Misplaced Pages

#17982

53-690: The Carmen Saliare is a fragment of archaic Latin , which played a part in the rituals performed by the Salii (Salian priests , a.k.a. "leaping priests") of Ancient Rome . There are 35 extant fragments of the Carmen Saliare , which can be read in Morel's FPL . The rituals revolved around Mars and Quirinus , and were performed in March and October. These involved processions in which they donned archaic armour and weapons, performed their sacred dance , and sang

106-405: A stem . Stems are classified by their last letters as vowel or consonant. Vowel stems are formed by adding a suffix to a shorter and more ancient segment called a root . Consonant stems are the root (roots end in consonants). The combination of the last letter of the stem and the case ending often results in an ending also called a case ending or termination. For example, the stem puella- receives

159-443: A case ending -m to form the accusative case puellam in which the termination -am is evident. In Classical Latin textbooks the declensions are named from the letter ending the stem or First, Second, etc. to Fifth. A declension may be illustrated by a paradigm , or listing of all the cases of a typical word. This method is less often applied to Old Latin, and with less validity. In contrast to Classical Latin, Old Latin reflects

212-527: A comb-like instrument to create rows of dots arranged in fan patterns. On later examples a roller with recessed reliefs was used to transfer figures of deities or even narratives to the surface of the vessel. During the Orientalizing period and on into the Archaic, bucchero sottile production continued but gradually lost its unique character as Etruria became increasingly Hellenized. As Rome began to nibble away at

265-603: A consonant declension, in the nominative singular, the -s was affixed directly to the stem consonant, but the combination of the two consonants produced modified nominatives over the Old Latin period. The case appears in different stages of modification in different words diachronically. The Latin neuter form (not shown) is the Indo-European nominative without stem ending; for example, cor < *cord "heart". The genitive singular endings include -is < -es and -us < *-os . In

318-410: A few masculines indicates the nominative singular case ending may have been originally -s: paricidas for later parricida , but the -s tended to get lost. In the nominative plural, -ī replaced original -s as in the genitive singular. In the genitive singular, the -s was replaced with -ī from the second declension, the resulting diphthong shortening to -ai subsequently becoming -ae. The original form

371-454: A meaning as puella , so Roma, which is singular, and Syracusae, which is plural, have been substituted. The locative plural has already merged with the -eis form of the ablative. The stems of the nouns of the o-declension end in ŏ deriving from the o-grade of Indo-European ablaut . Classical Latin evidences the development ŏ > ŭ. Nouns of this declension are either masculine or neuter. Nominative singulars ending in -ros or -ris syncopate

424-420: A somewhat vague term ... Bell, De locativi in prisca Latinitate vi et usu , Breslau, 1889, sets the later limit at 75 BC. A definite date is really impossible, since archaic Latin does not terminate abruptly, but continues even down to imperial times." Bennett's own date of 100 BC did not prevail; rather Bell's 75 BC became the standard as expressed in the four-volume Loeb Library and other major compendia. Over

477-419: Is maintained in some formulas, e.g. pater familiās . The genitive plural ending -āsōm (classical -ārum following rhotacism ), borrowed from the pronouns, began to overtake original -om. In the dative singular the final i is either long or short. The ending becomes -ae, -a (Feronia) or -e (Fortune). In the accusative singular, Latin regularly shortens a vowel before final m. In the ablative singular, -d

530-442: Is thought to be essentially the same as in classical Latin: These differences did not necessarily run concurrently with each other and were not universal; that is, c was used for both c and g. Old Latin is thought to have had a strong stress on the first syllable of a word until about 250 BC. All syllables other than the first were unstressed and were subjected to greater amounts of phonological weakening. Starting around that year,

583-587: The Annales written by Roman historian Tacitus , it is revealed that several Romans proposed the name of Germanicus to be added to the Salian Song, as a memory of his virtue and goodwill. Two fragments which have been preserved by Marcus Terentius Varro in his De Lingua Latina , 7.26, 27 (fragment 2 and 1 by Maurenbrecher's numbering): The mysterious cozeulodorieso has attracted several proposals. Julius Pomponius Laetus proposed in his editio princeps

SECTION 10

#1732844493018

636-528: The Carmen Saliare . As a body they existed before the founding of the Roman Republic , tracing their origin back to the reign of Numa Pompilius . The Salian priests were chosen from the sons of patrician families whose parents were still living. They were appointed for life, though they were allowed to resign from the Salian priesthood if they achieved a more prestigious priesthood or a major magistracy. In

689-558: The Etruscan alphabet as it evolved into the Latin alphabet . The writing conventions varied by time and place until classical conventions prevailed. A part of old inscriptions, texts in the original writing system have been lost or transcribed by later copyists. Old Latin could be written from right to left (as were Etruscan and early Greek) or boustrophedon . Some differences between old and classical Latin were of spelling only; pronunciation

742-650: The Orientalizing period , in the first half of the seventh century BC. Other Old Latin inscriptions dated to either the late Roman Kingdom or early Roman Republic include the Lapis Niger stone, the Duenos Inscription on a kernos vase, and the Garigliano bowl of Bucchero type. The concept of Old Latin ( Prisca Latinitas ) is as old as the concept of Classical Latin – both labels date to at least as early as

795-708: The kings , mainly songs. Thus, the laws of the Twelve Tables (5th century BC) from the early Republic were comprehensible, but the Carmen Saliare , probably written under Numa Pompilius (who according to tradition reigned from 715 to 673 BC), was not entirely clear (and remains so). On the other hand, Polybius , a Greek historian of Rome who flourished in the late second century BC, commented on "the first treaty between Rome and Carthage ", (which he dated to 28 years before Xerxes I crossed into Greece; that is, in 508 BC) that "the ancient Roman language differs so much from

848-410: The kyathos , to the list of Greek vase types. The Nikosthenic amphora with its wide, flat handles was yet another example of Greek potters looking to Etruscan prototypes. The bucchero wares of Etruria even offered some export competition to Greek pottery. In the production of bucchero sottile, the shape of the pot held pride of place, with surface decoration playing a supporting role. When decoration

901-464: The metalwares imported from these cultures. The potters of Etruria were able to offer their customers a locally produced and less-expensive ceramic equivalent to the desirable but costly metal products arriving from the east. Some of the Etruscan potshops even carried metalware imitation to the point of covering the surface of bucchero vessels with thin sheets of silver in an attempt to visually duplicate

954-420: The "national" pottery of ancient Etruria , bucchero ware is distinguished by its black fabric as well as glossy, black surface achieved through the unique " reduction " method in which it was fired . After the leather-hard unfired ware was arranged in the kiln and the fire started, the vent holes were closed, thus reducing the supply of oxygen required in a normal kiln firing. In the smoke-filled atmosphere of

1007-508: The 18th century. The definition is not arbitrary, but the terms refer to spelling conventions and word forms not generally found in works written under the Roman Empire . This article presents some of the major differences. The earliest known specimen of Latin seems to be on the Praeneste fibula . An analysis done in 2011 declared it to be genuine "beyond any reasonable doubt" and dating from

1060-558: The 377 years from 452 to 75 BC, Old Latin evolved from texts partially comprehensible by classicists with study to being easily read by scholars. Old Latin authored works began in the 3rd century BC. These are complete or nearly complete works under their own name surviving as manuscripts copied from other manuscripts in whatever script was current at the time. There are also fragments of works quoted in other authors. Many texts placed by various methods (painting, engraving, embossing) on their original media survive just as they were except for

1113-668: The Classical Latin stress system began to develop. It passed through at least one intermediate stage, found in Plautus , in which the stress occurred on the fourth last syllable in four-syllable words with all short syllables. Most original PIE ( Proto-Indo-European ) diphthongs were preserved in stressed syllables, including /ai/ (later ae ); /ei/ (later ī ); /oi/ (later ū , or sometimes oe ); /ou/ (from PIE /eu/ and /ou/ ; later ū ). The Old Latin diphthong ei evolves in stages: ei > ẹ̄ > ī . The intermediate sound ẹ̄

SECTION 20

#1732844493018

1166-619: The Etruscans. During the Archaic period , the ever-increasing impact of the Greek aesthetic on Etruscan culture can be noted in the influence of Greek vase shapes on the design choices of the bucchero potters. Etruscan potters, however, made their own contributions to the Hellenic ceramic vocabulary by adding the form of the two-handled drinking cup, the kantharos , and that of the related single-handled cup,

1219-501: The adjective always meant these remnants of a previous language, which, in Roman philology , was taken to be much older in fact than it really was. Viri prisci , "old-time men", meant the population of Latium before the founding of Rome . In the Late Latin period, when Classical Latin was behind them, Latin- and Greek-speaking grammarians were faced with multiple phases, or styles, within

1272-573: The application of a thin slip (clay emulsion ). The term Bucchero derives from the Portuguese word búcaro , meaning "odorous clay", because this type of pottery was reputed to emit a special odor. In the 18th and 19th century in Europe a lot of interest was shown for a particular type Pre-Columbian pottery in a black color. These ceramics were therefore shipped in large numbers from South America to Europe, where they were traded and were imitated. At

1325-473: The brown or tan color found in impasto pottery. Although the shapes of Villanovan pots provided the basics for the Etruscan potters, they added new types and forms largely inspired through intensified trade with the more advanced cultures at the eastern end of the Mediterranean, in particular the areas of Cyprus , Syria , and Phoenicia , as well as Egypt . Many of the new, exotic shapes were in imitation of

1378-427: The consonant-stem in the pre-Latin period and went further in Old Latin. I/y and u/w can be treated as either consonants or vowels; hence they are semi-vowels . Mixed-stem declensions are partly like consonant-stem and partly like i-stem. Consonant-stem declensions vary slightly depending on which consonant is root-final: stop-, r-, n-, s-, etc. The paradigms below include a stop-stem (reg-) and an i-stem (igni-). For

1431-449: The designation 'bucchero' is still common in the scientific literature. The first appearance of a ceramic type that can clearly be classified as bucchero occurred around 675 BCE at the coastal community of Caere (the modern-day Cerveteri ), with somewhat later centers of production to be found at Veii and Tarquinia , both cities, like Caere, located in the southern part of the Etruscan heartland. Bucchero ware would seem to have been

1484-1037: The early songs). This eventually also evolved to ī . Old Latin often had different short vowels from Classical Latin, reflecting sound changes that had not yet taken place. For example, the very early Duenos inscription has the form duenos "good", later found as duonos and still later bonus . A countervailing change wo > we occurred around 150 BC in certain contexts, and many earlier forms are found (e.g. earlier votō, voster, vorsus vs. later vetō, vester, versus ). Old Latin frequently preserves original PIE thematic case endings -os and -om (later -us and -um ). There are many unreduced clusters, e.g. iouxmentom (later iūmentum , "beast of burden"); losna (later lūna , "moon") < * lousna < */leuksnā/; cosmis (> cōmis , "courteous"); stlocum , acc. (> locum , "place"). Early du /dw/ becomes b : duenos > duonos > bonus "good"; duis > bis "twice"; duellom > bellum "war". Final /d/ occurred in ablatives, such as puellād "from

1537-417: The ending: *agros > *agrs > *agers > *agerr > ager . (The form terr "three times" for later ter < *tris appears in Plautus .) Many alternative spellings occur: This declension contains nouns that are masculine, feminine, and neuter. The stem ends in the root consonant, except in the special case where it ends in -i (i-stem declension). The i-stem, which is a vowel-stem, partly fused with

1590-537: The evolution of the language from an ancestor spoken in Latium . The endings are multiple. Their use depends on time and place. Any paradigm selected would be subject to these constraints and if applied to the language universally would give false constructs, hypothetical words not attested in the Old Latin corpus. Nevertheless, the endings are shown below by quasi-classical paradigms. Alternate endings from different stages of development are given, but they may not be attested for

1643-406: The genitive plural, some forms appear to affix the case ending to the genitive singular rather than the stem: regerum < * reg-is-um . In the dative singular, -ī succeeded -eī and -ē after 200 BC. In the accusative singular, -em < *-ṃ after a consonant. In the ablative singular, the -d was lost after 200 BC. In the dative and ablative plural, the early poets sometimes used -būs. In

Carmen Saliare - Misplaced Pages Continue

1696-423: The girl" or campōd "from the field", later puellā and campō . In verb conjugation, the third-person ending - d later became - t , e.g. Old Latin faced > Classical facit. Latin nouns have grammatical case , with an ending, or suffix, showing its use in the sentence: subject, predicate, etc. A case for a given word is formed by suffixing a case ending to a part of the word common to all its cases called

1749-735: The interpretation osculo dolori ero "I shall be as a kiss to grief", though his emendations are now dismissed as "editorial fantasy". George Hempl restored it more carefully to coceulod orieso , attested in some manuscripts aside from the spacing, which is good archaic Latin for classical cucūlō oriēre "(thou shalt) come forth with the cuckoo ". A fragment preserved by Quintus Terentius Scaurus in his De orthographia (fragment 6 by Maurenbrecher's numbering): An excerpt of it: Old Latin Old Latin , also known as Early , Archaic or Priscan Latin (Classical Latin : prīsca Latīnitās , lit.   'ancient Latinity'),

1802-423: The kiln, the oxygen-starved flames drew oxygen molecules from the iron oxide of the pottery. This process caused the fabric of the clay to change color from its natural red to black. Thus, in contrast to the black- glazed Campanian ware of the Greek colonists in southern Italy , the lustrous , shiny, black surface of many bucchero pots was achieved by diligent burnishing (polishing) or, occasionally, through

1855-468: The language. Isidore of Seville ( c. 560 – 636) reports a classification scheme that had come into existence in or before his time: "the four Latins" ("Moreover, some people have said that there are four Latin languages"; "Latinas autem linguas quattuor esse quidam dixerunt" ). They were: This scheme persisted with little change for some thousand years after Isidore. In 1874, John Wordsworth used this definition: "By Early Latin I understand Latin of

1908-404: The late Roman Republic . In that period Cicero , along with others, noted that the language he used every day, presumably upper-class city Latin, included lexical items and phrases that were heirlooms from a previous time, which he called verborum vetustas prisca , translated as "the old age/time of language". In the classical period, Prisca Latinitas , Prisca Latina and other idioms using

1961-453: The locative singular, the earliest form is like the dative but over the period assimilated to the ablative. In the instrumental singular, the earliest form is an -e during its early days. The stems of the nouns of the u-declension end in ŭ and are masculine, feminine and neuter. In addition there is a ū-stem declension, which contains only a few "isolated" words, such as sūs , "pig", and is not presented here. Bucchero Regarded as

2014-484: The luxurious imports. The Orientalizing manner is most apparent in the earliest phase of bucchero production which also is distinguished by the remarkable thinness of the walls of the vessels. Known as bucchero sottile , or delicate bucchero, this ware represents a technical achievement elevating the potters who turned them to the ranks of the very finest ceramicists . So thin-walled are some of bucchero sottile vessels (in some cases, less than 2mm in thickness), such as

2067-513: The modern that it can only be partially made out, and that after much application by the most intelligent men". There is no sharp distinction between Old Latin, as it was spoken for most of the Republic, and Classical Latin, but the earlier grades into the latter. The end of the republic was too late a termination for compilers after Wordsworth; Charles Edwin Bennett said, " 'Early Latin' is necessarily

2120-455: The natural sequel to the impasto pottery associated with the earlier Villanovan culture from which the Etruscan civilization, itself, had evolved. Etruscan pottery is distinguished from Villanovan impasto by the more sophisticated processing of the clays used which were finely levigated to remove the traces of grit common in the earlier pottery, by its being uniformly turned on a potter's wheel , by its carbonized black fabric in contrast to

2173-481: The products of the Cornacchiola Tomb Potter of Caere, that it is probable that they were turned specifically for funereal purposes rather than for general household use. On the other hand, the broad distribution of bucchero sherds at ancient Caere, Veii , and Tarquinia and at other area sites points to less extreme examples of bucchero sottile as having had a more practical function in the daily life of

Carmen Saliare - Misplaced Pages Continue

2226-459: The ravages of time. Some of these were copied from other inscriptions. No inscription can be older than the introduction of the Greek alphabet into Italy but none survive from that early date. The imprecision of archaeological dating makes it impossible to assign a year to any one inscription, but the earliest survivals are probably from the 6th century BC. Some texts, however, that survive as fragments in

2279-515: The same time, in Italy, 'etruscheria' (Etruscan-style artefacts) was in large demand and major digs were organized in Tuscany and Umbria in the quest for Etruscan antiquities. Because of the similarities with the popular South American ceramics, the striking black pottery that was found in Etruscan tombs was called 'bucchero'. This Italianate form became established in archaeological terminology and even today

2332-404: The spelling of original occurrences of ī that did not evolve from ei (e.g. in the genitive singular -ī , which is always spelled -i in the oldest inscriptions but later on can be spelled either -i or -ei ). In unstressed syllables, *oi and *ai had already merged into ei by historic times (except for one possible occurrence of poploe for populī "people" in a late manuscript of one of

2385-417: The still-damp surface of the pot. By the beginning of the fifth century B.C.E., in part due to the growing availability of the elegant pottery of Greece, the demand for native bucchero ware was in a steep decline. Bucchero no longer was exported and, at home, consumers preferred the colorful pottery of the Greek artisans with their narrative and figurative panels. Etruscan potters now devoted their attention to

2438-564: The territories of southern Etruria, centers for producing bucchero shifted northwards to the cities of Chiusi and Vulci . There, during the Classical period , potters put their stamp upon the bucchero tradition by introducing a new variety of the ceramic known as bucchero pesante , or heavy bucchero. In this final phase in the history of bucchero pottery, vessel walls become thicker and proportions squatter. The decoration of bucchero pesante ware typically consisted of mold-formed figures applied to

2491-451: The whole period of the Republic, which is separated very strikingly, both in tone and in outward form, from that of the Empire." Although the differences are striking and can be easily identified by Latin readers, they are not such as to cause a language barrier. Latin speakers of the empire had no reported trouble understanding Old Latin, except for the few texts that must date from the time of

2544-557: The word of the paradigm. For example, in the second declension, * campoe "fields" is unattested, but poploe "peoples" is attested. The locative was a separate case in Old Latin but gradually became reduced in function, and the locative singular form eventually merged with the genitive singular by regular sound change. In the plural, the locative was captured by the ablative case in all Italic languages before Old Latin. The stems of nouns of this declension usually end in -ā and are typically feminine. A nominative case ending of -s in

2597-400: The works of classical authors, had to have been composed earlier than the republic, in the time of the monarchy . These are listed below. Some authors, especially in recent texts, refer to the oldest Latin documents (7th–5th c. BCE) as Very Old Latin (VOL). Notable Old Latin fragments with estimated dates include: Authors: Old Latin surviving in inscriptions is written in various forms of

2650-399: Was regularly lost after a long vowel. In the dative and ablative plural, the -abos descending from Indo-European *-ābhos is used for feminines only ( deabus ). *-ais > -eis > -īs is adapted from -ois of the o-declension. The vocative singular had inherited short -a. This later merged with the nominative singular when -ā was shortened to -ă. The locative case would not apply to such

2703-465: Was simply written e but must have been distinct from the normal long vowel ē because ẹ̄ subsequently merged with ī while ē did not. It is generally thought that ẹ̄ was a higher sound than e (e.g. perhaps [eː] vs. [ɛː] during the time when both sounds existed). Even after the original vowel /ei/ had merged with ī , the old spelling ei continued to be used for a while, with the result that ei came to stand for ī and began to be used in

SECTION 50

#1732844493018

2756-612: Was the Latin language in the period roughly before 75 BC, i.e. before the age of Classical Latin . A member of the Italic languages , it descends from a common Proto-Italic language ; Latino-Faliscan is likely a separate branch from Osco-Umbrian . All these languages may be relatively closely related to Venetic and possibly further to Celtic ; compare the Italo-Celtic hypothesis. The use of "old", "early" and "archaic" has been standard in publications of Old Latin writings since at least

2809-415: Was used, it was usually limited to enhancing the profile of a chalice , a kantharos, or a kyathos with a row of crisply defined hook notches at the point of carination . The bowl of an oinochoe (pitcher) might be emphasized by closely spaced vertical lines incised into the soft clay before firing. Further decoration could be added before the green ware was loaded into the kiln by using a toothed wheel or

#17982