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130-540: The International Certificate of Vaccination or Prophylaxis ( ICVP ), also known as the Carte Jaune or Yellow Card , is an official vaccination report created by the World Health Organization (WHO). As a travel document , it is a kind of medical passport that is recognised internationally and may be required for entry to certain countries where there are increased health risks for travellers. The ICVP
260-420: A James Bond film. Another variation on the helicopter was the gyrodyne , which added a conventional propeller for forward thrust and only powered the main rotor for vertical flight. None entered production. The convertiplane has a conventional wing for lift in forward flight and a rotary wing which acts as a lifting rotor for vertical flight and then tilts forward to act as a propeller in forward flight. In
390-557: A milkmaid named Sarah Nelmes with which he infected an eight-year-old boy named James Phipps , and two months later he inoculated the boy with smallpox, and smallpox did not develop. In 1798, Jenner published An Inquiry Into the Causes and Effects of the Variolæ Vaccinæ which created widespread interest. He distinguished 'true' and 'spurious' cowpox (which did not give the desired effect) and developed an "arm-to-arm" method of propagating
520-399: A placebo . Some concerns from families might have arisen from social beliefs and norms that cause them to mistrust or refuse vaccinations , contributing to this discrepancy in side effects that were unfounded. Post-war aviation The period between 1945 and 1979 is sometimes called the post-war era or the period of the post-war political consensus . During this period, aviation
650-494: A "Call for Participation on Vaccine Passports International Standardization". With COVID-19 vaccines showing promising results, several industry organizations including global airline lobby IATA and the World Economic Forum have announced pilots. IATA's solution, "Travel Pass", is a mobile app that can display test results, proof of inoculation and will be integrated with the existing TIMATIC system. Israel employed
780-566: A 90% decrease in exposure rates. Vaccination adoption is reduced among some populations, such as those with low incomes, people with limited access to health care, and members of certain racial and ethnic minorities. Distrust of health-care providers, language barriers, and misleading or false information also contribute to lower adoption, as does anti-vaccine activism . Most government and private health insurance plans cover recommended vaccines at no charge when received by providers in their networks. The federal Vaccines for Children Program and
910-536: A condition of admission of any person to a territory. The World Health Assembly determined in 1973 that vaccination against cholera was unable to prevent the introduction of cholera from one country to another, and removed this requirement from the 1973 revision of the IHR; it was also removed from the ICV. The ICV was most successful in the case of smallpox. The mandatory possession of vaccination certificates significantly increased
1040-684: A digital "green pass" to allow individuals fully vaccinated against COVID-19 to dine out, attend concerts, and travel to other nations. It has been the subject of several privacy and data security concerns. Shortly after the scheme was rolled out, the Knesset passed a law allowing local authorities to compile data on citizens who have refused to get vaccinated. Work has been started to established and standardize at Ecma International, allow for an open interoperability ecosystem so that multiple COVID-19 immunity verification systems can work together and effectively across borders. Vaccination Vaccination
1170-672: A disease if there is no animal reserve. Other vaccines, including those for COVID-19 , help to (temporarily) lower the chance of severe disease for individuals, without necessarily reducing the probability of becoming infected. Just like any medication or procedure, no vaccine can be 100% safe or effective for everyone because each person's body can react differently. While minor side effects , such as soreness or low grade fever, are relatively common, serious side effects are very rare and occur in about 1 out of every 100,000 vaccinations and typically involve allergic reactions that can cause hives or difficulty breathing. However, vaccines are
1300-452: A disease in spite of being vaccinated against it. Primary vaccine failure occurs when an organism's immune system does not produce antibodies when first vaccinated. Vaccines can fail when several series are given and fail to produce an immune response. The term "vaccine failure" does not necessarily imply that the vaccine is defective. Most vaccine failures are simply due to individual variations in immune response. The term " inoculation "
1430-527: A higher level of adverse events than alternative vaccines resulting in legal action. In a response to the narcolepsy reports following immunization with Pandemrix, the CDC carried out a population-based study and found the FDA-approved 2009 H1N1 flu shots were not associated with an increased risk for the neurological disorder. The ingredients of vaccines can vary greatly from one to the next and no two vaccines are
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#17328524765711560-578: A larger amount of air to a lower velocity. The overall gain in efficiency increases the range and lowers the cost of operation for a given aircraft. Development had begun in both Britain and Germany during the war but the first production version, the Rolls-Royce Conway did not come into use until around 1960. Attempts were made to develop a supersonic airliner, with the Anglo-French Concorde and Soviet Tupolev Tu-144 entering service during
1690-635: A larger size to give better lifting power at the expense of forward speed. No convertiplane entered production during the post-war years, however the Bell Boeing V-22 Osprey tiltrotor would eventually fly in 1989, finally entering service 18 years after that. Tail-sitters were otherwise conventional aeroplanes which sat pointing vertically up while on the ground and, after takeoff, tilted the whole aircraft horizontal to fly forwards. Early designs used propellers for thrust, while later ones used jet thrust. Problems with pilot attitude and visibility made
1820-474: A list of vaccines and their possible side effects. The risk of side effects varies between vaccines. In 1976 in the United States, a mass swine flu vaccination programme was discontinued after 362 cases of Guillain–Barré syndrome among 45 million vaccinated people. William Foege of the CDC estimated that the incidence of Guillain-Barré was four times higher in vaccinated people than in those not receiving
1950-623: A longer period. The first supersonic jet to enter service was the North American F-100 Super Sabre , in 1954. The delta wing was found to offer several advantages for supersonic flight and became commonplace, with or without a tail, alongside the more conventional swept wing. It offered a high fineness ratio with good structural strength for low weight, and the Dassault Mirage III and Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 series of delta-winged fighters were used in large numbers. By
2080-476: A loud shock wave or "sonic boom," which can disturb or damage anything it passes over, while the high drag results in high fuel consumption and consequent pollution. These issues became highlighted with the introduction of the Concorde supersonic transport. The propeller powered by a piston engine, in radial or inline form, still dominated aviation at the close of World War Two, and its simplicity and low cost mean it
2210-659: A method of "nasal insufflation " administered by blowing powdered smallpox material, usually scabs, up the nostrils. Various insufflation techniques have been recorded throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries within China. Two reports on the Chinese practice of inoculation were received by the Royal Society in London in 1700; one by Martin Lister who received a report by an employee of
2340-455: A number of conditions that had to be fulfilled in order for it to be considered valid, such as being printed and filled out in English and French (a third language, relevant to the territory in which it is issued, could be added). The 1969 IHR focused on four diseases: cholera, plague , smallpox, and yellow fever; however, Article 51 specified that vaccination against plague would not be required as
2470-426: A patient has contracted a disease to help increase future protection. However, some vaccines are administered after the patient already has contracted a disease. Vaccines given after exposure to smallpox are reported to offer some protection from disease or may reduce the severity of disease. The first rabies immunization was given by Louis Pasteur to a child after he was bitten by a rabid dog. Since its discovery,
2600-469: A pitching-down tendency known as Mach tuck . Supersonic aircraft had to be made capable of adjusting sufficiently, in order to maintain adequate control at all stages of flight. Above speeds of around Mach 2.2 the airframe starts to heat up with the friction of the air, causing both thermal expansion and loss of strength in the cheap, easily workable light alloys used for lower speeds. Also, jet engines begin to reach their limits. The Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird
2730-404: A popular choice, with or without a tailplane. But the plain delta wing proved less manoeuvrable in combat than a more conventional tapered wing, and as time progressed became more heavily modified, with tailed, cropped, double-delta, canard and other forms appearing. As speed increases and becomes fully supersonic, the wing centre of lift moves backwards, causing a change in longitudinal trim and
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#17328524765712860-519: A rudimentary form of VTOL, taking off vertically under rocket power and the pilot later landing vertically by parachute while the craft fell to bits and crashed, but this was not a practical post-war solution. Many approaches were experimented with in the post-war period, in the attempt to combine the high speed of the conventional aeroplane with the VTOL convenience of the helicopter. Only three would eventually enter production and of these only two did so during
2990-483: A severe outbreak of smallpox in 1851 and 1852. It provided that the poor law authorities would continue to dispense vaccination to all free of charge, but that records were to be kept on vaccinated children by the network of births registrars. It was accepted at the time, that voluntary vaccination had not reduced smallpox mortality, but the Vaccination Act 1853 was so badly implemented that it had little impact on
3120-475: A single day's travel for the first time. As demand grew, airliners became larger, further reducing the cost of air travel. People from a greater range of social classes could afford to travel outside of their own countries. The use of mass-production techniques similar to those of the motor industry lowered the cost of private aircraft, with types such as the Cessna 172 and Beechcraft Bonanza seeing widespread use,
3250-505: A small risk of contracting smallpox that the U.S. Public Health Service recommended for routine smallpox vaccination to be ended. By 1974 the WHO smallpox vaccination program had confined smallpox to parts of Pakistan , India, Bangladesh , Ethiopia and Somalia . In 1977 the WHO recorded the last case of smallpox infection acquired outside a laboratory in Somalia. In 1980 the WHO officially declared
3380-600: A specific course rather than to simply maintain the present altitude and heading. Radio communications became more sophisticated, in large part to cope with increasing use as the skies became increasingly crowded. In the military arena, Identification Friend or Foe (IFF) systems were developed, enabling military aircraft to identify each other when within firing range of their missiles but beyond visual range. Weapons aiming systems developed into fire-control systems capable of arming, launching, tracking and controlling multiple missiles at different targets. The Head-Up Display (HUD)
3510-530: A traveller has a medical reason that prevents them from getting a particular vaccine. This section also reminds physicians to consider travel-associated illnesses when treating a patient who has fallen ill after traveling. Yellow fever is the most common vaccine required for international travel. Many countries require the vaccine for all travellers or only for travellers coming from countries with risk of yellow fever transmission. Exceptions are typically made for newborns until 9 months or one year of age, depending on
3640-595: A vaccination campaign. In the same year a law was passed in Sweden to require the vaccination of children against smallpox by the age of two. Prussia briefly introduced compulsory vaccination in 1810 and again in the 1920s, but decided against a compulsory vaccination law in 1829. A law on compulsory smallpox vaccination was introduced in the Province of Hanover in the 1820s. In 1826, in Kragujevac , future prince Mihailo of Serbia
3770-420: A vaccine because even a weakened version would harm them. The effectiveness of vaccination has been widely studied and verified. Vaccination is the most effective method of preventing infectious diseases; widespread immunity due to vaccination is largely responsible for the worldwide eradication of smallpox and the elimination of diseases such as polio and tetanus from much of the world. According to
3900-573: A vaccine or prophylaxis that is required may be subject to similar requirements or denied entry. In some cases, equivalent military-issued forms are accepted in place of the ICVP, provided the forms include the same information. Due to the prevalence of counterfeit certificates in some places, several countries, including Zimbabwe, Zambia, and Nigeria, are developing digital certificates that can authenticate an ICVP. As of July 2019, Nigeria requires its citizens to have its digital "e-Yellow Card" for travel outside
4030-478: Is a serious disease with no vaccine available. The ICVP recommends that travellers protect against mosquitos through mosquito nets or repellent, as mosquitos can transmit malaria. Travellers can also consult their physician for antimalarial medication , which must be taken regularly for the full duration of the prescription. The ICVP gives instructions for filling out the certificate. It also gives physicians guidelines for documenting contraindications in cases where
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4160-417: Is a small increase in the chance of having a local reaction to a vaccine with an aluminium salt (redness, soreness, and swelling), there is no increased risk of any serious reactions. Certain vaccines once contained a compound called thiomersal or thimerosal, which is an organic compound containing mercury . Organomercury is commonly found in two forms. The methylmercury cation (with one carbon atom)
4290-496: Is effective in poverty diseases and promises benefits in pandemic waves, e.g. in COVID-19 , when vaccine supply is limited. Allegations of vaccine injuries in recent decades have appeared in litigation in the U.S. Some families have won substantial awards from sympathetic juries, even though most public health officials have said that the claims of injuries were unfounded. In response, several vaccine makers stopped production, which
4420-404: Is found in mercury-contaminated fish and is the form that people might ingest in mercury-polluted areas ( Minamata disease ), whereas the ethylmercury cation (with two carbon atoms) is present in thimerosal, linked to thiosalicylate . Although both are organomercury compounds, they do not have the same chemical properties and interact with the human body differently. Ethylmercury is cleared from
4550-409: Is insufficient evidence to assess the effectiveness of requiring vaccinations as a condition for specified jobs as a means of reducing incidence of specific diseases among particularly vulnerable populations; that there is sufficient evidence supporting the effectiveness of requiring vaccinations as a condition for attending child care facilities and schools; and that there is strong evidence supporting
4680-504: Is not an immunity passport ; the primary difference is that vaccination certificates such as the ICVP incentivise individuals to obtain vaccination against a disease, while immunity passports incentivise individuals to get infected with and recover from a disease. Various schemes for health passports or vaccination certificates have been proposed for people who have been vaccinated against COVID-19 . The ICVP's nickname Yellow Card or its French equivalent Carte Jaune derives from
4810-408: Is often used interchangeably with "vaccination." However, while related, the terms are not synonymous. Vaccination is treatment of an individual with an attenuated (i.e. less virulent) pathogen or other immunogen , whereas inoculation, also called variolation in the context of smallpox prophylaxis, is treatment with unattenuated variola virus taken from a pustule or scab of a smallpox patient into
4940-497: Is only valid for vaccines approved by the WHO. The form must be fully completed in English or French by a medical practitioner or authorized health worker and must include the official stamp of the administering centre. The certificate is valid for as long as the vaccines included are valid. The form may include additional information. In 2007, the WHO prepared a booklet that included the following additional sections. The notes section includes information about yellow fever , since it
5070-520: Is still in use today for less demanding applications. Some early attempts to achieve high speeds, such as the Bell X-1 , used rocket engines. However a rocket engine requires an oxidant as well as a fuel, making these aircraft dangerous to handle and short-ranged. Hybrid dual-motor types such as the Saunders-Roe SR.53 used the rocket to boost speed for a "supersonic dash." In the event the development of
5200-501: Is the administration of a vaccine to help the immune system develop immunity from a disease. Vaccines contain a microorganism or virus in a weakened, live or killed state, or proteins or toxins from the organism. In stimulating the body's adaptive immunity , they help prevent sickness from an infectious disease . When a sufficiently large percentage of a population has been vaccinated, herd immunity results. Herd immunity protects those who may be immunocompromised and cannot get
5330-523: Is the only disease included in the International Health Regulations. It also specifies that the same certificate can be used if any future regulations require vaccination for another disease. The information for travellers section recommends that travellers consult their physicians to determine appropriate vaccinations before international travel and inform their physician of international travel if they fall ill after their trip. Malaria
International Certificate of Vaccination or Prophylaxis - Misplaced Pages Continue
5460-604: The Commons Project Foundation , technology companies such as IBM , travel companies such as VeriFly , and the International Air Transport Association . As of March 2021, standards for digital documentation, such as an app on a smartphone, had not been established. On 12 March 2021, Ecma International announced its intention to create international standards which guard against counterfeiting and protects private data as much as possible in
5590-521: The DC-8 , VC10 and Il-62 . The Boeing 747 , the "Jumbo jet", was the first widebody aircraft that reduced the cost of flying and further accelerated the Jet Age. One exception to the domination by turbofan engines was the turboprop-powered Tupolev Tu-114 (first flight 1957). This airliner was able to match or even exceed the performance of contemporary jets, however the use of such powerplants in large airframes
5720-568: The East India Company stationed in China and another by Clopton Havers . In France, Voltaire reports that the Chinese have practiced variolation "these hundred years". In 1796, Edward Jenner , a doctor in Berkeley in Gloucestershire , England, tested a common theory that a person who had contracted cowpox would be immune from smallpox. To test the theory, he took cowpox vesicles from
5850-674: The Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 and North American F-86 Sabre soon introduced swept wings to reduce drag at transonic speeds, and saw combat in the Korean War . Bombers also adopted the new technologies. The increasing availability of nuclear weapons led to the introduction of nuclear-armed long-range strategic bombers such as the American Boeing B-52 and the British V-bombers . Soviet bombers continued to use turboprops for
5980-687: The Scottish physician Helenus Scott vaccinated dozens of children in Bombay against smallpox using Jenner's cowpox vaccine. In the same year Scott penned a letter to the editor in the Bombay Courier , declaring that "We have it now in our power to communicate the benefits of this important discovery to every part of India, perhaps to China and the whole eastern world". Subsequently, vaccination became firmly established in British India . A vaccination campaign
6110-469: The Social Security Act are among the major sources of financial support for vaccination of those in lower-income groups. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention ( CDC ) publishes uniform national vaccine recommendations and immunization schedules, although state and local governments, as well as nongovernmental organizations, may have their own policies. Before the first vaccinations, in
6240-566: The World Health Assembly would have authority to adopt regulations concerning sanitary and quarantine requirements and other procedures designed to prevent the international spread of disease (Article 21.a). The Fourth World Health Assembly adopted the International Sanitary Regulations (alias WHO Regulations No. 2) on 25 May 1951, replacing and completing the earlier International Sanitary Conventions. It confirmed
6370-478: The World Health Organization (WHO), vaccination prevents 3.5–5 million deaths per year. A WHO-funded study by The Lancet estimates that, during the 50-year period starting in 1974, vaccination prevented 154 million deaths, including 146 million among children under age 5. However, some diseases have seen rising cases due to relatively low vaccination rates attributable partly to vaccine hesitancy . The first disease people tried to prevent by inoculation
6500-401: The afterburner allowed jet engines to provide similar levels of thrust and rocket power became confined to missiles. As the jet turbine developed, distinct types emerged. The basic jet turbine appeared in two forms, with axial or centrifugal compressors. Axial flow is theoretically more efficient and physically slimmer but requires higher technology to achieve. Consequently, early jets were of
6630-508: The de Havilland DH.108 Swallow broke up in the air, killing their pilots. while another survived only because he lowered the seat so that, when violent oscillations developed, he did not bang his head on the canopy and break his neck. The triangular delta wing has a swept leading edge while maintaining a sufficiently deep wing root for structural stiffness, and from the introduction of the French Dassault Mirage fighter it became
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#17328524765716760-406: The intestines . Live attenuated polio, rotavirus, some typhoid, and some cholera vaccines are given orally to produce immunity in the bowel. While vaccination provides a lasting effect, it usually takes several weeks to develop. This differs from passive immunity (the transfer of antibodies , such as in breastfeeding), which has immediate effect. A vaccine failure is when an organism contracts
6890-449: The tiltwing variant the whole wing-rotor assembly tilts while in the tiltrotor the wing remains fixed and only the engine-rotor assembly tilts. The requirements for a lifting rotor and a propulsive propeller differ, and the rotors for a convertiplane must be a compromise between the two. Some designs used what were effectively propellers rather than rotors, having a smaller diameter and being optimised for forward flight, while others chose
7020-619: The yellow colour of the document. The fact that yellow fever is a commonly required vaccination for travel has contributed to the document's association with the colour yellow, even though the ICVP can cover a wide range of vaccinations and booster shots, not just yellow fever. The International Certificate of Inoculation and Vaccination was established by the International Sanitary Convention for Aerial Navigation (1933) in The Hague , which came into force on 1 August 1935 and
7150-557: The 172 eclipsing even wartime production levels. Aircraft came to be used increasingly in specialist roles such as crop spraying, policing, fire fighting, air ambulances and many others. As helicopter technology developed, they also came into widespread use, dominated by Sikorsky's approach of a single main rotor plus tail counter-torque rotor. Sport flying also developed, with both powered aeroplanes and gliders becoming more sophisticated. The introduction of glass fibre construction allowed sailplanes to achieve new levels of performance. In
7280-405: The 1960s the re-introduction of the hang-glider, now using the flexible Rogallo wing , ushered in a new era of ultralight aircraft . The development of safe gas burners led to the re-introduction of hot air ballooning and it became a popular sport. The introduction of the Concorde supersonic transport (SST) airliner to regular service in 1976 was expected to bring similar social changes, but
7410-655: The 1960s, but these projects were eventually abandoned for various developmental, cost, and other practical reasons. The years immediately following World War II saw the widespread design and introduction of military jets. Early types, such as the Gloster Meteor and Saab J 21R , were little more than WWII technology adapted for the jet engine. However the higher speeds achieved by jet-powered aircraft led to many progressive advances in design and sophistication. Machine guns and cannon were difficult to use effectively at high speed and missile armament became more common. Jets such as
7540-465: The 1970s, but they proved uneconomic in practice due to the high fuel consumption at supersonic speeds. The associated pollution and sonic boom from these aircraft also raised awareness of the Environmental impact of aviation , making it difficult to find countries prepared to tolerate them. Many other advances took place during this period, such as the introduction of the helicopter , development of
7670-406: The 20th century in the U.S. Vaccines are a way of artificially activating the immune system to protect against infectious disease . The activation occurs through priming the immune system with an immunogen . Stimulating immune responses with an infectious agent is known as immunization . Vaccination includes various ways of administering immunogens. Most vaccines are administered before
7800-429: The 20th century. Vaccination and immunization have a similar meaning in everyday language. This is distinct from inoculation, which uses unweakened live pathogens. Vaccination efforts have been met with some reluctance on scientific, ethical, political, medical safety, and religious grounds, although no major religions oppose vaccination, and some consider it an obligation due to the potential to save lives. In
7930-699: The Comet 4 and Boeing 707 entered service). The plane was operated by Aeroflot (from 1956) and Czech Airlines ČSA (from 1957). ČSA became the first airline in the world to fly jet-only routes, using the Tu-104A variant. The first western jet airliner with significant commercial success was the Boeing 707 . It began service on the New York to London route in 1958, the first year that more trans-Atlantic passengers traveled by air than by ship. Comparable long-range airliner designs were
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#17328524765718060-469: The International Certificate of Vaccination or Revaccination against Yellow Fever contained in appendix 2 of the International Health Regulations (1969). The main portion of the ICVP is a form for physicians to fill out when administering a vaccine. This section is mandated by the WHO's 2005 International Health Regulations , in which they provide a model of the document. It includes places for
8190-407: The U.S. after World War II . In 1959, the WHO called for the eradication of smallpox worldwide, as smallpox was still endemic in 33 countries. In the 1960s six to eight children died each year in the U.S. from vaccination-related complications. According to the WHO there were in 1966 about 100 million cases of smallpox worldwide, causing an estimated two million deaths. In the 1970s there was such
8320-676: The US federal government, including the CDC and FDA, and independent agencies are constantly re-evaluating vaccine practices. As with all medications, vaccine use is determined by public health research, surveillance, and reporting to governments and the public. The World Health Organization (WHO) has estimated that vaccination prevents 3.5–5 million deaths per year, and up to 1.5 million children die each year due to diseases that could have been prevented by vaccination . They estimate that 29% of deaths of children under five-years-old in 2013 were vaccine preventable. In other developing parts of
8450-413: The US government believed could be a threat to public health , so laws were passed to shield manufacturers from liabilities stemming from vaccine injury claims. The safety and side effects of multiple vaccines have been tested to uphold the viability of vaccines as a barrier against disease. The influenza vaccine was tested in controlled trials and proven to have negligible side effects equal to that of
8580-496: The United States, people may receive compensation for alleged injuries under the National Vaccine Injury Compensation Program . Early success brought widespread acceptance, and mass vaccination campaigns have greatly reduced the incidence of many diseases in numerous geographic regions. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention lists vaccination as one of the ten great public health achievements of
8710-616: The VTOL Harrier motivated the USSR to introduce a counterpart using a combination of exhaust thrust vectoring and additional forward lift jets, the Yakovlev Yak-36 flew in 1971, later evolving into the operational Yakovlev Yak-38 . Entering service in 1978, the Yak-38 was limited in both payload capability and hot-and-high performance, and saw only limited deployment. The British de Havilland Comet
8840-635: The aircraft never found commercial success. After several years of service, a fatal crash near Paris in July 2000 and other factors eventually caused Concorde flights to be discontinued in 2003. This was the only loss of an SST in civilian service. Only one other SST design was used in a civilian capacity, the Soviet era Tu-144 , but it was soon withdrawn due to high maintenance and other issues. McDonnell Douglas, Lockheed and Boeing were three U.S. manufacturers that had originally planned to develop various SST designs since
8970-480: The body faster than methylmercury and is less likely to cause toxic effects. Thimerosal was used as a preservative to prevent the growth of bacteria and fungi in vials that contain more than one dose of a vaccine. This helps reduce the risk of potential infections or serious illness that could occur from contamination of a vaccine vial. Although there was a small increase in risk of injection site redness and swelling with vaccines containing thimerosal, there
9100-406: The bypass turbofan , in which a larger-diameter fan at the front passes some air into the compressor and the rest around a bypass, where it flows past the engine at slower speed than the jet exhaust. The fan and compressor need to spin at different speeds, leading to the two-spool turbofan, in which two sets of turbines are mounted on concentric shafts spinning at different speeds to drive the fan and
9230-408: The centrifugal type. It was not long before axial-flow types came to dominate. A variation on the turbine theme is the turbo-prop. Here, the turbine drives not only the compressor but also the main propeller. At lower speeds and altitudes this design is more efficient and economical than the jet turbine, while having greater power for less weight than a piston engine. It therefore found a niche between
9360-551: The clinical trials, safety tests, purity tests, and manufacturing methods and establish that the manufacturer itself is up to government standards in many other areas. After regulatory approval, the regulators continue to monitor the manufacturing protocols, batch purity, and the manufacturing facility itself. Additionally, vaccines also undergo phase IV trials, which monitor the safety and efficacy of vaccines in tens of thousands of people, or more, across many years. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has compiled
9490-605: The components used in vaccinations or strongly held objections. In countries with limited financial resources, limited vaccination coverage results in greater morbidity and mortality due to infectious disease. More affluent countries are able to subsidize vaccinations for at-risk groups, resulting in more comprehensive and effective coverage. In Australia, for example, the Government subsidizes vaccinations for seniors and indigenous Australians. Public Health Law Research, an independent US based organization, reported in 2009 that there
9620-412: The concept through his work in microbiology. The immunization was called vaccination because it was derived from a virus affecting cows ( Latin : vacca 'cow'). Smallpox was a contagious and deadly disease, causing the deaths of 20–60% of infected adults and over 80% of infected children. When smallpox was finally eradicated in 1979, it had already killed an estimated 300–500 million people in
9750-537: The country. The ICVP form is valid for yellow fever starting 10 days after vaccination. As of 2016, the vaccine is valid for the life of the traveller. No changes need to be made for those who received their vaccine or ICVP prior to 2016. In the event that a traveller cannot be vaccinated for a particular disease for medical reasons, their physician can provide them with documentation indicating their condition. They may be subject to additional requirements, such as isolation, quarantine, or observation. A traveller who refuses
9880-825: The country. The card has a QR code that can be scanned to verify its validity. This requirement does not affect travellers from other countries with valid ICVPs, but those arriving in Nigeria who haven't been vaccinated for yellow fever may receive the vaccine and the e-Yellow Card upon arrival. As of September 2023, Ecuador started handing out digital certificates too and is no longer going to issue yellow booklets after they are out of stock. Similar schemes have been proposed for travellers who have been vaccinated against COVID-19 . Multiple agencies and countries were creating different forms of documentation for people who have been vaccinated against COVID-19. Agencies attempting this include non-profit organisations such as World Economic Forum and
10010-648: The decades to come, Mikoyan-Gurevich , started preparing for building swept-winged jet aircraft with the small, experimental piston-engined MiG-8 Utka pusher , which flew with slightly swept-back wings only months after V-E Day . Supersonic flight was achieved in 1947 by the American Bell X-1 rocket plane, however the use of rocket engines would prove short lived. The development of the afterburner soon allowed jet engines to provide similar levels of thrust and longer range, while needing no oxidant and being safer to handle. The first supersonic jet to enter service
10140-400: The effectiveness of standing orders, which allow healthcare workers without prescription authority to administer vaccine as a public health intervention. Fractional dose vaccination reduces the dose of a vaccine to allow more individuals to be vaccinated with a given vaccine stock, trading societal benefit for individual protection. Based on the nonlinearity properties of many vaccines, it
10270-416: The engine exhaust, upstream of a divergent nozzle similar to that seen on a rocket engine. As the fuel burned it expanded, reacting against the nozzle to drive the exhaust backwards and the engine forwards. Turbojet engines have a high fuel consumption, and afterburning even more so. One way to make an engine more efficient is to make it pass a larger mass of air at slower speed. This led to the development of
10400-492: The eradication of polio was only possible if the supply of drinking water and sanitation facilities were improved in slums . The deployment of a combined DPT vaccine against diphtheria , pertussis (whooping cough), and tetanus in the 1950s was considered a major advancement for public health. But in the course of vaccination campaigns that spanned decades, DPT vaccines became associated with large number of cases with side effects. Despite improved DPT vaccines coming onto
10530-733: The extent to which children missed out on vaccinations from 2020 onwards due to the COVID-19 pandemic . By summer 2023, the organisation described vaccination programs as getting "back on track". To eliminate the risk of outbreaks of some diseases, at various times governments and other institutions have employed policies requiring vaccination for all people. For example, an 1853 law required universal vaccination against smallpox in England and Wales, with fines levied on people who did not comply. Common contemporary U.S. vaccination policies require that children receive recommended vaccinations before entering public school. Beginning with early vaccination in
10660-478: The fabric Rogallo wing for sport flying and the reintroduction of the canard or "tail-first" configuration by the Swedish Saab Viggen jet fighter. Designers already knew that as an aircraft approaches the speed of sound (Mach 1), in the transonic region, shock waves begin forming, causing a large increase in drag. Wings, already thin, had to become thinner and finer. Fineness is a measure of how thin
10790-405: The following compounds: aluminium hydroxide , aluminium phosphate , and aluminium potassium sulfate . For a given element, the ion form has different properties from the elemental form. Although it is possible to have aluminium toxicity , aluminium salts have been used effectively and safely since the 1930s when they were first used with the diphtheria and tetanus vaccines. Although there
10920-558: The following years. For general use, the configuration developed in the US by Igor Sikorsky quickly came to dominate. Control was achieved by an articulated rotor head with cyclic and collective pitch controls, while rotor torque was counteracted by a sideways-facing tail rotor. Helicopters entered widespread use in many diverse roles including air observation, search and rescue, medical evacuation, fire fighting, construction and general transport to otherwise inaccessible locations such as mountain sides and oil rigs. In heavy-lift applications,
11050-426: The high-pressure compressor respectively. Taking the principle a step further, the high-bypass turbofan is even more efficient, having typically three spools each spinning at a different speed. Another way to improve efficiency is to increase the combustion temperature. This requires improved materials able to retain their strength at high temperature, and the development of engine cores has largely followed advances in
11180-407: The idea impractical. To use jet power for lift, the impracticality of tail-sitting meant it was necessary for the aircraft to take off and land vertically while still in a horizontal attitude. Solutions tried included lifting fans (typically buried in the wings), swivelling engine pods similar in concept to the convertiplane, dedicated lightweight lift jets or turbofans, thrust-vectoring by deflecting
11310-530: The introduction of the measles vaccine in 1963. WHO figures demonstrate that in many countries a decline in measles vaccination leads to a resurgence in measles cases. Measles are so contagious that public health experts believe a vaccination rate of 100% is needed to control the disease. Despite decades of mass vaccination polio remains a threat in India, Nigeria , Somalia , Niger , Afghanistan , Bangladesh and Indonesia . By 2006 global health experts concluded that
11440-571: The jet exhaust as needed, and various combinations of these. Only thrust-vectoring stood the test of time, with the introduction of the Rolls-Royce Pegasus bypass turbofan engine having separate vectoring nozzles for the cold fan (bypass) and hot exhaust flows, which first flew in the Hawker P.1127 VTOL research aircraft of 1960. The success of the P.1127 and its successor the Kestrel led directly to
11570-463: The low-cost piston engine and the high-performance jet engine. The Rolls-Royce Dart powered the Vickers Viscount airliner, which first flew in 1948, and turboprops remain in production today. The next development of the jet engine was the afterburner . Pure turbojets were found to fly little faster than the speed of sound. In order to increase speed for supersonic flight, fuel was injected into
11700-481: The market in the 1990s DPT vaccines became the focus of anti-vaccination campaigns in wealthy nations. As immunization rates fell outbreaks of pertussis increased in many countries. In 2000, the Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunization was established to strengthen routine vaccinations and introduce new and underused vaccines in countries with a per capita GDP of under US$ 1000. UNICEF has reported on
11830-753: The materials available, for example through the development of precision-made ceramic parts and single-crystal metal turbine blades. Rolls-Royce developed a carbon composite fan for the Rolls-Royce RB211 turbofan but in the event found the material did not have sufficient damage tolerance and they reverted to the more conventional titanium metal. The advent of reliable electronics led to a progressive development of avionic systems for flight control, navigation, communication, engine control and military purposes such as target identification and weapons aiming. New radio location systems provided navigation information which could be used to control an autopilot pre-set to fly
11960-569: The new 1983 form lacked any provision for smallpox vaccination. Thus, only yellow fever remained as vaccination requirement for international travel for which the ICV was used. By 1994, Saudi Arabia legally required pilgrims going to Mecca for the annual Hajj to vaccinate against meningococcal meningitis , while the Center for Disease Control also advised Americans travelling to the African meningitis belt or Kenya , Tanzania and Burundi to take
12090-608: The new ICV. On 23 May 1956, the Ninth World Health Assembly amended the form of the International Certificate of Vaccination or Revaccination against Smallpox per 1 October 1956. The WHO's World Health Assembly adopted the International Health Regulations (IHR) in 1969, succeeding the previous International Sanitary Conventions/Regulations. IHR Article 79 introduced a model International Certificate of Vaccination, and Appendix 2 and Annex VI stipulated
12220-535: The nineteenth century, these policies were resisted by a variety of groups, collectively called antivaccinationists , who object on scientific, ethical, political, medical safety, religious , and other grounds. Common objections are that vaccinations do not work, that compulsory vaccination constitutes excessive government intervention in personal matters, or that the proposed vaccinations are not sufficiently safe. Many modern vaccination policies allow exemptions for people who have compromised immune systems, allergies to
12350-452: The number of children vaccinated in England and Wales . The U.S. Supreme Court upheld compulsory vaccination laws in the 1905 landmark case Jacobson v. Massachusetts , ruling that laws could require vaccination to protect the public from dangerous communicable diseases. However, in practice the U.S. had the lowest rate of vaccination among industrialized nations in the early 20th century. Compulsory vaccination laws began to be enforced in
12480-538: The number of children who did not receive a single dose of the vaccine increased from 13.9 million in 2022 to 14.5 million in 2023. More than half of unvaccinated children live in the 31 countries with fragile, conflict-affected and vulnerable settings.” Vaccines have led to major decreases in the prevalence of infectious diseases in the United States. In 2007, studies regarding the effectiveness of vaccines on mortality or morbidity rates of those exposed to various diseases found almost 100% decreases in death rates, and about
12610-415: The number of travellers who were vaccinated, and thus contributed to preventing the spread of smallpox, especially when the rapid expansion of air travel in the 1960s and 1970s reduced the travelling time from endemic countries to all other countries to just a few hours. After smallpox was successfully eradicated in 1980, the International Certificate of Vaccination against Smallpox was cancelled in 1981, and
12740-621: The period. The Hawker Siddeley Harrier "jump jet" achieved significant success, being manufactured in several versions and operated by the UK, USA, Spain and India, and seeing significant action in the UK-Argentina Falklands War . The Yakovlev Yak-36 went through troubling, long and expensive development, never reaching its design performance but eventually emerging as the operational Yak-38. The first practical helicopters were developed during World War II, and many more designs appeared in
12870-544: The primary goal of assessing the vaccine's safety. Phase II trials expand the testing to include 50 to several hundred people. During this stage, the vaccine's safety continues to be evaluated and researchers also gather data on the effectiveness and the ideal dose of the vaccine. Vaccines determined to be safe and efficacious then advance to phase III trials, which focuses on the efficacy of the vaccine in hundreds to thousands of volunteers. This phase can take several years to complete and researchers use this opportunity to compare
13000-634: The program was overtaken by the Boeing 707 on the trans-Atlantic run. The Comet 4 was developed into the Hawker Siddeley Nimrod which retired in June 2011. Following the grounding of the Comet 1, the Tu-104 became the first jet airliner to provide a sustained and reliable service, its introduction having been delayed pending the outcome of investigations into the Comet crashes. It was the world's only jet airliner in operation between 1956 and 1958 (after which
13130-482: The public health safety authority (FDA in the United States) to start a three-phase series of human testing, advancing to higher phases only if they are deemed safe and effective at the previous phase. The people in these trials participate voluntarily and are required to prove they understand the purpose of the study and the potential risks. During phase I trials, a vaccine is tested in a group of about 20 people with
13260-451: The rabies vaccine has been proven effective in preventing rabies in humans when administered several times over 14 days along with rabies immune globulin and wound care. Other examples include experimental AIDS, cancer and Alzheimer's disease vaccines. Such immunizations aim to trigger an immune response more rapidly and with less harm than natural infection. Most vaccines are given by injection as they are not absorbed reliably through
13390-620: The safest they ever have been in history and each vaccine undergoes rigorous clinical trials to ensure their safety and efficacy before approval by authorities such as the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Prior to human testing, vaccines are tested on cell cultures and the results modelled to assess how they will interact with the immune system. During the next round of testing, researchers study vaccines in animals, including mice , rabbits , guinea pigs , and monkeys . Vaccines that pass each of these stages of testing are then approved by
13520-404: The same. The CDC has compiled a list of vaccines and their ingredients that is readily accessible on their website. Aluminium is an adjuvant ingredient in some vaccines. An adjuvant is a type of ingredient that is used to help the body's immune system create a stronger immune response after receiving the vaccination. Aluminium is in a salt form (the ionic version of an element) and is used in
13650-456: The sense of using cowpox to inoculate people against smallpox , people have been inoculated in China and elsewhere, before being copied in the west , by using smallpox, called variolation . The earliest hints of the practice of variolation for smallpox in China come during the 10th century. The Chinese also practiced the oldest documented use of variolation, which comes from Wan Quan 's (1499–1582) Douzhen Xinfa (痘疹心法) of 1549. They implemented
13780-620: The service introduction of the subsonic Hawker Siddeley Harrier "Jump jet" in 1969. The type was produced in several variants, notably the Sea Harrier and the McDonnell Douglas AV-8B Harrier II "big-wing" Harrier. Examples saw operational service with the UK, USA, Spain and India. The Harrier's most notable exploit was the use of Royal Navy carrier-borne Sea Harriers in the 1982 UK-Argentina Falklands War , operating in both air-to-air and air-to-ground roles. The success of
13910-487: The superficial layers of the skin, commonly the upper arm. Variolation was often done 'arm-to-arm' or, less effectively, 'scab-to-arm', and often caused the patient to become infected with smallpox, which in some cases resulted in severe disease. Vaccinations began in the late 18th century with the work of Edward Jenner and the smallpox vaccine. Some vaccines, like the smallpox vaccine, prevent infection. Their use results in sterilizing immunity and can help eradicate
14040-499: The swine flu vaccine. Dengvaxia , the only approved vaccine for Dengue fever , was found to increase the risk of hospitalization for Dengue fever by 1.58 times in children of 9 years or younger, resulting in the suspension of a mass vaccination program in the Philippines in 2017. Pandemrix – a vaccine for the H1N1 pandemic of 2009 given to around 31 million people – was found to have
14170-484: The tandem rotor configuration was also used with some success, for example in the Boeing Chinook series. Other twin-rotor configurations, such as intermeshing, co-axial or side-by-side also saw some use. The autogyro , used significantly during the late 1930s and throughout the war, became relegated to private aviation and never saw wide acceptance. A Wallis example, "Little Nellie", became famous for its appearance in
14300-417: The traveller's name, date of birth, sex, nationality, national identification document, and signature. Below that is a row for each vaccine administered, in which the physician must include the prophylaxis or vaccine administered, date, signature, manufacturer and batch number, dates valid, and an official stamp from the administering centre. Below this, the document outlines requirements for validity. The ICVP
14430-451: The vaccinated volunteers to those who have not been vaccinated to highlight any true reactions to the vaccine that occur. If a vaccine passes all of the phases of testing, the manufacturer can then apply for license of the vaccine through the relevant regulatory authorities such as the FDA in US. Before regulatory authorities approve use in the general public, they extensively review the results of
14560-472: The vaccine from the vaccinated individual's pustule . Early attempts at confirmation were confounded by contamination with smallpox, but despite controversy within the medical profession and religious opposition to the use of animal material, by 1801 his report was translated into six languages and over 100,000 people were vaccinated. The term vaccination was coined in 1800 by the surgeon Richard Dunning in his text Some observations on vaccination . In 1802,
14690-466: The vaccine, especially when visiting during the dry season (November–April). The 2002–2004 SARS outbreak was the driving force behind the 23 May 2005 revision of the International Health Regulations, which entered into force on 15 June 2007. On that day, the model International Certificate of Vaccination or Prophylaxis contained in Annex 6 of the International Health Regulations (as amended in 2005) replaced
14820-450: The validity and use of international certificates of vaccination (Article 115), and updated the old model with a new version (Appendices 2, 3, 4). The certificates mentioned were used for proof of vaccination against diseases such as cholera, yellow fever and smallpox; the term inoculation was no longer used. The old International Certificates of Inoculation and Vaccination remained valid until they expired, after which they were replaced by
14950-524: The wing is compared to its front-to-back chord. A small, highly loaded wing has less drag and so some early types used this type, including the Bell X-1 rocket plane and the Lockheed F-104 Starfighter . But these craft had high takeoff speeds, the Starfighter causing significant pilot deaths during takeoff, and small wings fell out of use. An approach pioneered by German designers during the war
15080-441: The world free of smallpox. In 1974 the WHO adopted the goal of universal vaccination by 1990 to protect children against six preventable infectious diseases: measles , poliomyelitis , diphtheria , whooping cough , tetanus , and tuberculosis . In the 1980s only 20 to 40% of children in developing countries were vaccinated against these six diseases. In wealthy nations the number of measles cases had dropped dramatically after
15210-532: The world, they are faced with the challenge of having a decreased availability of resources and vaccinations. Countries such as those in Sub-Saharan Africa cannot afford to provide the full range of childhood vaccinations. In 2024, a WHO/UNICEF report found “the number of children who received three doses of the vaccine against diphtheria, tetanus and pertussis (DTP) in 2023 – a key marker for global immunization coverage – stalled at 84% (108 million). However,
15340-477: Was amended in 1944. After the 1944 amendment , in addition to Personal, Aircraft and Maritime Declarations of Health, the Convention covered five certificates: The World Health Organization (WHO) was formed by its constitution on 22 July 1946, effective on 7 April 1948. The WHO Constitution included stipulations to stimulate and advance work to eradicate epidemic, endemic and other diseases (Article 2.g) and that
15470-438: Was constructed of titanium alloy, had a special corrugated skin to absorb thermal expansion and dual-cycle turbofan-ramjet engines which ran on a special temperature-tolerant fuel. Mach tuck was reduced through the use of long "chine" extensions of the wing along the fuselage, which contributed greater lift at supersonic speeds. Another problem with supersonic flight proved to be its environmental impact. A large aircraft creates
15600-524: Was developed from the wartime reflector gunsight to provide key flight information to the pilot without needing to lower the eyes to the instrument panel. The increasing capability - and vulnerability - of avionics led to the development of airborne Early Warning (EW) and Electronic Countermeasures (ECM) systems. The helicopter and autogyro had both seen service in the war. Although capable of VTOL operation, rotorcraft are inefficient, expensive and slow. The Bachem Natter point-defence interceptor had used
15730-679: Was dominated by the arrival of the Jet Age . In civil aviation the jet engine allowed a huge expansion of commercial air travel, while in military aviation it led to the widespread introduction of supersonic aircraft . By the end of the Second World War Germany and Britain already had operational jet aircraft in military service. The next few years saw jet engines being developed by all the major powers and military jet aircraft entering service with their air forces. The Soviets' most important design bureau for future jet fighter development in
15860-459: Was most likely smallpox, with the first recorded use of variolation occurring in the 16th century in China. It was also the first disease for which a vaccine was produced. Although at least six people had used the same principles years earlier, the smallpox vaccine was invented in 1796 by English physician Edward Jenner . He was the first to publish evidence that it was effective and to provide advice on its production. Louis Pasteur furthered
15990-842: Was no increased risk of serious harm or autism . Even though evidence supports the safety and efficacy of thimerosal in vaccines, thimerosal was removed from childhood vaccines in the United States in 2001 as a precaution. CDC Immunization Safety Office initiatives Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System ( VAERS ) |Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research ( CBER ) |Immunization Action Coalition (IAC) Vaccine Safety Datalink ( VSD ) |Health Resources and Service Administration ( HRSA ) |Institute for Safe Medication Practices (ISMP) Clinical Immunization Safety Assessment (CISA) Project National Institutes of Health ( NIH ) National Vaccine Program Office ( NVPO ) The administration protocols, efficacy, and adverse events of vaccines are monitored by organizations of
16120-405: Was not a commercial success. These types and their descendants contributed to an era of great social change, typified by popular phrases such as "the jet set " and introducing new medical syndromes such as jet lag . The propulsive efficiency of jet engines is inversely related to the exhaust velocity. The turbofan engine improves on the propulsive efficiency of the turbojet by accelerating
16250-406: Was restricted to the military after 1976. Jet airliners are able to fly much higher, faster, and further than piston ‑powered propliners , making transcontinental and intercontinental travel considerably faster and easier than in the past. Aircraft making long transcontinental and trans-oceanic flights could now fly to their destinations non-stop, making much of the world accessible within
16380-620: Was started in the new British colony of Ceylon in 1803. By 1807 the British had vaccinated more than a million Indians and Sri Lankans against smallpox. Also in 1803 the Spanish Balmis Expedition launched the first transcontinental effort to vaccinate people against smallpox. Following a smallpox epidemic in 1816 the Kingdom of Nepal ordered smallpox vaccine and requested the English veterinarian William Moorcroft to help in launching
16510-443: Was the North American F-100 Super Sabre , in 1954. Meanwhile, commercial jetliners were being developed with the first of these, the British de Havilland Comet , first flying in 1949 and entering service in 1952. The Comet suffered from a new and unexpected problem now known as metal fatigue , several examples crashed and by the time a new version was introduced, American types such as the Boeing 707 had overtaken its design and it
16640-410: Was the first jet airliner to fly (1949), the first in service (1952), and the first to offer a regular jet-powered transatlantic service (1958). One hundred and fourteen of all versions were built but the Comet 1 had serious design problems, and out of nine original aircraft, four crashed (one at takeoff and three broke up in flight), which grounded the entire fleet. The Comet 4 solved these problems but
16770-556: Was the first person to be vaccinated against smallpox in the principality of Serbia. Following a smallpox epidemic in 1837 that caused 40,000 deaths, the British government initiated a concentrated vaccination policy , starting with the Vaccination Act of 1840, which provided for universal vaccination and prohibited variolation . The Vaccination Act 1853 introduced compulsory smallpox vaccination in England and Wales. The law followed
16900-539: Was to sweep the wing at an angle, delaying the buildup of shock waves. But this made the wing structure longer and more flexible, making the aircraft more likely to suffer from bending or aeroelasticity and even causing a reversal in the action of the flight controls. Stall behaviour of the swept wing was also poorly understood and could be extremely sharp. Other problems included divergent oscillations which could build up lethal forces. In researching these effects, many pilots lost their lives, for example all three examples of
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