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100-651: The CVMA publishes two scientific journals: the Canadian Journal of Veterinary Research ( Revue canadienne de recherche vétérinaire ), a peer-reviewed quarterly publication available online focusing on comparative and veterinary medicine, as well as the Canadian Veterinary Journal ( La revue vétérinaire canadienne ), a peer-reviewed monthly publication, focusing on scientific articles, regular columns, news, and information about new products. The CVMA also publishes information about pet care for

200-485: A bibliography ). They also deal with research, and are peer reviewed. Meanwhile, trade journals are aimed at people in different fields, focusing on how people in these fields can do their jobs better. They additionally cover information related to work, and include tips and advice for improving performance, but they are not scholarly. Articles in scientific journals are mostly written by active scientists such as students, researchers, and professors. Their intended audience

300-507: A conventional oven . Heat is also used in pasteurization , a method for slowing the spoilage of foods such as milk, cheese, juices, wines and vinegar. Such products are heated to a certain temperature for a set period of time, which greatly reduces the number of harmful microorganisms. Low temperature is also used to inhibit microbial activity by slowing down microbial metabolism. Foods are often irradiated to kill harmful pathogens . There are two types of radiations that are used to inhibit

400-624: A broad spectrum of disciplines from the general sciences, as seen in journals like Science and Nature , to highly specialized fields. These journals primarily publish peer-reviewed articles, including original research , review articles , and perspectives , each serving distinct purposes within the academic landscape. The advent of electronic publishing has further expanded the reach and accessibility of scientific journals, enabling more efficient dissemination and retrieval of information, while also addressing challenges related to cost and copyright . Scientific journals not only contribute to

500-505: A compound containing chlorine, the hydrogen atom in that molecule gets displaced and is replaced with chlorine. This thus changes the enzyme function which in turn leads to the death of the bacterium. Iodine is most commonly used for sterilization and wound cleaning. The three major antimicrobial compounds containing iodine are alcohol-iodine solution, an aqueous solution of iodine, and iodophors. Iodophors are more bactericidal and are used as antiseptics as they are less irritating when applied to

600-468: A desiccator. This process is widely used in the food industry and is an efficient method for food preservation. Desiccation is also largely used in the pharmaceutical industry to store vaccines and other products. Antimicrobial surfaces are designed to either inhibit the ability of microorganisms to grow or damaging them by chemical ( copper toxicity ) or physical processes (micro/nano-pillars to rupture cell walls). These surfaces are especially important for

700-432: A discussion of similar research. The materials and methods or experimental section provides specific details of how the research was conducted. The results and discussion section describes the outcome and implications of the research, and the conclusion section places the research in context and describes avenues for further exploration. In addition to the above, some scientific journals such as Science will include

800-423: A gradual move towards a license to publish instead. Under such a system, the publisher has permission to edit, print, and distribute the article commercially, but the authors retain the other rights themselves. Even if they retain the copyright to an article, most journals allow certain rights to their authors. These rights usually include the ability to reuse parts of the paper in the author's future work, and allow

900-415: A journal uses to determine publication can vary widely. Some journals, such as Nature , Science , PNAS , and Physical Review Letters , have a reputation of publishing articles that mark a fundamental breakthrough in their respective fields. In many fields, a formal or informal hierarchy of scientific journals exists; the most prestigious journal in a field tends to be the most selective in terms of

1000-561: A major factor in drug resistance. Organizations such as the World Health Organization call for significant reduction in their use globally to combat this. According to a 2010 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention report, health-care workers can take steps to improve their safety measures against antimicrobial pesticide exposure. Workers are advised to minimize exposure to these agents by wearing personal protective equipment such as gloves and safety glasses. Additionally, it

1100-462: A news section where scientific developments (often involving political issues) are described. These articles are often written by science journalists and not by scientists . In addition, some journals will include an editorial section and a section for letters to the editor. While these are articles published within a journal, in general they are not regarded as scientific journal articles because they have not been peer-reviewed. Electronic publishing

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1200-408: A scientific article is citation of earlier work. The impact of articles and journals is often assessed by counting citations ( citation impact ). Some classes are partially devoted to the explication of classic articles, and seminar classes can consist of the presentation by each student of a classic or current paper. Schoolbooks and textbooks have been written usually only on established topics, while

1300-589: A semipermeable membrane.  When the concentration of dissolved materials or solute is higher inside the cell than it is outside, the cell is said to be in a hypotonic environment and water will flow into the cell. When the bacteria is placed in hypertonic solution, it causes plasmolysis or cell shrinking, similarly in hypotonic solution, bacteria undergoes plasmotysis or turgid state. This plasmolysis and plasmotysis kills bacteria because it causes change in osmotic pressure. Antimicrobial resistance The misuse and overuse of antimicrobials in humans, animals and plants are

1400-440: A serious threat to global public health. The resistance problem demands that a renewed effort be made to seek antibacterial agents effective against pathogenic bacteria resistant to current antibacterials. Possible strategies towards this objective include increased sampling from diverse environments and application of metagenomics to identify bioactive compounds produced by currently unknown and uncultured microorganisms as well as

1500-736: A veterinary prescription. The CVMA, in conjunction with Health Canada and other partner organizations, developed a Therapeutic Decision Cascade for Animal and Public Safety. This document is intended to assist veterinarians in prescribing drugs, including antimicrobials, in a conscientious way for both animals and public health. In 2014, the CMVA released their Antimicrobial Smartvet App that guides veterinarians through prescribing appropriate antimicrobials for specific bacterial infections in dogs and cats. In Canada two major concerns of ticks are Lyme disease and Rocky Mountain spotted fever (RMSF). With global warming ticks are found further north and according to

1600-440: A wide range of microbes on non-living surfaces to prevent the spread of illness, antiseptics (which are applied to living tissue and help reduce infection during surgery), and antibiotics (which destroy microorganisms within the body). The term antibiotic originally described only those formulations derived from living microorganisms but is now also applied to synthetic agents, such as sulfonamides or fluoroquinolones . Though

1700-426: A year. In general, this money is used to fund the activities of the scientific societies that run such journals, or is invested in providing further scholarly resources for scientists; thus, the money remains in and benefits the scientific sphere. Despite the transition to electronic publishing, the serials crisis persists. Concerns about cost and open access have led to the creation of free-access journals such as

1800-478: Is a mix of hydrogen peroxide and a thin surface coating that neutralizes mold and encapsulates the surface to prevent spore release. Some paints are also manufactured with an added antifungal agent for use in high humidity areas such as bathrooms or kitchens. Other antifungal surface treatments typically contain variants of metals known to suppress mold growth e.g. pigments or solutions containing copper , silver or zinc . These solutions are not usually available to

1900-403: Is a new area of information dissemination . One definition of electronic publishing is in the context of the scientific journal. It is the presentation of scholarly scientific results in only an electronic (non-paper) form. This is from its first write-up, or creation, to its publication or dissemination. The electronic scientific journal is specifically designed to be presented on the internet. It

2000-441: Is another property of alcohols that aid in cell death. Alcohols are cheap and effective antimicrobials. They are widely used in the pharmaceutical industry.  Alcohols are commonly used in hand sanitizers, antiseptics, and disinfectants. Phenol also known as carbolic acid was one of the first chemicals which was used as an antimicrobial agent. It has high antiseptic properties. It is bacteriostatic at concentrations of 0.1%–1% and

2100-404: Is bactericidal/fungicidal at 1%–2%. A 5% solution kills anthrax spores in 48 hr. Phenols are most commonly used in oral mouth washes and household cleaning agents. They are active against a wide range of bacteria, fungi and viruses.  Today phenol derivatives such as thymol and cresol are used because they are less toxic compared to phenol. These phenolic compounds have a benzene ring along with

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2200-405: Is defined as not being previously printed material adapted, or retooled, and then delivered electronically. Electronic publishing will likely continue to exist alongside paper publishing for the foreseeable future, since whilst output to a screen is important for browsing and searching, it is not well suited for extensive reading. Formats suitable both for reading on paper, and for manipulation by

2300-412: Is extensively used as a disinfectant in the water treatment plants, drug, and food industries. In wastewater treatment plants, chlorine is widely used as a disinfectant. It oxidizes soluble contaminants and kills bacteria and viruses. It is also highly effective against bacterial spores. The mode of action is by breaking the bonds present in these microorganisms. When a bacterial enzyme comes in contact with

2400-573: Is highly effective against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. Hexachlorophene (Bisphenol) is used as a surfactant. It is widely used in soaps, handwashes, and skin products because of its antiseptic properties. It is also used as a sterilizing agent. Cresol is an effective antimicrobial and is widely used in mouthwashes and cough drops. Phenolics have high antimicrobial activity against bacteria such as Staphylococcus epidermidis and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. 2-Phenylphenol -water solutions are used in immersion treatments of fruit for packing. (It

2500-675: Is important to follow the handling instructions properly, as that is how the EPA has deemed them as safe to use. Employees should be educated about the health hazards and encouraged to seek medical care if exposure occurs. Ozone can kill microorganisms in air, water and process equipment and has been used in settings such as kitchen exhaust ventilation, garbage rooms, grease traps, biogas plants , wastewater treatment plants, textile production, breweries , dairies , food and hygiene production, pharmaceutical industries , bottling plants, zoos, municipal drinking-water systems, swimming pools and spas, and in

2600-614: Is not used on the packing materials however.) Ihloff and Kalitzki 1961 find a small but measurable amount remains in the skin of fruits processed in this manner. They are highly effective against bacteria, fungi, and viruses.  Aldehydes inhibit bacterial growth by disrupting the outer membrane. They are used in the disinfection and sterilization of surgical instruments. Being highly toxic they are not used in antiseptics. Currently, only three aldehyde compounds are of widespread practical use as disinfectant biocides, namely glutaraldehyde, formaldehyde, and ortho-phthalaldehyde (OPA) despite

2700-504: Is others in the field (such as students and experts), meaning their content is more advanced and sophisticated than what is found regular publications. They have different purposes, depending on the type. Articles with original research are meant to share it with others in the field, review articles give summaries of research that has already been done, and perspective articles give researchers' views on research that their peers performed. Each article has several different sections, including

2800-405: Is the state of extreme dryness or the process of extreme drying. Some microorganisms like bacteria, yeasts and molds require water for their growth. Desiccation dries up the water content thus inhibiting microbial growth. On the availability of water, the bacteria resume their growth, thus desiccation does not completely inhibit bacterial growth. The instrument used to carry out this process is called

2900-736: Is therefore judged implicitly by the quality of the procedures reported and agreement with the data provided. However, some journals in the field of chemistry such as Inorganic Syntheses and Organic Syntheses require independent reproduction of the results presented as part of the review process. The inability for independent researches to reproduce published results is widespread, with 70% of researchers reporting failure to reproduce another scientist's results, including more than half who report failing to reproduce their own experiments. Sources of irreproducibility vary, including publication of falsified or misrepresented data and poor detailing of procedures. There are several types of journal article;

3000-403: Is wanted, such as physics , the role of the journal at disseminating the latest research has largely been replaced by preprint databases such as arXiv.org . Almost all such articles are eventually published in traditional journals, which still provide an important role in quality control , archiving papers, and establishing scientific credit. Many scientists and librarians have long protested

3100-625: The Public Library of Science (PLoS) family and partly open or reduced-cost journals such as the Journal of High Energy Physics . However, professional editors still have to be paid, and PLoS still relies heavily on donations from foundations to cover the majority of its operating costs; smaller journals do not often have access to such resources. Based on statistical arguments, it has been shown that electronic publishing online, and to some extent open access , both provide wider dissemination and increase

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3200-707: The Royal Society (1660) and the French Academy of Sciences (1666). In 1665, the French Journal des sçavans and the English Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society began systematically publishing research results. Over a thousand, mostly ephemeral , were founded in the 18th century, and the number has increased rapidly since then. Peer review did not begin until the 1970s, and

3300-525: The World Wide Web via hyperlinks that are created 'on-the-fly'. The PDF version of an article is usually seen as the version of record , but the matter is subject to some debate. Electronic counterparts of established print journals already promote and deliver rapid dissemination of peer-reviewed and edited, "published" articles. Other journals, whether spin-offs of established print journals, or created as electronic only, have come into existence promoting

3400-453: The validity , reliability , and quality of the published content. With origins dating back to the 17th century , the publication of scientific journals has evolved significantly, playing a pivotal role in the advancement of scientific knowledge, fostering academic discourse, and facilitating collaboration within the scientific community. As of 2012 , it is estimated that over 28,100 active scientific journals are in publication, covering

3500-569: The 19th century, microbiologists such as Louis Pasteur and Jules Francois Joubert observed antagonism between some bacteria and discussed the merits of controlling these interactions in medicine. Louis Pasteur's work in fermentation and spontaneous generation led to the distinction between anaerobic and aerobic bacteria. The information garnered by Pasteur led Joseph Lister to incorporate antiseptic methods, such as sterilizing surgical tools and debriding wounds into surgical procedures. The implementation of these antiseptic techniques drastically reduced

3600-426: The 20th century have reduced mortality from bacterial infections. The antibiotic era began with the therapeutic application of sulfonamide drugs in 1936, followed by a "golden" period of discovery from about 1945 to 1970, when a number of structurally diverse and highly effective agents were discovered and developed. Since 1980, the introduction of new antimicrobial agents for clinical use has declined, in part because of

3700-438: The CMVA, pet owners should increase their awareness of ticks on their pets as the prevalence of diseases carried by ticks is on the increase. As the ticks often migrate via birds, pet owners must start their pet maintenance routines in early spring, as soon as the weather passes zero Celsius. Peer-reviewed scientific journal In academic publishing , a scientific journal is a periodical publication designed to further

3800-535: The CVMA has taken an active role in Canada on the responsible use of antimicrobials . The CVMA has urged the government for further regulatory changes to provide increased veterinary oversight of antibiotic use in Canada. In 2015, the CVMA revised their statement to include a position on use of antimicrobials of high importance in human medicine (VDD Category I to III), stating they should only be used under veterinary oversight with

3900-713: The CVMA maintains that research on longevity of vaccine coverage remains controversial, and vaccination schedules should be developed on an individual basis, depending on exposure risk. On the issue of the northward migration of the West Nile virus , according to the Canadian Veterinary Medical Association - BC chapter's Dr. John Twidale, chair of the equine committee, stated that though the West Nile virus has been in British Columbia for five years, 2014 saw

4000-620: The Council on Education of the American Veterinary Medical Association , licensing exams for Canadian veterinary students are administered by the National Examination Board of the CVMA. As part of CVMA's leadership on veterinary issues, they publish official position statements of national and international veterinary interest intended to serve as guidelines for veterinarians across the country as well as educate

4100-889: The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and defined by the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act , antimicrobial pesticides are used to control growth of microbes through disinfection, sanitation, or reduction of development and to protect inanimate objects, industrial processes or systems, surfaces, water, or other chemical substances from contamination, fouling, or deterioration caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, algae, or slime. The EPA monitors products, such as disinfectants/sanitizers for use in hospitals or homes, to ascertain efficacy. Products that are meant for public health are therefore under this monitoring system, including products used for drinking water, swimming pools, food sanitation, and other environmental surfaces. These pesticide products are registered under

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4200-775: The antimicrobial but referenced its therapeutic potential in 1929 in the British Journal of Experimental Pathology . In 1942, Howard Florey , Ernst Chain , and Edward Abraham used Fleming's work to purify and extract penicillin for medicinal uses earning them the 1945 Nobel Prize in Medicine . Antibacterials are used to treat bacterial infections . Antibiotics are classified generally as beta-lactams , macrolides , quinolones, tetracyclines or aminoglycosides . Their classification within these categories depends on their antimicrobial spectra, pharmacodynamics, and chemical composition. Prolonged use of certain antibacterials can decrease

4300-467: The article as long as no fee is charged. The rise of open access journals, in which the author retains the copyright but must pay a publication charge, such as the Public Library of Science family of journals, is another recent response to copyright concerns. Antimicrobial An antimicrobial is an agent that kills microorganisms ( microbicide ) or stops their growth ( bacteriostatic agent ). Antimicrobial medicines can be grouped according to

4400-433: The articles it will select for publication, and usually will also have the highest impact factor . In some countries, journal rankings can be utilized for funding decisions and even evaluation of individual researchers, although they are poorly suited for that purpose. For scientific journals, reproducibility and replicability of the scientific results are core concepts that allow other scientists to check and reproduce

4500-496: The author to distribute a limited number of copies. In the print format, such copies are called reprints; in the electronic format, they are called postprints . Some publishers, for example the American Physical Society , also grant the author the right to post and update the article on the author's or employer's website and on free e-print servers, to grant permission to others to use or reuse figures, and even to reprint

4600-416: The authors are unpaid and receive no compensation from the journal. However, their funding bodies may require them to publish in scientific journals. The paper is submitted to the journal office, where the editor considers the paper for appropriateness, potential scientific impact and novelty. If the journal's editor considers the paper appropriate, the paper is submitted to scholarly peer review . Depending on

4700-440: The average number of citations an article receives. Traditionally, the author of an article was required to transfer the copyright to the journal publisher. Publishers claimed this was necessary in order to protect authors' rights, and to coordinate permissions for reprints or other use. However, many authors, especially those active in the open access movement, found this unsatisfactory, and have used their influence to effect

4800-438: The class of protease inhibitors . Herpes viruses , best known for causing cold sores and genital herpes , are usually treated with the nucleoside analogue acyclovir . Viral hepatitis is caused by five unrelated hepatotropic viruses (A-E) and may be treated with antiviral drugs depending on the type of infection. Some influenza A and B viruses have become resistant to neuraminidase inhibitors such as oseltamivir , and

4900-466: The cost for a print subscription, although this may reflect the number of people who will be using the license—while a print subscription is the cost for one person to receive the journal; a site-license can allow thousands of people to gain access. Publications by scholarly societies , also known as not-for-profit-publishers, usually cost less than commercial publishers, but the prices of their scientific journals are still usually several thousand dollars

5000-399: The cost of journals, especially as they see these payments going to large for-profit publishing houses. To allow their researchers online access to journals, many universities purchase site licenses , permitting access from anywhere in the university, and, with appropriate authorization, by university-affiliated users at home or elsewhere. These may be quite expensive, sometimes much more than

5100-407: The data discussed supports the conclusion offered and the implications suggested. Novelty is also key: existing work must be appropriately considered and referenced, and new results improving on the state of the art presented. Reviewers are usually unpaid and not a part of the journal staff—instead, they should be "peers", i.e. researchers in the same field as the paper in question. The standards that

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5200-622: The demonstration that many other aldehydes possess good antimicrobial activity. However, due to its long contact time other disinfectants are commonly preferred. Microorganisms have a minimum temperature, an optimum, and a maximum temperature for growth. High temperature as well as low temperatures are used as physical agents of control. Different organisms show different degrees of resistance or susceptibility to heat or temperature, some organisms such as bacterial endospore are more resistant while vegetative cells are less resistant and are easily killed at lower temperatures. Another method that involves

5300-428: The development of small-molecule libraries customized for bacterial targets. Antifungals are used to kill or prevent further growth of fungi . In medicine, they are used as a treatment for infections such as athlete's foot , ringworm and thrush and work by exploiting differences between mammalian and fungal cells. Unlike bacteria, both fungi and humans are eukaryotes . Thus, fungal and human cells are similar at

5400-576: The dissemination and archival of scientific knowledge but also play a critical role in the academic and research careers of scientists. They are instrumental in keeping researchers informed about the latest developments in their field, supporting the integrity of research through reproducibility and replicability, and influencing the direction of future research endeavors. There are thousands of scientific journals in publication, with one estimate from 2012 indicating that there were 28,100 that were active, and many more have been published at various points in

5500-535: The enormous expense of developing and testing new drugs. In parallel, there has been an alarming increase in antimicrobial resistance of bacteria, fungi, parasites and some viruses to multiple existing agents. Antibacterials are among the most commonly used drugs and among the drugs commonly misused by physicians, for example, in viral respiratory tract infections . As a consequence of widespread and injudicious use of antibacterials, there has been an accelerated emergence of antibiotic-resistant pathogens, resulting in

5600-481: The exact terminology and definitions vary by field and specific journal, but often include: The formats of journal articles vary, but many follow the general IMRAD scheme recommended by the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors . Such articles begin with an abstract , which is a one-to-four-paragraph summary of the paper. The introduction describes the background for the research including

5700-438: The experiment or calculation to verify the results, or so that they could evaluate whatever the research article's findings were. Each such journal article also becomes part of the permanent scientific record. Articles in scientific journals can be used in research and higher education. Scientific articles allow researchers to keep up to date with the developments of their field and direct their own research. An essential part of

5800-452: The field and advanced students. In some subjects this is inevitable given the nature of the content. Usually, rigorous rules of scientific writing are enforced by the editors; however, these rules may vary from journal to journal, especially between journals from different publishers. Articles are usually either original articles reporting completely new results or reviews of current literature. There are also scientific publications that bridge

5900-419: The field, journal and paper, the paper is sent to 1–3 reviewers for evaluation before they can be granted permission to publish. Reviewers are expected to check the paper for soundness of its scientific argument, including whether the author(s) are sufficiently acquainted with recent relevant research that bears on their study, whether the data was collected or considered appropriately and reproducibly, and whether

6000-813: The first two cases of West Nile virus in two horses in Cache Creek and Ashcroft , and warned horse owners to get their animals vaccinated. The January 2014 position statement reads: The Canadian Veterinary Medical Association (CVMA) opposes the alteration of any animal by surgical or other invasive methods for cosmetic or competitive purposes. Provincial veterinary associations had been addressing ear cropping and tail docking with various levels of bylaws or codes of practice banning veterinarians from these procedures. Vets are banned from cropping ears in Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and British Columbia, which in November 2015, citing

6100-399: The following: Scientific journal articles are not usually read casually like a person would read a magazine. Whereas magazine articles can be read in a more casual manner, reading an article in a scientific periodical requires a lot more concentration. Reading an article in a scientific journal usually entails first reading the title, to see if it was related to the desired topic. If it was,

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6200-502: The gap between articles and books by publishing thematic volumes of chapters from different authors. Many journals have a regional focus, specializing in publishing papers from a particular geographic region, like African Invertebrates . In the 17th century, scientists wrote letters to each other, and included scientific ideas with them. Then, in the mid-17th century, scientists began to hold meetings and share their scientific ideas. Eventually, they led to starting organizations, such as

6300-453: The general public because of their toxicity. Antiviral drugs are a class of medication used specifically for treating viral infections. Like antibiotics, specific antivirals are used for specific viruses. They should be distinguished from viricides , which actively deactivate virus particles outside the body. Many antiviral drugs are designed to treat infections by retroviruses , including HIV . Important antiretroviral drugs include

6400-411: The growth of microorganisms – ionizing and non-ionizing radiations. Common sources of radiation used in food sterilization include cobalt-60 (a gamma emitter ), electron beams and X-rays . Ultraviolet light is also used to disinfect drinking water, both in small-scale personal-use systems and larger-scale community water purification systems. Desiccation is also known as dehydration.  It

6500-459: The growth of pathogenic microorganisms. A number of these agents appear to have structures and modes of action that are distinct from those of the antibiotics in current use, suggesting that cross-resistance with agents already in use may be minimal. Copper-alloy surfaces have natural intrinsic antimicrobial properties and can kill microorganisms such as E. coli and Staphylococcus . The United States Environmental Protection Agency approved

6600-409: The healthcare industry $ 20 billion a year. Elements such as chlorine, iodine, fluorine, and bromine are nonmetallic in nature and constitute the halogen family. Each of these halogens have a different antimicrobial effect that is influenced by various factors such as pH, temperature, contact time, and type of microorganism. Chlorine and iodine are the two most commonly used antimicrobials. Chlorine

6700-415: The healthcare industry. Designing effective antimicrobial surfaces demands an in-depth understanding of the initial microbe-surface adhesion mechanisms. Molecular dynamics simulation and time-lapse imaging are typically used to investigate these mechanisms. Osmotic pressure is the pressure required to prevent a solvent from passing from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration through

6800-562: The infecting organism without serious damage to the host. Broad-spectrum therapeutics are active against multiple classes of pathogens. Such therapeutics have been suggested as potential emergency treatments for pandemics . A wide range of chemical and natural compounds are used as antimicrobials. Organic acids and their salts are used widely in food products, e.g. lactic acid , citric acid , acetic acid , either as ingredients or as disinfectants. For example, beef carcasses often are sprayed with acids, and then rinsed or steamed, to reduce

6900-419: The latest research and more obscure topics are only accessible through scientific articles. In a scientific research group or academic department it is usual for the content of current scientific journals to be discussed in journal clubs . Public funding bodies often require the results to be published in scientific journals. Academic credentials for promotion into academic ranks are established in large part by

7000-586: The laundering of clothes and treatment of in–house mold and odors. Antimicrobial scrubs can reduce the accumulation of odors and stains on scrubs, which in turn improves their longevity. These scrubs also come in a variety of colors and styles. As antimicrobial technology develops at a rapid pace, these scrubs are readily available, with more advanced versions hitting the market every year. These bacteria could then be spread to office desks, break rooms, computers, and other shared technology. This can lead to outbreaks and infections like MRSA, treatments for which cost

7100-412: The main drivers in the development of drug-resistant pathogens. It is estimated that bacterial antimicrobial resistance (AMR) was directly responsible for 1.27 million global deaths in 2019 and contributed to 4.95 million deaths. Antimicrobial use has been common practice for at least 2000 years. Ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks used specific molds and plant extracts to treat infection. In

7200-519: The microorganisms they act primarily against. For example, antibiotics are used against bacteria , and antifungals are used against fungi . They can also be classified according to their function. The use of antimicrobial medicines to treat infection is known as antimicrobial chemotherapy , while the use of antimicrobial medicines to prevent infection is known as antimicrobial prophylaxis . The main classes of antimicrobial agents are disinfectants (non-selective agents, such as bleach ), which kill

7300-581: The molecular level, making it more difficult to find a target for an antifungal drug to attack that does not also exist in the host organism. Consequently, there are often side effects to some of these drugs. Some of these side effects can be life-threatening if the drug is not used properly. As well as their use in medicine, antifungals are frequently sought after to control indoor mold in damp or wet home materials. Sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) blasted on to surfaces acts as an antifungal. Another antifungal solution applied after or without blasting by soda

7400-425: The most commonly used antimicrobial agents. Methanol is also a disinfecting agent but is not generally used as it is highly poisonous. Escherichia coli , Salmonella , and Staphylococcus aureus are a few bacteria whose growth can be inhibited by alcohols. Alcohols have a high efficiency against enveloped viruses (60–70% ethyl alcohol) 70% isopropyl alcohol or ethanol are highly effective as an antimicrobial agent. In

7500-450: The most important or most-used titles. There is usually a delay of several months after an article is written before it is published in a journal, making paper journals not an ideal format for announcing the latest research. Many journals now publish the final papers in their electronic version as soon as they are ready, without waiting for the assembly of a complete issue, as is necessary with paper. In many fields in which even greater speed

7600-467: The next step is to read the abstract (or summary or conclusion, if the abstract is missing), to see if the article is worth reading. Then, if it seems like reading it would be worthwhile, the reader would then read the whole article. Publishing research results is an essential part of helping science to advance. If scientists are describing experiments or calculations, they should also explain how they did them so that an independent researcher could repeat

7700-423: The number and impact of scientific articles published. Many doctoral programs allow for thesis by publication , where the candidate is required to publish a certain number of scientific articles. Articles tend to be highly technical, representing the latest theoretical research and experimental results in the field of science covered by the journal. They are often incomprehensible to anyone except for researchers in

7800-419: The number of enteric bacteria , which may have a negative impact on health . Consumption of probiotics and reasonable eating may help to replace destroyed gut flora . Stool transplants may be considered for patients who are having difficulty recovering from prolonged antibiotic treatment, as for recurrent Clostridioides difficile infections . The discovery, development and use of antibacterials during

7900-491: The number of infections and subsequent deaths associated with surgical procedures. Louis Pasteur's work in microbiology also led to the development of many vaccines for life-threatening diseases such as anthrax and rabies . On September 3, 1928, Alexander Fleming returned from a vacation and discovered that a Petri dish filled with Staphylococcus was separated into colonies due to the antimicrobial fungus Penicillium rubens . Fleming and his associates struggled to isolate

8000-732: The oils of bay , cinnamon , clove and thyme reported to be the most potent in studies with foodborne bacterial pathogens . Coconut oil is also known for its antimicrobial properties. Active constituents include terpenoids and secondary metabolites . Despite their prevalent use in alternative medicine , essential oils have seen limited use in mainstream medicine. While 25 to 50% of pharmaceutical compounds are plant-derived, none are used as antimicrobials, though there has been increased research in this direction. Barriers to increased usage in mainstream medicine include poor regulatory oversight and quality control, mislabeled or misidentified products, and limited modes of delivery. According to

8100-663: The past (see list of scientific journals ) . Most journals are highly specialized, although some of the oldest journals such as Science and Nature publish articles and scientific papers across a wide range of scientific fields. Scientific journals contain articles that have been peer reviewed , in an attempt to ensure that articles meet the journal's standards of quality and scientific validity . Although scientific journals are superficially similar to professional magazines (or trade journals), they are actually quite different. Among other things, scientific journals' papers' authors are experts who must cite everything (and have

8200-482: The position statement of the CVMA also decided to ban ear-cropping in dogs. Following the 2014 CVMA statement, veterinary associations in three provinces have banned vets from performing any cosmetic surgeries: Québec (by the Ordre des médecins vétérinaires du Québec ), Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, while the government of Prince Edward Island has passed an Animal Welfare Act also banning all cosmetic surgeries. (Newfoundland

8300-410: The premise that, when used properly, they do not demonstrate unreasonable side effects to humans or the environment. Even once certain products are on the market, the EPA continues to monitor and evaluate them to make sure they maintain efficacy in protecting public health. Public health products regulated by the EPA are divided into three categories: Antimicrobial pesticides have the potential to be

8400-401: The presence of water, 70% alcohol causes coagulation of the proteins thus inhibiting microbial growth. Alcohols are not quite efficient when it comes to spores. The mode of action is by denaturing the proteins. Alcohols interfere with the hydrogen bonds present in the protein structure. Alcohols also dissolve the lipid membranes that are present in microorganisms. Disruption of the cell membrane

8500-436: The prevalence of Escherichia coli . Heavy metal cations such as Hg and Pb have antimicrobial activities, but can be toxic. In recent years, the antimicrobial activity of coordination compounds has been investigated. Traditional herbalists used plants to treat infectious disease. Many of these plants have been investigated scientifically for antimicrobial activity, and some plant products have been shown to inhibit

8600-422: The progress of science by disseminating new research findings to the scientific community. These journals serve as a platform for researchers, scholars, and scientists to share their latest discoveries, insights, and methodologies across a multitude of scientific disciplines. Unlike professional or trade magazines , scientific journals are characterized by their rigorous peer review process, which aims to ensure

8700-504: The public on the veterinary profession's opinion on various topics. The CVMA has 13 general position statements and 36 animal welfare position statements. A recent increase in preventable infectious disease in pets has been seen in conjunction with a decrease in vaccinations . The CVMA supports vaccination of animals as preventative medicine to reduce disease risk. Despite this stance, there has been some controversy that veterinarians may be over-vaccinating pets; in response to this criticism,

8800-533: The public. Veterinary students in Canada are automatically members of the CVMA and are referred to as Students of the CVMA (SCVMA) ( Étudiants de l’Association canadienne des médecins vétérinaires , ÉACMV). Each of Canada's five veterinary schools has a student representative who sits on the CVMA's Student committee. Veterinary students can attend an annual symposium in veterinary medicine including lectures and labs. Students can also apply for CVMA scholarships. While veterinary schools in Canada are accredited by

8900-767: The rapid dissemination capability, and availability, on the Internet. In tandem with this is the speeding up of peer review, copyediting, page makeup, and other steps in the process to support rapid dissemination. Other improvements, benefits and unique values of electronically publishing the scientific journal are easy availability of supplementary materials (data, graphics and video), lower cost, and availability to more people, especially scientists from non-developed countries. Hence, research results from more developed nations are becoming more accessible to scientists from non-developed countries. Moreover, electronic publishing of scientific journals has been accomplished without compromising

9000-459: The reader's computer will need to be integrated. Many journals are electronically available in formats readable on screen via web browsers , as well as in portable document format PDF , suitable for printing and storing on a local desktop or laptop computer. New tools such as JATS and Utopia Documents provide a 'bridge' to the 'web-versions' in that they connect the content in PDF versions directly to

9100-480: The registration of antimicrobial copper alloy surfaces for use in addition to regular cleaning and disinfection to control infections. Antimicrobial copper alloys are being installed in some healthcare facilities and subway transit systems as a public hygienic measure. Copper nanoparticles are attracting interest for the intrinsic antimicrobial behaviors. Many essential oils included in herbal pharmacopoeias are claimed to possess antimicrobial activity, with

9200-475: The results under the same conditions described in the paper or at least similar conditions and produce similar results with similar measurements of the same measurand or carried out under changed conditions of measurement. While the ability to reproduce the results based only on details included in the article is expected, verification of reproducibility by a third party is not generally required for publication. The reproducibility of results presented in an article

9300-434: The search for new substances continues. Antiparasitics are a class of medications indicated for the treatment of infectious diseases such as leishmaniasis , malaria and Chagas disease , which are caused by parasites such as nematodes , cestodes , trematodes and infectious protozoa . Antiparasitic medications include metronidazole , iodoquinol and albendazole . Like all therapeutic antimicrobials, they must kill

9400-604: The skin. Bacterial spores on the other hand cannot be killed by iodine, but they can be inhibited by iodophors. The growth of microorganisms is inhibited when iodine penetrates into the cells and oxidizes proteins, genetic material, and fatty acids. Bromine is also an effective antimicrobial that is used in water treatment plants. When mixed with chlorine it is highly effective against bacterial spores such as S. faecalis. Alcohols are commonly used as disinfectants and antiseptics. Alcohols kill vegetative bacteria, most viruses and fungi. Ethyl alcohol, n-propanol and isopropyl alcohol are

9500-411: The standards of the refereed, peer review process. One form is the online equivalent of the conventional paper journal. By 2006, almost all scientific journals have, while retaining their peer-review process, established electronic versions; a number have moved entirely to electronic publication. In a similar manner, most academic libraries buy the electronic version and purchase a paper copy only for

9600-677: The term used to be restricted to antibacterials (and is often used as a synonym for them by medical professionals and in medical literature), its context has broadened to include all antimicrobials. Antibacterial agents can be further subdivided into bactericidal agents, which kill bacteria, and bacteriostatic agents , which slow down or stall bacterial growth. In response, further advancements in antimicrobial technologies have resulted in solutions that can go beyond simply inhibiting microbial growth. Instead, certain types of porous media have been developed to kill microbes on contact. The misuse and overuse of antimicrobials in humans, animals and plants are

9700-454: The use of heat to kill microorganisms is fractional sterilization. This process involves the exposure to a temperature of 100 degrees Celsius for an hour, on each for several days. Fractional sterilization is also called tyndallization. Bacterial endospores can be killed using this method. Both dry and moist heat are effective in eliminating microbial life. For example, jars used to store preserves such as jam can be sterilized by heating them in

9800-499: The –OH group incorporated into their structures. They have a higher antimicrobial activity. These compounds inhibit microbial growth by precipitating proteins which lead to their denaturation and by penetrating into the cell membrane of microorganisms and disrupting it. Phenolic compounds can also deactivate enzymes and damage the amino acids in microbial cells. Phenolics such as fentichlore, an antibacterial and antifungal agent are used as an oral treatment for fungal infections. Trischlosan

9900-407: Was seen as a way of enabling researchers who were not as well-known to have their papers published in journals that were more prestigious. Though it was originally done by mailing copies of papers to reviewers, it is now done online. The authors of scientific articles are active researchers instead of journalists; typically, a graduate student or a researcher writes a paper with a professor. As such,

10000-530: Was the earliest to ban these surgeries in 1978). The CVMA also provides specific position statements for sheep, horses, and cattle. The CVMA Task Force on Member Wellness (2010) showed 19% of Canadian veterinarians had seriously contemplated suicide, confirming conclusions of a 2010 British study which found that the suicide rate among veterinarians is four times that of the general population and twice that of other healthcare professions. With increasing global concern over development of antimicrobial resistance ,

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