonged experience with the more flexible Gallic, Ligurian, Italian, and Iberian mercenaries who had been using such shields for centuries prior. Iberian warriors serving Carthage were split into scutari heavy infantry and caetrati light infantry, named so after their shields,

15375-450: Was manned by citizens. Carthage lacked a history of citizen infantry forces, requiring its army to be composed mainly of foreign troops, particularly Libyans , Numidians , Iberians , Gauls , and Greeks . Its Phoenician origins, however, granted Carthage a long history as a seafaring people. Additionally, while the navy was a permanently manned force, the army would be enlisted only for a particular campaign and then demobilized. Only when

15500-409: Was used along with taking advantage of the terrain and weather in choosing when and where to give battle. The simplest example is the combination of different specialties such as archers, infantry, cavalry (knights or shock mounted troops), and even peasant militia. At times, each force fought on its own and won or lost depending on the opposing military competence. During the Middle Ages leaders utilized

15625-435: Was used in post-classical Latin for the chief city of a province, the seat of the government and, in particular, ecclesiastically for the seat or see of a metropolitan bishop to whom suffragan bishops were responsible. This usage equates the province with the diocese or episcopal see . In a colonial context, it is the "mother city" of a colony , that is, the city which sent out settlers. The word has distant roots in

#418581