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87-553: Capsaicin ( 8-methyl- N -vanillyl-6-nonenamide ) ( / k æ p ˈ s eɪ s ɪ n / or / k æ p ˈ s eɪ ə s ɪ n / ) is an active component of chili peppers , which are plants belonging to the genus Capsicum . It is a potent irritant for mammals, including humans, and produces a sensation of burning in any tissue with which it comes into contact. Capsaicin and several related amides (capsaicinoids) are produced as secondary metabolites by chili peppers, likely as deterrents against certain mammals and fungi. Pure capsaicin

174-577: A spice to add "heat" to dishes. Capsaicin and the related capsaicinoids give chili peppers their intensity when ingested or applied topically . Chili peppers exhibit a range of heat and flavors. This diversity is the reason behind the availability of different types of chili powder , each offering its own taste and heat level. Chili peppers originated in Central or South America and were first cultivated in Mexico. European explorers brought chili peppers back to

261-411: A "retraction bulb". The synaptic terminal function is lost, as axoplasmic transport ceases and no neurotransmitters are created. The nucleus of the damaged axon undergoes chromatolysis in preparation for axon regeneration. Schwann cells in the distal stump of the nerve and basal lamina components secreted by Schwann cells guide and help stimulate regeneration. The regenerating axon must connect to

348-549: A burning effect on other sensitive areas, such as skin or eyes. The degree of heat found within a food is often measured on the Scoville scale . There has long been a demand for capsaicin-spiced products like chili pepper , and hot sauces such as Tabasco sauce and Mexican salsa . It is common for people to experience pleasurable and even euphoric effects from ingesting capsaicin. Folklore among self-described " chiliheads " attribute this to pain-stimulated release of endorphins ,

435-677: A chemical irritant, for use as less-lethal weapons for control of unruly individuals or crowds. Such products have considerable potential for misuse, and may cause injury or death. Conflicts between farmers and elephants have long been widespread in African and Asian countries, where elephants nightly destroy crops, raid grain houses, and sometimes kill people. Farmers have found the use of chilies effective in crop defense against elephants. Elephants do not like capsaicin due to their large and sensitive olfactory and nasal system. The smell of chili causes them discomfort and deters them from feeding on

522-535: A crushing or burning sensation, and also to the extreme pain experienced with the more common trigeminal neuralgia. ATN pain can be described as heavy, aching, and burning. Affected individuals have a constant migraine-like headache and experience pain in all three trigeminal nerve branches. This includes aching teeth, ear aches, feeling of fullness in sinuses, cheek pain, pain in forehead and temples, jaw pain, pain around eyes, and occasional electric shock-like stabs. Unlike typical neuralgia, this form can also cause pain in

609-485: A different mechanism from the local receptor overload that makes capsaicin effective as a topical analgesic . Capsaicin is used as an analgesic in topical ointments and dermal patches to relieve pain, typically in concentrations between 0.025% and 0.1%. It may be applied in cream form for the temporary relief of minor aches and pains of muscles and joints associated with arthritis , backache, strains and sprains , often in compounds with other rubefacients . It

696-441: A low capsaicin content can be cooked like bell peppers, for example stuffing and roasting them. Hotter varieties need to be handled with care to avoid contact with skin or eyes; washing does not efficiently remove capsaicin from skin. Chilies can be roasted over very hot coals or grilled for a short time, as they break up if overcooked. The leaves of every species of Capsicum are edible, being mildly bitter and nowhere near as hot as

783-439: A normal LEP is often more ambiguous. LEPs can assess damage to both central and peripheral nervous systems. Another method for testing the proper function of a nerve is Quantitative sensory testing (QST). QST relies on analysis of a patient's response to external stimuli of controlled intensity. A stimulus is applied to the skin of the nerve area being tested in ascending and descending orders of magnitude. Clinicians can quantify

870-418: A purely decorative garden plant. Psychologist Paul Rozin suggests that eating ordinary chilies is an example of a "constrained risk" like riding a roller coaster , in which extreme sensations like pain and fear can be enjoyed because individuals know that these sensations are not actually harmful. This method lets people experience extreme feelings without any significant risk of bodily harm. Capsaicin ,

957-500: A review of six clinical trials involving topical capsaicin for treatment of pruritus concluded there was insufficient evidence of effect. Oral capsaicin decreases LDL cholesterol levels moderately. There is insufficient clinical evidence to determine the role of ingested capsaicin on several human disorders, including obesity, diabetes , cancer and cardiovascular diseases . Capsaicinoids are also an active ingredient in riot control and personal defense pepper spray agents. When

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1044-402: A successor to gabapentin (Neurontin). High doses of anticonvulsant medicines—used to block nerve firing— and tricyclic antidepressants are generally effective in treating neuralgia. If medication fails to relieve pain or produces intolerable side effects, surgical treatment may be recommended. Neural augmentative surgeries are used to stimulate the affected nerve. By stimulating the nerve

1131-422: A topical hypersensitivity reaction in the skin. As a member of the vanilloid family, capsaicin binds to a receptor on nociceptor fibers called the vanilloid receptor subtype 1 (TRPV1). TRPV1, which can also be stimulated with heat, protons and physical abrasion, permits cations to pass through the cell membrane when activated. The resulting depolarization of the neuron stimulates it to send impulses to

1218-664: A variety of products. Drying enables chilies grown in temperate regions to be used in winter. For home use, chilies can be dried by threading them with cotton and hanging them up in a warm dry place to dry. Products include whole dried chilies, chili flakes, and chili powder , Fresh or dried chilies are used to make hot sauce , a liquid condiment —usually bottled for commercial use—that adds spice to other dishes. Dried chilies are used to make chili oil , cooking oil infused with chili. In 2020, 36 million tonnes of green chilies and peppers (counted as any Capsicum or Pimenta fruits) were produced worldwide, with China producing 46% of

1305-412: Is a hydrophobic , colorless, highly pungent (i.e., spicy) crystalline solid. Capsaicin is present in large quantities in the placental tissue (which holds the seeds), the internal membranes and, to a lesser extent, the other fleshy parts of the fruits of plants in the genus Capsicum . The seeds themselves do not produce any capsaicin, although the highest concentration of capsaicin can be found in

1392-465: Is a hydrophobic , colorless, odorless, and crystalline-to-waxy solid at room temperature. The quantity of capsaicin varies by variety, and depends on growing conditions. Water-stressed peppers usually produce stronger fruits. When a habanero plant is stressed, for example by shortage of water, the concentration of capsaicin increases in some parts of the fruit. When peppers are consumed by mammals such as humans, capsaicin binds with pain receptors in

1479-602: Is a center of diversification where varieties of all five domesticates were introduced, grown, and consumed in pre-Columbian times. The largest diversity of wild Capsicum peppers is consumed in Bolivia. Bolivian consumers distinguish two basic forms: ulupicas , species with small round fruits including C. eximium , C. cardenasii , C. eshbaughii , and C. caballeroi landraces; and arivivis with small elongated fruits including C. baccatum var. baccatum and C. chacoense varieties. When Christopher Columbus and his crew reached

1566-423: Is a non- photoperiod -sensitive crop. Chilies are vulnerable to pests including aphids , glasshouse red spider mite , and glasshouse whitefly , all of which feed on plant sap. Common diseases include grey mould caused by Botrytis cinerea ; this rots the tissues and produces a brownish-grey mould on the surface. Harvested chilies may be used fresh, or dried, typically on the ground in hot countries, to make

1653-509: Is a potent defense mechanism for chilies, but it does come at a cost. Varying levels of capsaicin in chilies currently appear to be caused by an evolutionary split between surviving in dry environments, and having defense mechanisms against fungal growth, insects, and granivorous mammals. Capsaicin synthesis in chilies places a strain on their water resources. This directly affects their fitness, as it has been observed that standard concentration of capsaicin of peppers in high moisture environments in

1740-483: Is a strong irritant requiring proper protective goggles, respirators, and proper hazardous material-handling procedures. Capsaicin takes effect upon skin contact (irritant, sensitizer), eye contact (irritant), ingestion, and inhalation (lung irritant, lung sensitizer). The LD 50 in mice is 47.2 mg/kg. Painful exposures to capsaicin-containing peppers are among the most common plant-related exposures presented to poison centers. They cause burning or stinging pain to

1827-468: Is also used to reduce the symptoms of peripheral neuropathy , such as post-herpetic neuralgia caused by shingles . A capsaicin transdermal patch ( Qutenza ) for the management of this particular therapeutic indication (pain due to post-herpetic neuralgia) was approved in 2009, as a therapeutic by both the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the European Union. A subsequent application to

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1914-446: Is also used to refer to pain associated with sciatica and brachial plexopathy . Atypical trigeminal neuralgia (ATN) is a rare form of neuralgia and may also be the most misdiagnosed form. The symptoms can be mistaken for migraines , dental problems such as temporomandibular joint disorder , musculoskeletal issues, and hypochondriasis . ATN can have a wide range of symptoms and the pain can fluctuate in intensity from mild aching to

2001-412: Is by deterring insects from laying their eggs on the pepper due to the effects capsaicin has on these insects. Capsaicin can cause intestinal dysplasia upon ingestion, disrupting insect metabolism and causing damage to cell membranes within the insect. This in turn disrupts the standard feeding response of insects. Granivorous mammals pose a risk to the propagation of chilies because their molars grind

2088-440: Is described as either neurapraxia , axonotmesis , or neurotmesis . Following trauma to the nerve, a short onset of afferent impulses, termed "injury discharge", occurs. This occurrence lasts only minutes, but has been linked to the onset of neuropathic pain. When an axon is severed, the segment of the axon distal to the cut degenerates and is absorbed by Schwann cells . The proximal segment fuses, retracts, and swells, forming

2175-417: Is expected after most of these surgical procedures, and neuralgia might return despite the procedure's initial success. Depending on the procedure, other surgical risks include hearing loss, balance problems, infection, and stroke. These surgeries include rhizotomy (where select nerve fibers are destroyed to block pain) and microvascular decompression (where the surgeon moves the vessels that are compressing

2262-414: Is flavoured with a tai pla sauce made with garlic, shallots, galangal, kaffir lime, turmeric, fish paste, and bird's eye chilies. In Jamaica, jerk chicken is spiced with powerful habanero chilies and allspice . Goan vindaloo curry uses the extremely hot ghost pepper or bhut jolokia to create "perhaps [India's] hottest dish". In Bhutan , ema datshi , entirely made of chili mixed with local cheese,

2349-430: Is found in commonly used peppers: The top 8 world's hottest chili peppers (by country) are: Red hot chili peppers are 88% water, 9% carbohydrates , 2% protein , and 0.4% fat (table). In a 100 gram reference amount, chili peppers supply 40 calories , and are a rich source of vitamin C and vitamin B 6 . Due to their unique pungency (spicy heat), chili peppers constitute a crucial part of many cuisines around

2436-480: Is ingested, cold milk may be an effective way to relieve the burning sensation due to caseins in milk, and the water of milk acts as a surfactant , allowing the capsaicin to form an emulsion with it. As of 2007, there was no evidence showing that weight loss is directly correlated with ingesting capsaicin. Well-designed clinical research had not been performed because the pungency of capsaicin in prescribed doses under research prevented subjects from complying in

2523-415: Is more difficult to treat than other types of pain because it does not respond well to normal pain medications. Special medications have become more specific to neuralgia and typically fall under the category of membrane stabilizing drugs or antidepressants such as duloxetine (Cymbalta). The antiepileptic medication pregabalin (Lyrica) was developed specifically for neuralgia and other neuropathic pain as

2610-405: Is not an isolated event and may cause degenerative changes in surrounding neurons. When one or more neurons lose their function or begin to malfunction, abnormal signals sent to the brain may be translated as painful signals. When assessing neuralgia to find the underlying mechanism, a history of the pain, description of pain, physical examination , and experimental examination are required. Pain

2697-506: Is not clear that the capsaicinoid elements of the extract are responsible for its repellency." The first pesticide product using solely capsaicin as the active ingredient was registered with the U.S. Department of Agriculture in 1962. Capsaicin is a banned substance in equestrian sports because of its hypersensitizing and pain-relieving properties. At the show jumping events of the 2008 Summer Olympics , four horses tested positive for capsaicin, which resulted in disqualification. Capsaicin

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2784-502: Is produced by the branched-chain fatty acid pathway and condensed with vanillylamine. Other capsaicinoids are produced by the condensation of vanillylamine with various acyl-CoA products from the branched-chain fatty acid pathway, which is capable of producing a variety of acyl-CoA moieties of different chain length and degrees of unsaturation. All condensation reactions between the products of the phenylpropanoid and branched-chain fatty acid pathway are mediated by capsaicin synthase to produce

2871-722: Is produced synthetically for most applications, it does occur naturally in Capsicum species. The general biosynthetic pathway of capsaicin and other capsaicinoids was elucidated in the 1960s by Bennett and Kirby, and Leete and Louden. Radiolabeling studies identified phenylalanine and valine as the precursors to capsaicin. Enzymes of the phenylpropanoid pathway, phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL), cinnamate 4-hydroxylase (C4H), caffeic acid O -methyltransferase (COMT) and their function in capsaicinoid biosynthesis were identified later by Fujiwake et al., and Sukrasno and Yeoman. Suzuki et al. are responsible for identifying leucine as another precursor to

2958-652: Is recognized as one of the most excruciating pains that can be experienced. Simple stimuli—such as eating, talking, making facial expressions, washing the face, or any light touch or sensation—can trigger an attack (even the sensation of a cool breeze). Attacks may be lone occurrences, clusters of attacks, or constant episodes. Some patients experience muscle spasm , which led to the original term for TN of " tic douloureux " (" tic ", meaning " spasm ", and " douloureux ", meaning "painful", in French ). Glossopharyngeal neuralgia consists of recurring attacks of severe pain in

3045-470: Is subjective to the patient, but pain assessment questionnaires, such as the McGill Pain Questionnaire can be useful for evaluation. Physical examinations usually involve testing responses to stimuli such as touch, temperature, and vibration. Neuralgia can be further classified by the type of stimuli that elicits a response: mechanical, thermal, or chemical. Response to the course of treatment

3132-505: Is the final tool used to determine the mechanism of the pain. Additional tools may be used, predominantly in research settings including Laser Evoked Potentials and Quantitative Sensory testing. Laser evoked potentials (LEPs) are measurements of cortical responses using lasers to selectively stimulate thermonociceptors in the skin. Lasers can emit a radiant-heat pulse stimulus to selectively activate A-delta and C free nerve endings. LEP abnormalities may be indicative of neuropathic pain, while

3219-470: Is the national dish. Many Mexican dishes use chilies of different types, including the jalapeño , poblano , habanero , serrano , chipotle , ancho , pasilla , guajillo , de árbol , cascabel and mulato . These offer a wide range of flavours including citrus, earthy, fruity, and grassy. They are used in many dishes and the spicy mole sauce and Mexican salsa sauces. The contrast in color and appearance makes chili plants interesting to some as

3306-409: Is unknown. However, glossopharyngeal neuralgia sometimes results from an abnormally positioned artery that compresses the glossopharyngeal nerve near where it exits the brain stem. Rarely, the cause is a tumor in the brain or neck. Occipital neuralgia , also known as C2 neuralgia, or Arnold's neuralgia, is a medical condition characterized by chronic pain in the upper neck, back of the head and behind

3393-564: The Old World in the late 16th century as part of the Columbian Exchange , which led to the cultivation of multiple varieties across the world for food and traditional medicine. Five Capsicum species have been widely cultivated: annuum , baccatum , chinense , frutescens , and pubescens . Capsicum plants originated in modern-day Peru and Bolivia , and have been a part of human diets since about 7,500 BC. They are one of

3480-436: The facial area from the jaw to the forehead . The disorder generally causes short episodes of excruciating pain , usually for less than two minutes and usually only one side of the face. The pain can be described in a variety of ways such as "stabbing", "sharp", "like lightning", "burning", and even "itchy". In the atypical form of TN, the pain presents as severe constant aching along the nerve. The pain associated with TN

3567-442: The phenylpropanoid pathway with an acyl-CoA moiety produced by the branched-chain fatty acid pathway . Capsaicin is the most abundant capsaicinoid found in the genus Capsicum , but at least ten other capsaicinoid variants exist. Phenylalanine supplies the precursor to the phenylpropanoid pathway while leucine or valine provide the precursor for the branched-chain fatty acid pathway. To produce capsaicin, 8-methyl-6-nonenoyl-CoA

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3654-439: The pungent chemical in chili peppers, is used as an analgesic in topical ointments , nasal sprays , and dermal patches to relieve pain. A 2022 review of preliminary research indicated that regular consumption of chili peppers was associated with weak evidence for a lower risk of death from cardiovascular diseases and cancer . Capsaicin extracted from chilies is used in pepper sprays and some tear gas formulations as

3741-672: The Balkans, where they came to be processed into paprika . The rapid introduction of chilies to Africa and Asia was likely through Portuguese and Spanish traders in the 16th century, though the details are unrecorded. The Portuguese introduced them first to Africa and Arabia, and then to their colonies and trading posts in Asia, including Goa , Sri Lanka , and Malacca . From there, chilies spread to neighboring regions in South Asia and western Southeast Asia via local trade and natural dispersal. Around

3828-553: The Caribbean, they were the first Europeans to encounter Capsicum fruits. They called them "peppers" because, like black pepper ( Piper nigrum ), which had long been known in Europe, they have a hot spicy taste unlike other foods. Chilies were first brought back to Europe by the Spanish, who financed Columbus's voyages, at the start of the large-scale interchange of plants and culture between

3915-521: The FDA for Qutenza to be used as an analgesic in HIV neuralgia was refused. One 2017 review of clinical studies having limited quality found that high-dose topical capsaicin (8%) compared with control (0.4% capsaicin) provided moderate to substantial pain relief from post-herpetic neuralgia, HIV -neuropathy, and diabetic neuropathy . Although capsaicin creams have been used to treat psoriasis for reduction of itching,

4002-705: The New World and the Old World called the Columbian exchange . Chilies appear in Spanish records by 1493. Unlike Piper vines, which grow naturally only in the tropics , chilies could be grown in temperate climates . By the mid-1500s, they had become a common garden plant in Spain and were incorporated into numerous dishes. By 1526, they had appeared in Italy, in 1543 in Germany, and by 1569 in

4089-423: The appropriate receptors to make an effective regeneration. If proper connections to the appropriate receptors are not established, aberrant reinnervation may occur. If the regenerating axon is halted by damaged tissue, neurofibrils may create a mass known as a neuroma . If an injured neuron degenerates or does not regenerate properly, then the neuron loses its function or may not function properly. Neuron trauma

4176-444: The back of the scalp and neck. Pain tends to worsen with talking, facial expressions, chewing, and certain sensations such as a cool breeze. Vascular compression of the trigeminal nerve , infections of the teeth or sinuses, physical trauma, or past viral infections are possible causes of ATN. In the case of trigeminal neuralgia, the affected nerves are responsible for sensing touch , temperature sensation and pressure sensation in

4263-403: The back of the throat, the area near the tonsils, the back of the tongue, and part of the ear. The pain is due to malfunction of the glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX), which moves the muscles of the throat and carries information from the throat, tonsils, and tongue to the brain. Glossopharyngeal neuralgia, a rare disorder, usually begins after age 40 and occurs more often in men. Often, its cause

4350-412: The brain can be "fooled" into thinking it is receiving normal input. Electrodes are carefully placed in the dorsal root and subcutaneous nerve stimulation is used to stimulate the targeted nerve pathway. A technician can create different electrical distributions in the nerve to optimize the efficiency, and a patient controls the stimulation by passing a magnet over the unit. Some degree of facial numbness

4437-472: The brain. By binding to TRPV1 receptors, capsaicin produces similar sensations to those of excessive heat or abrasive damage, such as warming, tingling, itching, or stinging, explaining why capsaicin is described as an irritant on the skin and eyes or by ingestion. Clarifying the mechanisms of capsaicin effects on skin nociceptors was part of awarding the 2021 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine , as it led to

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4524-461: The branched-chain fatty acid pathway . It was discovered in 1999 that pungency of chili peppers is related to higher transcription levels of key enzymes of the phenylpropanoid pathway, phenylalanine ammonia lyase, cinnamate 4-hydroxylase, caffeic acid O -methyltransferase. Similar studies showed high transcription levels in the placenta of chili peppers with high pungency of genes responsible for branched-chain fatty acid pathway. Plants exclusively of

4611-616: The burning feeling when in contact with mucous membranes and increased secretion of gastric acid . The most commonly occurring capsaicinoids are capsaicin (69%), dihydrocapsaicin (22%), nordihydrocapsaicin (7%), homocapsaicin (1%), and homodihydrocapsaicin (1%). Capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin (both 16.0 million SHU ) are the most pungent capsaicinoids. Nordihydrocapsaicin (9.1 million SHU), homocapsaicin and homodihydrocapsaicin (both 8.6 million SHU) are about half as hot. There are six natural capsaicinoids (table below). Although vanillylamide of n-nonanoic acid (Nonivamide, VNA, also PAVA)

4698-651: The chili pepper in Chinese writing dates to 1591, though the pepper is thought to have entered the country in the 1570s. Chili peppers are the shiny, brightly coloured fruits of species of Capsicum . Botanically they are berries . The plants are small, 20 to 60 centimetres (7.9 to 23.6 in) depending on variety, making them suitable for growing in pots, greenhouses , or commercially in polytunnels . The plants are perennial , provided they are protected from cold. The fruits can be green, orange, red, or purple, and vary in shape from round and knobbly to smooth and elongated. If

4785-514: The course of centuries is due to genetic drift and natural selection , across the genus Capsicum . Despite the fact that chilies within the Capsicum genus are found in diverse environments, the capsaicin found within them all exhibit similar properties that serve as defensive and adaptive features. Capsaicin evolved to preserve the fitness of peppers against fungi infections, insects, and granivorous mammals. Capsaicin acts as an antifungal agent in four primary ways. First, capsaicin inhibits

4872-438: The crops. By planting a few rows of the fruit around valuable crops, farmers create a buffer zone through which the elephants are reluctant to pass. Chili dung bombs are also used for this purpose. They are bricks made of mixing dung and chili, and are burned, creating a noxious smoke that keeps hungry elephants out of farmers' fields. This can lessen dangerous physical confrontation between people and elephants. Birds do not have

4959-453: The discovery of skin sensors for temperature and touch, and identification of the single gene causing sensitivity to capsaicin. The compound was first extracted in impure form in 1816 by Christian Friedrich Bucholz (1770–1818). In 1873 German pharmacologist Rudolf Buchheim (1820–1879) and in 1878 the Hungarian doctor Endre Hőgyes stated that "capsicol" (partially purified capsaicin) caused

5046-573: The eyes or any sensitive body parts. Consuming hot peppers may cause stomach pain, hyperventilation , sweating , vomiting , and symptoms possibly requiring hospitalization. Unscrupulous traders have illegally added at least eight different synthetic dyes, including Auramine O , Chrysoidine , Sudan stains I to IV , Para red , and Rhodamine B to chili products. All these chemicals are harmful. They can be detected by liquid chromatography used together with mass spectrometry . The 16th century Spanish missionary and naturalist José de Acosta noted

5133-407: The eyes. By understanding the neuroplastic changes following nerve damage, researchers may be able to gain a better understanding of the mechanism of hyperexcitability in the nervous system that is believed to cause neuropathic pain. A neuron's response to trauma can often be determined by the severity of the injury, classified by Seddon's classification . In Seddon's Classification, nerve injury

5220-585: The final capsaicinoid product. The Capsicum genus split from Solanaceae 19.6 million years ago, 5.4 million years after the appearance of Solanaceae , and is native only to the Americas. Chilies only started to quickly evolve in the past 2 million years into markedly different species. This evolution can be partially attributed to a key compound found in peppers, 8-methyl-N-vanillyl-6-nonenamide, otherwise known as capsaicin. Capsaicin evolved similarly across species of chilies that produce capsaicin. Its evolution over

5307-795: The fruits are picked green and unripe, more flowers develop, yielding more fruit; fruits left on the plant can become hotter in taste, and acquire their ripe coloration, at the price of a reduced harvest. Ideal growing conditions for peppers include a sunny position with warm, loamy soil, ideally 21 to 29 °C (70 to 84 °F), that is moist but not waterlogged. The seeds germinate only when warm, close to 21 °C (70 °F). The plants prefer warm conditions, but can tolerate temperatures down to 12 °C (54 °F); and are sensitive to cold. The flowers can self-pollinate . However, at extremely high temperatures, 30 to 38 °C (86 to 100 °F), pollen loses viability, and its flowers are much less likely to result in fruit. For flowering, Capsicum

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5394-469: The fruits. They are cooked as greens in Filipino cuisine, where they are called dahon ng sili (literally "chili leaves"). They are used in the chicken soup tinola . In Korean cuisine, the leaves may be used in kimchi . Chilies are present in many cuisines. In Peru, Papa a la huancaina is a dish of potatoes in a sauce of fresh cheese and aji amarillo chilies. In Thailand, kaeng tai pla fish curry

5481-449: The fungal cell membranes. This has consequential negative impacts on the integrity of fungal cells and their ability to survive and proliferate. Additionally, the ergosterol synthesis of growing fungi decreases in relation to the amount of capsaicin present in the growth area. This impacts the fungal cell membrane, and how it is able to reproduce and adapt to stressors in its environment. Capsaicin deters insects in multiple ways. The first

5568-406: The genus Capsicum produce capsaicinoids, which are alkaloids . Capsaicin is believed to be synthesized in the interlocular septum of chili peppers and depends on the gene AT3 , which resides at the pun1 locus , and which encodes a putative acyltransferase . Biosynthesis of the capsaicinoids occurs in the glands of the pepper fruit where capsaicin synthase condenses vanillylamine from

5655-499: The insensitivity of birds to capsaicin. The Elephant Pepper Development Trust claims that using chili peppers as a barrier crop can be a sustainable means for rural African farmers to deter elephants from eating their crops. An article published in the Journal of Environmental Science and Health Part B in 2006 states that "Although hot chili pepper extract is commonly used as a component of household and garden insect-repellent formulas, it

5742-434: The main measure. Capsaicin is produced by the plant as a defense against mammalian predators . A study suggests that by protecting against attack by a hemipteran bug, the risk of disease caused by a Fusarium fungus carried by the insects is reduced. As evidence, the study notes that peppers increased the quantity of capsaicin in proportion to the damage caused by fungi on the plant's seeds. A wide range of intensity

5829-456: The mechanical sensitivity of the tactile stimulus using von Frey hairs or Semmes-Weinstein monofilaments (SWMFs). Also, weighted needles can be used to measure pin-prick sensation, and an electronic vibrameter is used to measure vibration sensitivity. Thermal stimuli are quantified by using a probe that operates on the Peltier principle. Treatment options include medicines and surgery. Neuralgia

5916-446: The medical literature have varied significantly over time. Various locations were proposed for the primary lesion during the nineteenth century, including nerve roots , ganglia , trunks and branches, as well as the brain and spinal cord. In 1828, JC Warren and TJ Graham placed the cause in the trunk or branch of the nerve innervating the perceived site of the pain, though Graham also attributed neuralgia to "morbid sensibility of

6003-428: The metabolic rate of the cells that make up the fungal biofilm. This inhibits the area and growth rate of the fungus, since the biofilm creates an area where a fungus can grow and adhere to the chili in which capsaicin is present. Capsaicin also inhibits fungal hyphae formation, which impacts the amount of nutrients that the rest of the fungal body can receive. Thirdly, capsaicin disrupts the structure of fungal cells and

6090-414: The mouth and throat, potentially evoking pain via spinal relays to the brainstem and thalamus where heat and discomfort are perceived. However, birds are unable to perceive the hotness and so they can eat some of the hottest peppers. The intensity of the "heat" of chili peppers is commonly reported in Scoville heat units (SHU), invented by American pharmacist Wilbur Scoville in 1912. Historically, it

6177-491: The nerve away from it and places a soft cushion between the nerve and the vessels). The earliest cited instance of the term is the French, névralgie , which, according to Rowland, was coined by François Chaussier in his 1801 Table Synoptique de la Névralgie , for "...an affection of one or more nerves causing pain which is usually of an intermittent but frequently intense character". The features and assumed etiology found in

6264-451: The oldest cultivated crops in the Americas. Chili peppers were cultivated in east-central Mexico some 6,000 years ago, and independently across different locations in the Americas including highland Peru and Bolivia, central Mexico, and the Amazon . They were among the first self-pollinating crops cultivated in those areas. Peru has the highest diversity of cultivated Capsicum ; it

6351-459: The plant less likely to be eaten by animals that do not help it disperse. There is also evidence that capsaicin may have evolved as an anti-fungal agent. The fungal pathogen Fusarium , which is known to infect wild chilies and thereby reduce seed viability, is deterred by capsaicin, which thus limits this form of predispersal seed mortality. The vanillotoxin -containing venom of a certain tarantula species ( Psalmopoeus cambridgei ) activates

6438-650: The same circumstances, thus reducing competition for resources. The English word is from Classical Nahuatl chīlli with the same meaning. The name of the plant is unrelated to that of the country Chile . While pepper originally meant the genus Piper , not Capsicum , the Oxford English Dictionary and Merriam-Webster record both usages. The three primary spellings are chili , chile and chilli , all recognized by dictionaries. The volatile oil in chili peppers may cause skin irritation, requiring hand washing and care when touching

6525-445: The same pathway of pain as is activated by capsaicin, an example of a shared pathway in both plant and animal anti-mammalian defense. Because of the burning sensation caused by capsaicin when it comes in contact with mucous membranes , it is commonly used in food products to provide added spiciness or "heat" (piquancy), usually in the form of spices such as chili powder and paprika . In high concentrations, capsaicin will also cause

6612-440: The same sensitivity to capsaicin as mammals, as they lack a specific pain receptor . Chili peppers are eaten by birds living in the chili peppers' natural range, possibly contributing to seed dispersal and evolution of the protective capsaicin in chili peppers, as a bird in flight can spread the seeds further away from the parent plant after they pass through its digestive system than any land or tree dwelling mammal could do so under

6699-574: The same time, the Spanish also introduced chilies to the Philippines, where they spread to Melanesia , Micronesia , and other Pacific Islands via their monopoly of the Manila galleons . Their spread to East Asia in the late 16th century is less clear, but was likely also through local trade or through Portuguese and Spanish trading ports in Canton, China , and Nagasaki , Japan . The earliest known mention of

6786-446: The seeds and pericarps of the peppers reduced the seeds production by 50%. Chili pepper Chili peppers , also spelled chile or chilli (from Classical Nahuatl chīlli [ˈt͡ʃiːlːi] ), are varieties of berry-fruit plants from the genus Capsicum , which are members of the nightshade family Solanaceae , cultivated for their pungency . Chili peppers are widely used in many cuisines as

6873-441: The seeds of chilies, rendering them unable to grow into new chili plants. As a result, modern chilies evolved defense mechanisms to mitigate the risk of granivorous mammals. While capsaicin is present at some level in every part of the pepper, the chemical has its highest concentration in the tissue near the seeds within chilies. Birds are able to eat chilies, then disperse the seeds in their excrement, enabling propagation. Capsaicin

6960-444: The skin and, if ingested in large amounts by adults or small amounts by children, can produce nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and burning diarrhea. Eye exposure produces intense tearing, pain, conjunctivitis , and blepharospasm . The primary treatment is removal of the offending substance. Plain water is ineffective at removing capsaicin. Capsaicin is soluble in alcohol, which can be used to clean contaminated items. When capsaicin

7047-427: The spray comes in contact with skin, especially eyes or mucous membranes , it produces pain and breathing difficulty in the affected individual. Capsaicin is also used to deter pests, specifically mammalian pests. Targets of capsaicin repellants include voles, deer, rabbits, squirrels, bears , insects, and attacking dogs. Ground or crushed dried chili pods may be used in birdseed to deter rodents, taking advantage of

7134-703: The study. A 2014 meta-analysis of further trials found weak evidence that consuming capsaicin before a meal might slightly reduce the amount of food consumed, and might drive food preference toward carbohydrates . One 2006 review concluded that capsaicin may relieve symptoms of a peptic ulcer rather than being a cause of it. Ingestion of high quantities of capsaicin can be deadly, particularly in people with heart problems. Even healthy young people can suffer adverse health effects like myocardial infarction after ingestion of capsaicin capsules. The burning and painful sensations associated with capsaicin result from "defunctionalization" of nociceptor nerve fibers by causing

7221-558: The supposed aphrodisiac power of chilies, but wrote that they were harmful to people's spiritual health . In the 1970s, the government of Peru forbade prison inmates to consume chilies, their explanation being that these were "not appropriate for men forced to live a limited lifestyle." Neuralgia Under the general heading of neuralgia are trigeminal neuralgia (TN), atypical trigeminal neuralgia (ATN), occipital neuralgia , glossopharyngeal neuralgia and postherpetic neuralgia (caused by shingles or herpes ). The term neuralgia

7308-899: The total. Species of Capsicum that produce chili peppers are shown on the simplified phylogenetic tree , with examples of cultivars: C. annuum : bell peppers , [REDACTED] wax , cayenne , jalapeño , Thai , chiltepin , New Mexico chile [REDACTED] C. frutescens : tabasco , malagueta , labuyo , piri piri , kambuzi [REDACTED] C. chinense : hottest peppers, e.g. naga , habanero , datil , Scotch bonnet [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] C. baccatum : aji [REDACTED] C. pubescens : rocoto , chile de caballo [REDACTED] C. eximium C. lycianthoides The substances that give chili peppers their pungency (spicy heat) when ingested or applied topically are capsaicin (8-methyl- N -vanillyl-6-nonenamide) and several related chemicals, collectively called capsaicinoids . Pure capsaicin

7395-629: The white pith of the inner wall, where the seeds are attached. The seeds of Capsicum plants are dispersed predominantly by birds. In birds, the TRPV1 channel does not respond to capsaicin or related chemicals but mammalian TRPV1 is very sensitive to it. This is advantageous to the plant, as chili pepper seeds consumed by birds pass through the digestive tract and can germinate later, whereas mammals have molar teeth which destroy such seeds and prevent them from germinating. Thus, natural selection may have led to increasing capsaicin production because it makes

7482-504: The world, particularly in Chinese (especially in Sichuanese food ), Mexican, Thai, Indian, New Mexican cuisine and many other South American, Caribbean and East Asian cuisines. In 21st-century Asian cuisine , chili peppers are commonly used across many regions. Chili is a key ingredient in many curries , providing the desired amount of heat; mild curries may be flavoured with many other spices, and may omit chili altogether. Chilies with

7569-474: Was a measure of the dilution of an amount of chili extract added to sugar syrup before its heat becomes undetectable to a panel of tasters; the more it has to be diluted to be undetectable, the more powerful the variety, and therefore the higher the rating. Since the 1980s, spice heat has been assessed quantitatively by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), which measures the concentration of heat-producing capsaicinoids, typically with capsaicin content as

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