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92-486: Carnia ( Friulian : Cjargne or Cjargna / Cjargno in local variants, Venetian : Ciargna , German : Karnien , Slovene : Karnija ) is a historical-geographic region in the northeastern Italian area of Friuli . Its 27 municipalities all belong to the province of Udine , which itself is part of the autonomous Friuli-Venezia Giulia region. The name of the region, like neighbouring Carinthia and Carniola (and quite possibly also Karst ), probably derives from

184-428: A march or mark was, in broad terms, any kind of borderland , as opposed to a state's "heartland". More specifically, a march was a border between realms or a neutral buffer zone under joint control of two states in which different laws might apply. In both of these senses, marches served a political purpose, such as providing warning of military incursions or regulating cross-border trade. Marches gave rise to

276-610: A buffer to the Christian states to the north. The Upper March ( al-Tagr al-A'la ), centered on Zaragoza , faced the eastern Marca Hispanica and the western Pyrenees , and included the Distant or Farthest March ( al-Tagr al-Aqsa ). The Middle March ( al-Tagr al-Awsat ), centred on Toledo and later Medinaceli , faced the western Pyrenees and Asturias. The Lower March ( al-Tagr al-Adna ), centred on Mérida and later Badajoz , facing León and Portugal. These too would give rise to Kingdoms,

368-669: A common valley floor where the main centre of Carnia is located: Tolmezzo The following are the 27 municipalities of Carnia (next to the Italian name, the Friulian one is quoted): Carnia's mountains are composed by different geologic belts. They are made of three different types of rock: limestone , dolomite and flint . Carnia is spanned by the southern slope of the Carnic Alps , which extend from Passo di Monte Croce di Comelico to sella di Camporosso , where Alpi Giulie begin and rise (on

460-406: A consonant or in -i . A few masculine nouns end in -e , including sisteme (system) and probleme (problem). They are usually words coming from Ancient Greek . However, because most masculine nouns end in a consonant, it is common to find the forms sistem and problem instead, more often in print than in speech. There are also a number of masculine nouns borrowed intact from Italian , with

552-410: A consonant, including those ending in -zion , which are from Latin . Note that in some Friulian dialects the -e feminine ending is actually an -a or an -o, which characterize the dialect area of the language and are referred to as a/o-ending dialects (e.g. cjase is spelled as cjaso or cjasa - the latter being the oldest form of the feminine ending). Most masculine nouns end either in

644-557: A depopulated border region. Such self-sufficient landholders would aid the counts in providing armed men in defense of the Frankish frontier . Aprisio grants (the first ones were in Septimania ) emanated directly from the Carolingian king, and they reinforced central loyalties, to counterbalance the local power exercised by powerful marcher counts. After some early setbacks, Emperor Louis

736-510: A few years later (1327) it passed into the hands of the family of Bourbon . The family of Armagnac held it from 1435 to 1477, when it reverted to the Bourbons, and in 1527 it was seized by King Francis I and became part of the domains of the French crown. It was divided into Haute-Marche (i.e. "Upper Marche") and Basse-Marche (i.e. "Lower Marche"), the estates of the former being in existence until

828-495: A final -o , like treno (train). Many of the words have been fully absorbed into the language and even form their plurals with the regular Friulian -s rather than the Italian desinence changing. Still, there are some purists, including those influential in Friulian publishing, who frown on such words and insist that the "proper" Friulian terms should be without the final -o . Despite the fact that one almost always hears treno , it

920-452: A lesser miles with armed retainers, who theoretically owed allegiance through a count to the emperor or, with less fealty , to his Carolingian and Ottonian successors. Such territory had a catlá ("castellan" or lord of the castle) in an area largely defined by a day's ride, and the region became known, like Castile at a later date, as "Catalunya". Counties in the Pyrenees that appeared in

1012-440: A loanword from Persian . See Krajina and Military Frontier . The Chinese concept of March is called Fan (藩), referring to feudatory domains and petty kingdoms on the borderlands of the empire. In their initial development during the later Zhou dynasty , the commanderies ( jùn , 郡) functioned as marches, ranking below the dukes ' and kings ' original fiefs and below the more secure and populous counties ( xiàn ). As

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1104-623: A long career as purely conventional designations under the Holy Roman Empire . In modern German, "Mark" denotes a piece of land that historically was a borderland, as in the following names: From the Carolingian period onwards the name marca begins to appear in Italy, first the Marca Fermana for the mountainous part of Picenum , the Marca Camerinese for the district farther north, including

1196-602: A new people, the Aquileiese or Friulan People. The mixing of the Latin, Celtic and Raetic languages would give rise to the Friulian language. In the meantime Aquileia enlarged its importance. It became a Municipium Romanum in 90 BC; it was an important commercial and hand-craft production centre. Also it was the main port on the Adriatic sea and a garrison settlement. Upon the Decline of

1288-626: A part of Umbria , and the Marca Anconitana for the former Pentapolis ( Ancona ). In 1080, the marca Anconitana was given in investiture to Robert Guiscard by Pope Gregory VII , to whom the Countess Matilda ceded the marches of Camerino and Fermo . In 1105, the Emperor Henry IV invested Werner with the whole territory of the three marches, under the name of the March of Ancona . It

1380-427: A separate fief about the middle of the 10th century when William III, duke of Aquitaine , gave it to one of his vassals named Boso , who took the title of count . In the 12th century it passed to the family of Lusignan , sometimes also counts of Angoulême , until the death of the childless Count Hugh in 1303, when it was seized by King Philip IV . In 1316 it was made an appanage for his youngest son Charles and

1472-598: A shift of languages while, for example, other important communities of Northern Italy were still speaking Latin. The languages spoken before the arrival of the Romans in 181 BC were Rhaetic , Venetic and Celtic . The inhabitants belonged to the Raeti , a likely pre-Indo-European language population, the Italic Veneti , and the Carni , a Celtic population. In modern Friulian,

1564-1273: A unique pattern of diphthongs (yellow) and monophthongs (blue) for the long vowels: Note that the vowels î and û in the standard language (based on the Central dialects) correspond to two different sounds in the Western dialects (including Codroipo). These sounds are not distributed randomly but correspond to different origins: Latin short E in an open syllable produces Western [ei] but Central [iː] , whereas Latin long Ī produces [iː] in both dialects. Similarly, Latin short O in an open syllable produces Western [ou] but Central [uː] , whereas Latin long Ū produces [uː] in both dialects. The word mûr , for example, means both "wall" (Latin MŪRUM ) and "(he, she, it) dies" (Vulgar Latin * MORIT from Latin MORITUR ); both words are pronounced [muːr] in Central dialects, but respectively [muːr] and [mour] in Western dialects. Long consonants (ll, rr, and so on), frequently used in Italian, are usually absent in Friulian. Friulian long vowels originate primarily from vowel lengthening in stressed open syllables when

1656-399: A word which means "child"). A modern Friulian speaker can understand these texts with only little difficulty. The second important period for Friulian literature is the 16th century. The main author of this period was Ermes di Colorêt , who composed over 200 poems. Notes: Some notes on orthography (from the perspective of the standard, i.e. Central, dialect): Long vowels are typical of

1748-434: Is Piruç myò doç inculurit (which means "My pear, all colored"); it was composed by an anonymous author from Cividale del Friuli, probably in 1380. quant yò chi viot, dut stoi ardit cuant che jo ti viôt, dut o stoi ardît There are few differences in the first two rows, which demonstrates that there has not been a great evolution in the language except for several words which are no longer used (for example, dum(n) lo ,

1840-472: Is agns . The same happens for the adjective bon (good), as its plural is bogns . A feature of Friulian are the clitic subject pronouns . Known in Friulian as pleonastics , they are never stressed; they are used together with the verb to express the subject and can be found before the verb in declarative sentences or immediately after it in case of interrogative or vocative ( optative ) sentences. March (territory) In medieval Europe ,

1932-564: Is compensatory lengthening before lost consonants in certain circumstances, cf. pâri "father" < Latin patrem , vôli "eye" < Latin oc(u)lum , lîre "pound" < Latin libra . This produces long vowels in non-final syllables, and was apparently a separate, later development than the primary lengthening in open syllables. Note, for example, the development of Vulgar Latin */ɛ/ in this context: */ɛ/ > */jɛ/ > iê /jeː/ , as in piêre "stone" < Latin PETRAM , differing from

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2024-483: Is almost always written tren . The Friulian definite article (which corresponds to "the" in English) is derived from the Latin ille and takes the following forms: Before a vowel, both il and la can be abbreviated to l' in the standard forms - for example il + arbul (the tree) becomes l'arbul. Yet, as far as the article la is concerned, modern grammar recommends that its non elided form should be preferred over

2116-399: Is also a plethora of words of German , Slovenian and Venetian origin. From that evidence, scholars today agree that the formation of new Friulian dates back to circa 500 AD, at the same time as other dialects derived from Latin (see Vulgar Latin ). The first written records of new Friulian have been found in administrative acts of the 13th century, but the documents became more frequent in

2208-403: Is appointed by the king (from 802), the appointment settles on the heirs of a strong count (Sunifred) and the appointment becomes a formality, until the position is declared hereditary (897) and then the count declares independence (by Borrell II in 985). At each stage the de facto situation precedes the de jure assertion, which merely regularizes an existing fact of life. This is feudalism in

2300-620: Is located south of the main chain of the Carnic Alps , in the northwest of the Udine province; it is bounded to the north by Austria and to the west by the Italian Veneto region. In the south it borders the Province of Pordenone and in the east the Canal del Ferro-Valcanale (Ferro-Valcanale outfall) separates it from the central and southern part of the Udine province. The region covers the western part of

2392-557: Is lower by about 400–500 m. For example, while in the Western Alps the vegetation stops growing above 2,300 m, in Carnia this is already the case at the elevation of 1,900 metres. This lower vegetation limit is due to the thermal inversion, caused by a constant outflow of a cold wind from the north-east (the "burano" wind), which reaches the region from the Danube plains and even Siberia. In Carnia

2484-609: Is now a part of Årjäng Municipality . In the Middle Ages the area was called Nordmarkerna and was a part of Dalsland and not of Värmland. The name of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom in the midlands of England was Mercia . The name "Mercia" comes from the Old English for "boundary folk", and the traditional interpretation was that the kingdom originated along the frontier between the Welsh and

2576-484: Is worth"). Friulian is quite different from Italian in its morphology; it is, in many respects, closer to French . In Friulian as in other Romance languages , nouns are either masculine or feminine (for example, " il mûr " ("the wall", masculine), " la cjadree " ("the chair", feminine). Most feminine nouns end in -e , which is pronounced, unlike in Standard French: Some feminine nouns, however, end in

2668-415: Is written as gjats but is pronounced in much of Friuli as if it were gjas . The plural of plat 'dish', though written as plats , is often pronounced as plas . Other words in this category include clâf (key) and clap (stone), whose plural forms, clâfs and claps, are often pronounced with no f or p, respectively (clâs, clas) so the longer a in the former is all that distinguishes it from

2760-653: The Carni , a Celtic tribe who had lived for centuries in the fertile plains between the Rhine and the Danube rivers where other Celtic peoples lived. Starting from 400 BC, the demographic growth and the pressure of the Germanic peoples, originated a migratory flood towards the south. The Carni crossed the Alps via the Plöcken Pass and settled in the region which is nowadays named Carnia and in

2852-515: The Julian March because of its positioning and as an act of defiance against the hated Austro-Hungarian empire. Marche were repeated on a miniature level, fringing many of the small territorial states of pre- Risorgimento Italy with a ring of smaller dependencies on their borders, which represent territorial marche on a small scale. A map of the Duchy of Mantua in 1702 (Braudel 1984, fig 26) reveals

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2944-510: The Old English word mearc and Frankish marka , as well as Old Norse mǫrk meaning "borderland, forest", and derived from merki "boundary, sign", denoting a borderland between two centres of power. In Old English, "mark" meant "boundary" or "sign of a boundary", and the meaning only later evolved to encompass "sign" in general, "impression" and "trace". The Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Mercia took its name from West Saxon mearc "marches", which in this instance referred explicitly to

3036-570: The Pesarina , the Chiarsò , and the Monai , which name the valleys they lie in. Forests are large and mostly composed of fir, beech, and larch. Pastures are located mainly at high altitudes, on sunny slopes which are not suitable for agriculture. In Carnia 2,000 vegetable species, about a thousand types of mushrooms , and some fifty types of orchids are grown. Vegetation in Carnia changes with altitude. Up to

3128-643: The Republic of Venice , Carnia had passed from the Holy Roman Empire to the Venetian Domini di Terraferma by 1420. Italian is the official language. Nevertheless, Friulian , a Rhaeto-Romance language, is widely spoken. The German Southern Bavarian dialect is spoken in the linguistic enclaves of Sauris ( Zahre ), Paluzza -Timau ( Tischlwang ) and Sappada ( Plodn ), as in the neighbouring regions of Veneto ( Seven Communities , Thirteen Communities ) and Trentino ( Luserna and Mocheni Valley ). Carnia

3220-701: The Taifas of Zaragoza , Toledo , and Badajoz . Denmark means "the march of the Danes ". In Norse , "mark" meant "borderlands" and "forest"; in present-day Norwegian and Swedish it has acquired the meaning "ground", while in Danish it has come to mean "field" or "grassland". Markland was the Norse name of an area in North America discovered by Norwegian Vikings . The forests surrounding Norwegian cities are called "Marka" –

3312-574: The Venetian language shared many phonetic features with Friulian and Ladin and so he thought that Friulian was a much more conservative language. Many features that Ascoli thought were peculiar to the Rhaeto-Romance languages can, in fact, be found in other languages of Northern Italy . Today, Friulian is spoken in the province of Udine , including the area of the Carnia Alps , but as well throughout

3404-510: The gyepű was not controlled by a Marquess. The Gyepű was a strip of land that was specially fortified or made impassable, while gyepűelve was the mostly uninhabited or sparsely inhabited land beyond it. The gyepűelve is much more comparable to modern buffer zones than traditional European marches. Portions of the gyepű were usually guarded by tribes who had joined the Hungarian nation and were granted special rights for their services at

3496-461: The province of Pordenone , in half of the province of Gorizia , and in the eastern part of the province of Venice . In the past, the language borders were wider since in Trieste and Muggia , local variants of Friulian were spoken. The main document about the dialect of Trieste, or tergestino , is "Dialoghi piacevoli in dialetto vernacolo triestino", published by G. Mainati in 1828. Friuli was, until

3588-488: The -e is changed to -is (whilst a/o-ending dialects simply add an s) The plural of almost all other nouns is just -s. It is always pronounced as voiceless [s], as in English cats , never as voiced [z], as in dogs . In some Friulian dialects, there are many words whose final consonant becomes silent when the -s is added. The words include just about all those whose singular form ends in -t. The plural of gjat , for example,

3680-436: The 13th century and are mainly commercial or juridical acts. The examples show that Friulian was used together with Latin, which was still the administrative language. The main examples of literature that have survived (much from this period has been lost ) are poems from the 14th century and are usually dedicated to the theme of love and are probably inspired by the Italian poetic movement Dolce Stil Novo . The most notable work

3772-535: The 17th century. From 1470 until the Revolution the province was under the jurisdiction of the parlement of Paris. Several communes of France are named similarly: The Germanic tribes that Romans called Marcomanni , who battled the Romans in the 1st and 2nd centuries, were simply the "men of the borderlands". Marches were territorial organisations created as borderlands in the Carolingian Empire and had

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3864-530: The 1960s, an area of deep poverty, causing a large number of Friulian speakers to emigrate. Most went to France , Belgium , and Switzerland or outside Europe , to Canada , Mexico , Australia , Uruguay , Argentina , Brazil , Venezuela , the United States , and South Africa . In those countries, there are associations of Friulian immigrants (called Fogolâr furlan ) that try to protect their traditions and language. The first texts in Friulian date back to

3956-498: The 9th century, in addition to the County of Barcelona , included Cerdanya , Girona and Urgell . Communications were arduous, and the power centre was far away. Primitive feudal entities developed, self-sufficient and agrarian, each ruled by a small hereditary military elite. The sequence in the County of Barcelona exhibits a pattern that emerges similarly in marches everywhere: the count

4048-686: The Anglo-Saxon invaders, although P. Hunter Blair has argued an alternative interpretation that they emerged along the frontier between the Kingdom of Northumbria and the inhabitants of the River Trent valley. Latinizing the Anglo-Saxon term mearc , the border areas between England and Wales were collectively known as the Welsh Marches ( marchia Wallia ), while the native Welsh lands to the west were considered Wales Proper ( pura Wallia ). The Norman lords in

4140-752: The Austrian boundary. Other main peaks of Carnia are: The most important river is the Tagliamento , which springs near the Mauria Pass (in the municipality of Lorenzago di Cadore ) at an altitude of around 1000 meters. Along its long way throughout Carnia, the Tagliamento river receives water from 6 tributaries, all coming from left with respect to it: the Bût , the Degano , the Lumiei ,

4232-450: The Carni in a battle of 15 November 115 BC. Later on, the Carni, characterised by a docile temper and who had been defeated in battle, submitted to Rome, accepting its commands and its concessions. In the course of the following centuries, the Carni and Roman customs and blood, along with the aboriginal Raeti , would get mixed and this union of deeply different cultures would slowly give rise to

4324-560: The Friulian language and greatly influence the Friulian pronunciation of Italian. Friulian distinguishes between short and long vowels: in the following minimal pairs (long vowels are marked in the official orthography with a circumflex accent): Friulian dialects differ in their treatment of long vowels. In certain dialects, some of the long vowels are actually diphthongs. The following chart shows how six words ( sêt thirst, pît foot, fîl "wire", pôc (a) little, fûc fire, mûr "wall") are pronounced in four dialects. Each dialect uses

4416-593: The Italian side) between Fella and the upper Isonzo rivers, and the adjacent Carnic Prealps . The north side of the Carnic ridge sets up the boundary with Austria ; on the south it is delimited by the stream Pontebbana , and, on the upper side of Pontebba , by the flow of the Fella. Mount Coglians (m. 2780) is the highest peak of the Carnic Alps. Together with the cluster of Creta delle Cjanevate it forms an impressive horst at

4508-593: The Kingdom of Hungary and was controlled by a Count or Countess. In addition to the Carolingian Marca Hispanica , Iberia was home to several marches set up by the native states. The future kingdoms of Portugal and Castile were founded as marcher counties intended to protect the Kingdom of León from the Cordoban Emirate , to the south and east respectively. Likewise, Córdoba set up its own marches as

4600-599: The Pious ventured beyond the province of Septimania and eventually took Barcelona from the Moorish emir in 801. Thus he established a foothold in the borderland between the Franks and the Moors. The Carolingian "Hispanic Marches" ( Marca Hispanica ) became a buffer zone ruled by a number of feudal lords, among them the count of Barcelona . It had its own outlying territories, each ruled by

4692-661: The Roman Empire and the Migration Period , the area was subdued by invading Germanic Ostrogoths under Theodoric the Great and later by the Lombards , who incorporated it into the Duchy of Friuli , part of their Italian kingdom . With adjacent Carantania , Carnia was conquered by Frankish forces in the 774 campaign of Charlemagne . The Friulian dukes, successors of Hrodgaud (d. 776), continued to rule as Carolingian vassals until

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4784-412: The Roman expansion and to acquire the fertile and more hospitable plains, the Carni tried to form alliances with the Histrian , the Iapode , and the Taurisci Celts. As Rome, in turn, was more and more becoming aware of the impending danger coming from the Carni and as it wanted to accelerate its own expansion, it sent to the north-east the legions of consul Marcus Aemilius Scaurus , who finally defeated

4876-402: The Welsh Marches were to become the new Marcher Lords . The title Earl of March is at least two distinct feudal titles : one in the northern marches, as an alternative title for the Earl of Dunbar (c. 1290 in the Peerage of Scotland ); and one, that was held by the family of Mortimer (1328 in the Peerage of England ), in the west Welsh Marches . The Scottish Marches is a term for

4968-407: The border regions on both sides of the border between England and Scotland. From the Norman conquest of England until the reign of King James VI of Scotland , who also became King James I of England , border clashes were common and the monarchs of both countries relied on Marcher Lords to defend the frontier areas known as the Marches. They were hand-picked for their suitability for the challenges

5060-438: The borders, such as the Székelys , Pechenegs and Cumans . A ban on settlement north of Niš by the Byzantine Empire in the twelfth century helped to establish uninhabited marchland between the empire's territory and Hungary. The Hungarian gyepű originates from the Turkish yapi meaning palisade . During the 17th and 18th centuries these borderlands were called Markland in the area of Transylvania that bordered with

5152-416: The commanderies formed the front lines between the major states , however, their military strength and strategic importance were typically much greater than the counties'. Over time, however, the commanderies were eventually developed into regular provinces and then discontinued entirely during the Tang dynasty reforms. The European concept of marches applies just as well to the fief of Matsumae clan on

5244-476: The deposition of Duke Baldric of Friuli by Emperor Louis the Pious in 828, when it finally became a Carolingian march . In the 843 Treaty of Verdun , the area south of the main chain of the Carnic Alps was attributed to the realm of Emperor Lothair I (" Middle Francia "), it was inherited by his eldest son, King Louis II of Italy in 855. When in 888 Margrave Berengar I of Friuli was crowned King of Italy , he moved his residence to Verona and established

5336-402: The early ninth century, Charlemagne issued his new kind of land grant, the aprisio , which redisposed land belonging to the Imperial fisc in deserted areas, and included special rights and immunities that resulted in a range of independence of action. Historians interpret the aprisio both as the basis of feudalism and in economic and military terms as a mechanism to entice settlers to

5428-410: The elevation of 400–500 metres stand durmast and chestnut forests and some submontane cultivation zones, but very soon thereafter they are replaced by the mountain flora, typical of the forests: beechwood, fir-wood, and pine-wood. Above 1,500 m, the arboreal vegetation becomes rather poor, and trees become more and more sparse, small and stunted up to the tree line, which in Carnia stands at 1,700 metres –

5520-516: The elided one: la acuile (the eagle) although in speech the two a sounds are pronounced as a single one. In the spoken language, various other articles are used. The indefinite article in Friulian (which corresponds to a and an in English) derives from the Latin unus and varies according to gender: A partitive article also exists: des for feminine and dai for masculine: des vacjis – some cows and dai libris - some books A Friulian adjective must agree in gender and number with

5612-408: The final -t to -cj Some masculine nouns ending in -t form their plurals by palatalising the final -t to -cj: Nouns ending in "s" do not change spelling in the plural, but some speakers may pronounce the plural -s differently from the singular -s. The plural of an (year) has several forms depending on dialect, including ain , ains , agn and agns . Regardless of pronunciation, the written form

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5704-453: The following areas have been declared as protected: 46°23′40″N 12°46′27″E  /  46.3944°N 12.7742°E  / 46.3944; 12.7742 Friulian language A question that causes many debates is the influence of the Latin spoken in Aquileia and surrounding areas. Some claim that it had peculiar features that later passed into Friulian. Epigraphs and inscriptions from that period show some variants if compared to

5796-421: The following century, when literary works also emerged ( Frammenti letterari for example). The main centre at that time was Cividale . The Friulian language has never acquired primary official status: legal statutes were first written in Latin, then in Venetian and finally in Italian. The idea of unity among Ladin , Romansh and Friulian comes from the Italian historical linguist Graziadio Isaia Ascoli , who

5888-413: The following vowel was lost. Friulian vowel length has no relation to vowel length in Classical Latin. For example, Latin valet yields vâl "it is worth" with a long vowel, but Latin vallem yields val "valley" with a short vowel. Long vowels aren't found when the following vowel is preserved, e.g.: It is quite possible that vowel lengthening occurred originally in all stressed open syllables, and

5980-535: The independent, though socially and economically dependent arc of small territories from the principality of Castiglione in the northwest across the south to the duchy of Mirandola southeast of Mantua : the lords of Bozolo , Sabioneta , Dosolo , Guastalla , the count of Novellare . In medieval Hungary the system of gyepű and gyepűelve , effective until the mid-13th century, can be considered as marches even though in its organisation it shows major differences from Western European feudal marches. For one thing,

6072-406: The large Italian Marca Veronensis et Aquileiensis , comprising Friuli with Carnia, Veneto (except for Venice itself) and Trentino . In 951 Berengar's grandson King Berengar II of Italy had to lay down arms against the invading forces of King Otto I of Germany . At the 952 Imperial Diet of Augsburg , he had to declare himself an East Frankish vassal, and the whole Veronese march came under

6164-451: The larger landscape. Some counts aspired to the characteristically Frankish (Germanic) title " Margrave of the Hispanic March", a "margrave" being a graf ("count") of the march. The early history of Andorra provides a fairly typical career of another such march county, the only modern survivor in the Pyrenees of the Hispanic Marches. The province of France called Marche ( Occitan : la Marcha ), sometimes Marche Limousine ,

6256-658: The latter. A final -ç, which is pronounced either as the English "-ch" (in central Friulian) or as "-s", is pluralized in writing as -çs, regardless of whether the pluralized pronunciation is "-s" or "-ts" (it varies according to dialect): messaç / messaçs (message). Masculine nouns ending in -l or -li form their plurals by palatalising final -l or -li to -i. Notice how these very often correspond to French nouns that form an irregular plural in - x : cheval-chevaux, chapeau-chapeaux, cheveu-cheveux, oeil-yeux, genou-genoux . Feminine nouns ending in -l have regular plurals. Masculine nouns ending in -st form their plurals by palatalising

6348-412: The lowest of the Alpine regions Further on, only bushes and emerald-green pastures can be found. In late spring on the highland pastures, a colourful display of wild azaleas and gentians can be observed. The climate is severe, with very harsh winters and cool summers. It is characterised by strong winds and abundant precipitation. In comparison to the other areas of the Alps in Carnia the tree line

6440-552: The marches were given the power to terminate indictments. In later years, wardens of the Irish marches took Irish tenants. Marquis , marchese and margrave ( Markgraf ) all had their origins in feudal lords who held trusted positions in the borderlands. The English title was a foreign importation from France, tested out tentatively in 1385 by Richard II , but not naturalized until the mid-15th century, and now more often spelled " marquess ". The specific subdivisions of Armenia are each called marz, մարզ (pl. "marzer, մարզեր"),

6532-402: The marches. For example, the forests surrounding Oslo are called Nordmarka , Østmarka and Vestmarka  – i.e. the northern, eastern and western marches. In Norway, there are – or have been – the counties: In Finland, mark occurs in the following placenames in Satakunta : In Värmland in Sweden , Nordmark Hundred was the frontier area near the border to Norway. Almost all of it

6624-707: The mountainous region of the province, but not the eastern part (the Julian Alps ), therefore it borders Veneto and the Austrian state of Carinthia , but not Slovenia . The main town is Tolmezzo . Carnia is formed of seven valleys. Through each of them runs a stream from which the valleys take their name (except for Valcalda). Each of these valleys is usually referred to as a canale (in Italian) / cjanâl (in Friulian), i.e. an outfall , to emphasize its long and narrow shape: Each of these valleys and their homonymous streams meet in

6716-458: The name of his earldom for several reasons: Welsh marches referred to several counties, whereby the title signified superiority compared to usual single county-based earldoms. Mercia was an ancient kingdom. His wife's ancestors had been Counts of La Marche and Angouleme in France. In Ireland , a hybrid system of marches existed which was condemned as barbaric at the time. The Irish marches constituted

6808-441: The noun it qualifies. Most adjectives have four forms for singular (masculine and feminine) and plural (masculine and feminine): (Like for nouns, for a/o-ending dialects the plural is simply obtained by adding an s - e.g. brute corresponds to bruta/bruto and its plural form brutis is brutas/brutos ). The feminine is formed in several ways from the masculine: To form the plural of masculine and feminine nouns ending in -e,

6900-484: The outcome /i(ː)/ in originally open syllables (see above). Additional complications: Synchronic analyses of vowel length in Friulian often claim that it occurs predictably in final syllables before an underlying voiced obstruent , which is then devoiced. Analyses of this sort have difficulty with long-vowel contrasts that occur non-finally (e.g. pâri "father" mentioned above) or not in front of obstruents (e.g. fi "fig" vs. fî "son", val "valley" vs. vâl "it

6992-440: The piedmont zone of Friuli. They practiced hunting and breeding. During the hard winters the herders used to move with their cattle down to the piedmont plains. Also they were skilful iron and wood manufacturers. The Carni were headed by a king and a sacerdotal caste of druids . The first historical date related to the arrival of the Carni is 186 BC, when some 50,000 Carni, composed of armed men, women and children descended towards

7084-544: The plains (in which they previously used to winter) and on a hill they founded a stable defensive settlement, Akileja . The Romans , concerned by the expansion of this people, in 183 BC forced back the Carni to the mountains, they destroyed their settlement and they founded a defensive settlement at the north-east boundaries. The new settlement was named Aquileia , after the former Celtic name Akileja. The triumvirs that founded that settlement were Publius Scipio Nasica, Caius Flaminius and Lucius Manlius Acidinus. In order to stem

7176-509: The responsibilities presented. Patrick Dunbar, 8th Earl of Dunbar , a descendant of the Earls of Northumbria was recognized in the end of the 13th century to use the name March as his earldom in Scotland, otherwise known as Dunbar, Lothian, and Northumbrian border. Roger Mortimer, 1st Earl of March , Regent of England together with Isabella of France during the minority of her son, Edward III ,

7268-581: The rule of the German stem duchy of Bavaria . In 976 it became part of the newly established Duchy of Carinthia . Carnia and Carinthia again went separate ways, when in 1077 King Henry IV of Germany during the Investiture Controversy with Pope Gregory VII split off large parts of Friuli to establish the Patriarchate of Aquileia as an Imperial State . As the patriarchate was gradually conquered by

7360-559: The southern tip of Hokkaidō which was at Japan's northern border with the Ainu people of Hokkaidō , known as Ezo at the time. In 1590, this land was granted to the Kakizaki clan, who took the name Matsumae from then on. The Lords of Matsumae, as they are sometimes called, were exempt from owing rice to the shōgun in tribute, and from the sankin-kōtai system established by Tokugawa Ieyasu , under which most lords ( daimyōs ) had to spend half

7452-520: The standard Latin language, but most of them are common to other areas of the Roman Empire. Often, it is cited that Fortunatianus , the bishop of Aquileia c. 342–357 AD, wrote a commentary to the Gospel in sermo rusticus (the common/ rustic language), which, therefore, would have been quite divergent from the standard Latin of administration. The text itself did not survive so its language cannot be examined, but its attested existence testifies to

7544-510: The territory between English and Irish-dominated lands, which appeared as soon as the English did and were called by King John to be fortified. By the 14th century, they had become defined as the land between The Pale and the rest of Ireland. Local Anglo-Irish and Gaelic chieftains who acted as powerful spokespeople were recognised by the Crown and given a degree of independence. Uniquely, the keepers of

7636-683: The territory's position on the Anglo-Saxon frontier with the Romano-British to the west. During the Frankish Carolingian dynasty , usage of the word spread throughout Europe. The name "Denmark" preserves the Old Norse cognates merki ("boundary") mǫrk ("wood", "forest") up to the present. Following the Anschluss , the Nazi German government revived the old name "Ostmark" for Austria. In

7728-399: The titles marquess (masculine) or marchioness (feminine). The word "march" derives ultimately from a Proto-Indo-European root * mereg- , meaning "edge, boundary". The root * mereg- produced Latin margo ("margin"), Old Irish mruig ("borderland"), Welsh bro ("region, border, valley") and Persian and Armenian marz ("borderland"). The Proto-Germanic *marko gave rise to

7820-407: The west by Poitou. It embraced the greater part of the modern département of Creuse , a considerable part of the northern Haute-Vienne , and a fragment of Indre , up to Saint-Benoît-du-Sault . Its area was about 1,900 square miles (4,900 km ) its capital was Charroux and later Guéret , and among its other principal towns were Dorat , Bellac and Confolens . Marche first appeared as

7912-472: The words of Rhaetic, Venetic or Celtic origin include terms referring to mountains, woods, plants, or animals, as well as local toponyms and onomastics (e.g. names of villages with -acco , -icco ). Even influences from the Lombardic language — Friuli was one of their strongholds — are present. In a similar manner, there is a unique connection to the modern, nearby Lombard language . In Friulian, there

8004-642: The year at court (in the capital of Edo ). By guarding the border, rather than conquering or colonizing Ezo, the Matsumae, in essence, made the majority of the island an Ainu reservation. This also meant that Ezo, and the Kurile Islands beyond, were left essentially open to Russian colonization. However, the Russians never did colonize Ezo, and the marches were officially eliminated during the Meiji Restoration in

8096-591: Was a usurper who had deposed, and allegedly arranged the murder of, King Edward II. He was created an earl in September 1328 at the height of his de facto rule. His wife was Joan de Geneville, 2nd Baroness Geneville , whose mother, Jeanne of Lusignan was one of the heiresses of the French Counts of La Marche and Angouleme . His family, Mortimer Lords of Wigmore , had been border lords and leaders of defenders of Welsh marches for centuries. He selected March as

8188-503: Was afterwards once more recovered by the Church and governed by papal legates as part of the Papal States . The Marche became part of the Kingdom of Italy in 1860. After Italian unification in the 1860s, Austria-Hungary still controlled territory Italian nationalists still claimed as part of Italy . One of these territories was Austrian Littoral , which Italian nationalists began to call

8280-451: Was born in Gorizia . In 1871, he presented his theory that these three languages are part of one family, which in the past stretched from Switzerland to Muggia and perhaps also Istria . The three languages are the only survivors of this family and all developed differently. Friulian was much less influenced by German . The scholar Francescato claimed subsequently that until the 14th century,

8372-767: Was later lost in non-final syllables. Evidence of this is found, for example, in the divergent outcome of Vulgar Latin */ɛ/ , which becomes /jɛ/ in originally closed syllables but /i(ː)/ in Central Friulian in originally open syllables, including when non-finally. Examples: siet "seven" < Vulgar Latin */sɛtte/ < Latin SEPTEM , word-final pît "foot" < Vulgar Latin */pɛde/ < Latin PEDEM , non-word-final tivit /ˈtivit/ "tepid, lukewarm" < Vulgar Latin */tɛpedu/ < Latin TEPIDUM . An additional source of vowel length

8464-509: Was originally a small border district between the Duchy of Aquitaine and the domains of the Frankish kings in central France, partly of Limousin and partly of Poitou . Its area was increased during the 13th century and remained the same until the French Revolution . Marche was bounded on the north by Berry , on the east by Bourbonnais and Auvergne ; on the south by Limousin itself and on

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