73-658: The Campanian Ignimbrite eruption (CI, also CI eruption) was a major volcanic eruption in the Mediterranean during the late Quaternary , classified 7 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI). The event has been attributed to the Archiflegreo volcano, the 12-by-15-kilometre-wide (7.5 mi × 9.3 mi) caldera of the Phlegraean Fields , located 20 km (12 mi) west of Mount Vesuvius under
146-515: A millennial-scale cold stadial that encompassed HE-4. Francesco G. Fedele and his team postulated that the volcanic winter of the CI eruption triggered HE-4, which saw the summer sea surface temperature plummeting by 3–6 °C along the Iberian margin and by 5 °C in the westernmost Mediterranean. However, this connection has been refuted by high-resolution paleoclimate records, which clearly indicate that
219-664: A period of some 600,000 years during the Messinian salinity crisis before being refilled by the Zanclean flood about 5.3 million years ago. The Mediterranean Sea covers an area of about 2,500,000 km (970,000 sq mi), representing 0.7% of the global ocean surface, but its connection to the Atlantic via the Strait of Gibraltar —the narrow strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean to
292-509: A radius of about 100 km (62 mi). The collapse of Plinian column due to an increase of the mass eruption rate produced the first ignimbrite unit, the Unconsolidated Stratified Ash Flow. Subsequently, the eruption advances into the climactic stage, generating three ignimbrite units, namely the voluminous Welded Grey Ignimbrite, Coarse Pumice Flow, and Lower Pumice Flow Unit. Collectively, these three units constitute
365-700: Is 5,109 ± 1 m (16,762 ± 3 ft) in the Calypso Deep in the Ionian Sea . It lies between latitudes 30° and 46° N and longitudes 6° W and 36° E . Its west–east length, from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Gulf of Alexandretta , on the southeastern coast of Turkey , is about 4,000 kilometres (2,500 mi). The north–south length varies greatly between different shorelines and whether only straight routes are considered. Also including longitudinal changes,
438-607: Is a calque of the Latin name, from μέσος ( mésos , "in the middle") and γήινος ( gḗinos , "of the earth"), from γῆ ( gê , "land, earth"). The original meaning may have been 'the sea in the middle of the earth', rather than 'the sea enclosed by land'. Ancient Iranians called it the "Roman Sea", and in Classical Persian texts , it was called Daryāy-e Rōm (دریای روم), which may be from Middle Persian form, Zrēh ī Hrōm (𐭦𐭫𐭩𐭤 𐭩 𐭤𐭫𐭥𐭬). The Carthaginians called it
511-581: Is in the range of 181–265 km (43–64 cu mi), and tephra has dispersed over an area of around 3,000,000 km (1,200,000 sq mi), commonly referred to as the ash horizon Y-5. The accuracy of these numbers is of significance for marine geologists, climatologists, palaeontologists, paleo-anthropologists and researchers of related fields as the event coincides with a number of global and local phenomena, such as widespread discontinuities in archaeological sequences, climatic oscillations and biocultural modifications. The term Campanian refers to
584-570: Is known as al-Baḥr [al-Abyaḍ] al-Mutawassiṭ ( البحر [الأبيض] المتوسط ) 'the [White] Middle Sea'. In Islamic and older Arabic literature, it was Baḥr al-Rūm ( بحر الروم ) or al- Baḥr al-Rūmī ( بحر الرومي ) 'the Sea of the Romans' or 'the Roman Sea' or Baḥr al-šām ( بحر الشام ) or al-Baḥr al-šāmī ( البحر الشامي ) ("the Sea of Syria"). At first, that name referred only to the eastern Mediterranean, but
657-498: Is present in deposits to distances of at least 1,400 km (870 mi) and between 130 km (81 mi) and 900 km (560 mi) constitutes 35–45% of the Y-5 deposit. The Plinian phase was followed by six main units of impressive pyroclastic density currents spreading over an area of 30,000 km (12,000 sq mi) and managing to surmount mountain ridges up to 1,000-metre-high (3,300 ft), extinguishing all life within
730-547: Is the prediction of eruptions to alleviate the impact on surrounding populations and monitor natural hazards associated with volcanic activity. Geologists who research volcanic materials that make up the solid Earth are referred to as igneous petrologists. The word volcanologist (or vulcanologist ) is derived from the English volcanology ( volcano + -logy ), which was derived from the French volcanologie (or vulcanologie), which
803-557: The Black Sea . In Persian, the name was translated as Baḥr-i Safīd , which was also used in later Ottoman Turkish . Similarly, in 19th century Greek, the name was Άσπρη Θάλασσα ( áspri thálassa ; "white sea"). According to Johann Knobloch, in classical antiquity , cultures in the Levant used colours to refer to the cardinal points: black referred to the north (explaining the name Black Sea ), yellow or blue to east, red to south (e.g.,
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#1732855167299876-519: The Campanian Plain , as it is one of the most complex volcanic structures in the world. However, continued research, advancing methods, and accumulation of volcanological, geochronological, and geochemical data have improved the dates' accuracy. The most recent results by radiocarbon and argon–argon dating are, respectively, 39 220 to 39 705 calendar year BP and 39 850 ± 140 year BP. The estimated eruptive volume in dense-rock equivalent (DRE)
949-600: The Campanian volcanic arc located mostly but not exclusively in the region of Campania in southern Italy that stretches over a subduction zone created by the convergence of the African and Eurasian plates . It should not be confused with the Late Cretaceous stage Campanian . The word ignimbrite was coined by New Zealand geologist Patrick Marshall from Latin ignis (fire) and imber (shower)) and -ite . It means
1022-701: The Italian Lakes (Po). While the Mediterranean watershed is bordered by other river basins in Europe, it is essentially bordered by endorheic basins or deserts elsewhere. The following countries are in the Mediterranean drainage basin while not having a coastline on the Mediterranean Sea: The following countries have a coastline on the Mediterranean Sea: Several other territories also border
1095-705: The Italian city-states like Amalfi and Genoa before the Crusades, according to the Cairo Geniza documents. A document dated 996 mentions Amalfian merchants living in Cairo . Another letter states that the Genoese had traded with Alexandria . The caliph al-Mustansir had allowed Amalfian merchants to reside in Jerusalem about 1060 in place of the Latin hospice . The Crusades led to
1168-531: The Levant in West Asia , on the north by Anatolia in West Asia and Southern Europe , on the south by North Africa , and on the west almost by the Morocco–Spain border . The Mediterranean has played a central role in the history of Western civilization . Geological evidence indicates that around 5.9 million years ago, the Mediterranean was cut off from the Atlantic and was partly or completely desiccated over
1241-743: The Punic Wars in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC, the Roman Republic defeated the Carthaginians to become the preeminent power in the Mediterranean. When Augustus founded the Roman Empire , the Romans referred to the Mediterranean as Mare Nostrum ("Our Sea"). For the next 400 years, the Roman Empire completely controlled the Mediterranean Sea and virtually all its coastal regions from Gibraltar to
1314-616: The Red Sea ) and white to west. That would explain the Bulgarian Byalo More , the Turkish Akdeniz , and the Arab nomenclature described above, lit. "White Sea". Major ancient civilizations were located around the Mediterranean. The sea provided routes for trade, colonization, and war, as well as food (from fishing and the gathering of other seafood) for numerous communities throughout
1387-550: The Roman Empire , Mare Nostrum ("Our Sea"). The term Mare Mediterrāneum appears later: Solinus apparently used this in the 3rd century, but the earliest extant witness to it is in the 6th century, in Isidore of Seville . It means 'in the middle of land, inland' in Latin , a compound of medius ("middle"), terra ("land, earth"), and -āneus ("having the nature of"). The modern Greek name Μεσόγειος Θάλασσα ( mesógeios ; "inland")
1460-517: The "Syrian Sea". In ancient Syrian texts, Phoenician epics and in the Hebrew Bible , it was primarily known as the "Great Sea", הים הגדול HaYam HaGadol , ( Numbers ; Book of Joshua ; Ezekiel ) or simply as "The Sea" ( 1 Kings ). However, it has also been called the "Hinder Sea" because of its location on the west coast of the region of Syria or the Holy Land (and therefore behind a person facing
1533-565: The 16th century and also maintained naval bases in southern France (1543–1544), Algeria and Tunisia. Barbarossa , the Ottoman captain is a symbol of this domination with the victory of the Battle of Preveza (1538). The Battle of Djerba (1560) marked the apex of Ottoman naval domination in the eastern Mediterranean. As the naval prowess of the European powers increased, they confronted Ottoman expansion in
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#17328551672991606-515: The 7th century, and with it the religion of Islam , which soon swept across from the east; at its greatest extent, the Arabs, under the Umayyads , controlled most of the Mediterranean region and left a lasting footprint on its eastern and southern shores. A variety of foodstuffs, spices and crops were introduced to the western Mediterranean's Spain and Sicily during Arab rule, via the commercial networks of
1679-400: The CI eruption disagree on a scale of centuries, suggesting that the dating uncertainties of Ar/Ar or C are underestimated. Nonetheless, the temporal proximity of CI eruption, Middle to Upper Paleolithic transition, Neanderthal disappearance , and the onset of Heinrich event 4 (HE-4) drew considerable scholarly attention. In climatostratigraphy, the CI eruption occurred near the onset of
1752-515: The CI eruption, but it requires a well-characterized tephra find in the ice cores to ensure that the sulfate peak is indeed associated with the CI. Some hypothesized that a connection may exist between the CI eruption and the disappearance of Neanderthals in Europe. It is suggested that the CI eruption triggered a bio-cultural revolution, enabling modern humans to outcompete the Neanderthals. This has been rejected based on stratigraphical evidence that
1825-587: The CI eruption, thus precluding the CI eruption from being the instigator of the Early Aurignacian. Mediterranean For other countries, click here . The Mediterranean Sea ( / ˌ m ɛ d ɪ t ə ˈ r eɪ n i ən / MED -ih-tə- RAY -nee-ən ) is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean , surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the east by
1898-662: The DRE volume of co-ignimbrite ash based on vitric loss method falls in the range of 116–155 km (28–37 cu mi) DRE. The overall magma volume expelled during this phase amounts to 179–243 km (43–58 cu mi). Numerical simulation obtained a lower estimate of 62 km (15 cu mi) DRE for co-ignimbrite ash. The Ar/Ar age of the CI eruption has been determined to 39 850 ± 140 year BP. The C age of charred wood embedded in Welded Grey Ignimbrite has been calibrated to 39,220—39,705 year BP. The two ages of
1971-413: The Early Aurignacian adaptation appeared immediately after the eruption. This has been interpreted as indicating that the impact of the CI eruption led to the abrupt end of the pre-CI lithic traditions and triggered the following Early Aurignacian revolution. However, when probability curves of boundary transition are taken into account, the Early Aurignacian culture emerged in some regions of Europe prior to
2044-641: The Islamic world. These include sugarcane, rice, cotton, alfalfa, oranges, lemons, apricots, spinach, eggplants, carrots, saffron and bananas. The Arabs also continued extensive cultivation and production of olive oil (the Spanish words for 'oil' and 'olive'— aceite and aceituna , respectively—are derived from the Arabic al-zait , meaning 'olive juice'), and pomegranates (the heraldic symbol of Granada) from classical Greco-Roman times. The Arab invasions disrupted
2117-581: The Levant, being the only state in history to ever do so, being given the nickname "Roman Lake". The Western Roman Empire collapsed around 476 AD. The east was again dominant as Roman power lived on in the Byzantine Empire formed in the 4th century from the eastern half of the Roman Empire . Though the Eastern Roman Empire would continue to hold almost all of the Mediterranean, another power arose in
2190-464: The Mediterranean Sea (from west to east): Volcanologist A volcanologist , or volcano scientist , is a geologist who focuses on understanding the formation and eruptive activity of volcanoes . Volcanologists frequently visit volcanoes, sometimes active ones, to observe and monitor volcanic eruptions , collect eruptive products including tephra (such as ash or pumice ), rock and lava samples. One major focus of inquiry in recent times
2263-576: The Mediterranean Sea and separates the Iberian Peninsula in Europe from Morocco in Africa —is only 14 km (9 mi) wide. The Mediterranean Sea encompasses a vast number of islands , some of them of volcanic origin. The two largest islands, in both area and population, are Sicily and Sardinia . The Mediterranean Sea has an average depth of 1,500 m (4,900 ft) and the deepest recorded point
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2336-811: The Mediterranean Sea is the Nile , which takes its sources in equatorial Africa. The basin of the Nile constitutes about two-thirds of the Mediterranean drainage basin and encompasses areas as high as the Ruwenzori Mountains . Among other important rivers in Africa, are the Moulouya and the Chelif , both on the north side of the Atlas Mountains . In Asia, are the Ceyhan and Seyhan , both on
2409-503: The Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea without ship lock, because the water level is essentially the same. The westernmost point of the Mediterranean is located at the transition from the Alborán Sea to the Strait of Gibraltar, the easternmost point is on the coast of the Gulf of Iskenderun in southeastern Turkey. The northernmost point of the Mediterranean is on the coast of the Gulf of Trieste near Monfalcone in northern Italy while
2482-514: The Mediterranean towards East Africa and Asia. This led to a preference for the Mediterranean countries and their ports like Trieste with direct connections to Central and Eastern Europe experienced a rapid economic rise. In the 20th century, the 1st and 2nd World Wars as well as the Suez Crisis and the Cold War led to a shift of trade routes to the European northern ports, which changed again towards
2555-572: The Middle and the Upper Paleolithic, are directly capped by the CI tephra. Radiocarbon dating of the Proto-Aurignacian or Uluzzian layers yielded ages statistically indistinguishable or barely older than the radiocarbon age of the CI eruption. Based on stratigraphic sequences alone, the CI eruption appeared synchronous with the end of the Proto-Aurignacian and Uluzzian cultures, and the emergence of
2628-597: The Y-5 layer postdates the onset of HE-4 by 700–800 years. Petrological studies show that the magma of the CI eruption contained 50–250 million tones of sulfur dioxide and is expected to have caused a severe volcanic winter on top of already cool climate of HE-4 by injecting stratospheric sulfur aerosols . Simulations of the CI eruption by the Community Earth System Model find that temperature anomalies in Western Europe reach –2 °C to –4 °C during
2701-670: The ages. The earliest advanced civilizations in the Mediterranean were the Egyptians and the Minoans , who traded extensively with each other. Other notable civilizations that appeared somewhat later are the Hittites and other Anatolian peoples , the Phoenicians , and Mycenean Greece . Around 1200 BC the eastern Mediterranean was greatly affected by the Bronze Age Collapse , which resulted in
2774-515: The area as generic Mediterranean Sea, in the Western Basin. It does not recognize the label Sea of Sardinia . Note 2: Thracian Sea and Myrtoan Sea are seas that are part of the Aegean Sea . Note 3: The Black Sea is not considered part of it. The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Mediterranean Sea as follows: Stretching from the Strait of Gibraltar in
2847-469: The bulk of the CI eruption. The Y-5 co-ignimbrite ash dispersals to the southeast and northeast within 1,000 km (620 mi) of Campi Flegrei are associated with these first four units of pyroclastic density currents. After the eruption of the first four units, the majority of the CI magma had been expelled, resulting in the collapse of the caldera. The collapse triggered a new phase of eruption of Breccia/Spatter Unit and Upper Pumice Flow Unit. The magma
2920-456: The collection of rain water. In 2016 Italian Volcanologists announced plans to drill a probe 3 km (1.9 mi) deep into the Phlegraean Fields several years after the 2008 Campi Flegrei Deep Drilling Project which had aimed to drill a 3.5 km (2.2 mi) diagonal borehole in order to bring up rock samples and install seismic equipment. The project was suspended in 2010 due to safety problems. The CI eruption has been interpreted as
2993-427: The cultural transition from Mousterian to Uluzzian or Proto- Aurignacian (indicating the replacement of Neanderthals by modern humans in archaeology) began below the CI tephra. In 2021, the timing of Neanderthal extinction has also been re-calibrated to 40 700 ± 200 year BP, thus predating the CI eruption. At many European archaeological sites, Uluzzian and Proto-Aurignacian, transitional techno-complexes between
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3066-420: The deposits that form as a result of a pyroclastic eruption. The Phlegraean Fields ( Italian : Campi Flegrei "burning fields") caldera is a nested structure with a diameter of around 12 km × 15 km (7.5 mi × 9.3 mi). It is composed of the older Campanian Ignimbrite caldera, the younger Neapolitan Yellow Tuff caldera and widely scattered sub-aerial and submarine vents from which
3139-512: The destruction of many cities and trade routes. The most notable Mediterranean civilizations in classical antiquity were the Greek city states and the Phoenicians , both of which extensively colonized the coastlines of the Mediterranean. Darius I of Persia , who conquered Ancient Egypt, built a canal linking the Red Sea to the Nile, and thus the Mediterranean. Darius's canal was wide enough for two triremes to pass each other with oars extended and required four days to traverse. Following
3212-420: The east), which is sometimes translated as "Western Sea". Another name was the "Sea of the Philistines ", ( Book of Exodus ), from the people inhabiting a large portion of its shores near the Israelites . In Modern Hebrew , it is called הים התיכון HaYam HaTikhon 'the Middle Sea'. In Classic Persian texts was called Daryāy-e Šām (دریای شام) "The Western Sea" or "Syrian Sea". In Modern Standard Arabic , it
3285-443: The entire Mediterranean. Once, most of the trade between Western Europe and the East was passing through the region , but after the 1490s the development of a sea route to the Indian Ocean allowed the importation of Asian spices and other goods through the Atlantic ports of western Europe. The sea remained strategically important. British mastery of Gibraltar ensured their influence in Africa and Southwest Asia. Especially after
3358-442: The eruption occurred in the northeastern sector of Campi Flegrei. This phase is supplied by the uppermost, most evolved trachytic magma of the chamber. A detailed attempt to reconstruct this phase through direct field measurements recognized the evolution of the Plinian column through five units of fall deposits. The eruption first reached a column height of 29 km (18 mi) and then peaked at 39 km (24 mi), and during
3431-399: The flourishing of trade between Europe and the outremer region. Genoa, Venice and Pisa created colonies in regions controlled by the Crusaders and came to control the trade with the Orient. These colonies also allowed them to trade with the Eastern world. Though the fall of the Crusader states and attempts at banning of trade relations with Muslim states by the Popes temporarily disrupted
3504-436: The immediate coastline on all sides of the Mediterranean tends to have strong maritime moderation. The sea was an important route for merchants and travellers of ancient times, facilitating trade and cultural exchange between the peoples of the region. The history of the Mediterranean region is crucial to understanding the origins and development of many modern societies. The Roman Empire maintained nautical hegemony over
3577-401: The largest volcanic eruption of the past 200,000 years in Europe. The eruption started with an intense Plinian phase, succeeded by a sequence of voluminous pyroclastic density currents with co-ignimbrite plumes. Both phases generated high eruptive columns, culminating in the widespread deposition of the Y-5 layer. The distribution of basal Plinian fallout strongly suggests that the onset of
3650-448: The latest stage, the top of the plume waned to 26 km (16 mi). The entire Plinian eruption lasted about 20 hours and emitted 7.8 km (1.9 cu mi) of magma. Another attempt at reconstruction by numerical simulation shows a different Plinian process. The eruptive column rose to 44 km (27 mi), and the entire phase was completed within 4 hours with a magma volume of 23 km (5.5 cu mi). Plinian tephra
3723-588: The major ranges bordering Southern Europe. Total annual precipitation is significantly higher on the European part of the Mediterranean basin, especially near the Alps (the 'water tower of Europe') and other high mountain ranges. As a consequence, the river discharges of the Rhône and Po are similar to that of the Nile, despite the latter having a much larger basin. These are the only three rivers with an average discharge of over 1,000 m /s (35,000 cu ft/s). Among large natural fresh bodies of water are Lake Victoria (Nile basin), Lake Geneva (Rhône), and
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#17328551672993796-414: The migrants and arrest the traffickers of immigrants. In 2015, more than one million migrants crossed the Mediterranean Sea into Europe. Italy was particularly affected by the European migrant crisis . Since 2013, over 700,000 migrants have landed in Italy, mainly sub-Saharan Africans. The Mediterranean Sea connects: The 163 km (101 mi) long artificial Suez Canal in the southeast connects
3869-523: The most recent eruptions have originated. The Fields sit upon a Pliocene – Quaternary Extensional domain with faults, that run North-East to South-West and North-West to South-East from the margin of the Apennine thrust belt . The sequence of deformation has been subdivided into three periods. The structure's magma chamber remains active as there apparently are solfataras , hot springs, gas emissions and frequent episodes of large-scale up- and downlift ground deformation ( Bradyseism ) do occur. In 2008 it
3942-435: The naval battles of Abukir (1799, Battle of the Nile ) and Trafalgar (1805), the British had for a long time strengthened their dominance in the Mediterranean. Wars included Naval warfare in the Mediterranean during World War I and Mediterranean theatre of World War II . With the opening of the lockless Suez Canal in 1869, the flow of trade between Europe and Asia changed fundamentally. The fastest route now led through
4015-428: The number of drowned refugees in the region as a direct result of the policies. An Azerbaijani official described the sea as "a burial ground ... where people die". Following the 2013 Lampedusa migrant shipwreck , the Italian government decided to strengthen the national system for the patrolling of the Mediterranean Sea by authorising " Operation Mare Nostrum ", a military and humanitarian mission in order to rescue
4088-474: The region when the Battle of Lepanto (1571) checked the power of the Ottoman Navy . This was the last naval battle to be fought primarily between galleys . The Barbary pirates of Northwest Africa preyed on Christian shipping and coastlines in the Western Mediterranean Sea. According to Robert Davis, from the 16th to 19th centuries, pirates captured 1 million to 1.25 million Europeans as slaves. The development of oceanic shipping began to affect
4161-468: The sea for centuries and is the only state to have ever controlled all of its coast. The countries surrounding the Mediterranean and its marginal seas in clockwise order are Spain , France , Monaco , Italy , Slovenia , Croatia , Bosnia and Herzegovina , Montenegro , Albania , Greece , Turkey , Syria , Lebanon , Israel , Palestine ( Gaza Strip ), Egypt , Libya , Tunisia , Algeria , and Morocco ; Cyprus and Malta are island countries in
4234-458: The sea. In addition, Northern Cyprus ( de facto state ) and two overseas territories of the United Kingdom ( Akrotiri and Dhekelia , and Gibraltar ) also have coastlines along the Mediterranean Sea. The drainage basin encompasses a large number of other countries, the Nile being the longest river ending in the Mediterranean Sea. The Ancient Egyptians called the Mediterranean Wadj-wr/Wadj-Wer/Wadj-Ur. This term (literally "great green")
4307-423: The shortest shipping route between the multinational Gulf of Trieste and the Libyan coastline of the Gulf of Sidra is about 1,900 kilometres (1,200 mi). The water temperatures are mild in winter and warm in summer and give name to the Mediterranean climate type due to the majority of precipitation falling in the cooler months. Its southern and eastern coastlines are lined with hot deserts not far inland, but
4380-400: The south side of the Taurus Mountains . In Europe, the largest basins are those of the Rhône , Ebro , Po , and Maritsa . The basin of the Rhône is the largest and extends up as far north as the Jura Mountains , encompassing areas even on the north side of the Alps . The basins of the Ebro, Po, and Maritsa, are respectively south of the Pyrenees , Alps, and Balkan Mountains , which are
4453-421: The southern ports through European integration, the activation of the Silk Road and free world trade. In 2013, the Maltese president described the Mediterranean Sea as a "cemetery" due to the large number of migrants who drowned there after their boats capsized. European Parliament president Martin Schulz said in 2014 that Europe's migration policy "turned the Mediterranean into a graveyard", referring to
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#17328551672994526-599: The southernmost point is on the coast of the Gulf of Sidra near the Libyan town of El Agheila . Large islands in the Mediterranean include: The Alpine arc , which also has a great meteorological impact on the Mediterranean area, touches the Mediterranean in the west in the area around Nice . The typical Mediterranean climate has hot, dry summers and mild, rainy winters. Crops of the region include olives , grapes , oranges , tangerines , carobs and cork . The Mediterranean Sea includes 15 marginal seas : Note 1: The International Hydrographic Organization defines
4599-440: The term was later extended to the whole Mediterranean, it was also called Baḥr al-Maghrib ( بحر المغرب ) ("the Sea of the West"). A name that was used mainly for the western basin. In Turkish , it is the Akdeniz 'the White Sea'; in Ottoman, ﺁق دڭيز , which sometimes means only the Aegean Sea . The origin of the name is not clear, as it is not known in earlier Greek, Byzantine or Islamic sources. It may be to contrast with
4672-508: The trade in western Europe and brought it to a halt. However, the Norsemen developed the trade from Norway to the White Sea , while also trading in luxury goods from Spain and the Mediterranean. The Byzantines in the mid-8th century retook control of the area around the north-eastern part of the Mediterranean. Venetian ships from the 9th century armed themselves to counter the harassment by Arabs while concentrating trade of Asian goods in Venice. The Fatimids maintained trade relations with
4745-487: The trade relations between Western and Eastern Europe while disrupting trade routes with Eastern Asian Empires. This, however, had the indirect effect of promoting trade across the Caspian Sea . The export of grains from Egypt was re-routed towards the Eastern world . Products from East Asian empires, like silk and spices, were carried from Egypt under the Arab rule to ports like Venice and Constantinople by sailors and Jewish merchants. The Viking raids further disrupted
4818-412: The trade with the Orient, it however continued. Europe started to revive, however, as more organized and centralized states began to form in the later Middle Ages after the Renaissance of the 12th century . Ottoman power based in Anatolia continued to grow, and in 1453 extinguished the Byzantine Empire with the Conquest of Constantinople . Ottomans gained control of much of the eastern part sea in
4891-540: The west to the entrances to the Dardanelles and the Suez Canal in the east, the Mediterranean Sea is bounded by the coasts of Europe, Africa, and Asia and is divided into two deep basins: The drainage basin of the Mediterranean Sea is particularly heterogeneous and extends much further than the Mediterranean region. Its size has been estimated between 4,000,000 and 5,500,000 km (1,500,000 and 2,100,000 sq mi), depending on whether non-active parts (deserts) are included or not. The longest river ending in
4964-452: The western outskirts of the city of Naples and the Gulf of Pozzuoli , Italy. It is the largest explosive volcanic event in Europe in the past 200,000 years, and the largest eruption of Campi Fleigrei caldera . Estimates of the date and magnitude of the eruption(s), and the amount of ejected material have varied considerably during several centuries the site has been studied. This applies to most significant volcanic events that originated in
5037-421: The year following the eruption, and the peak cooling and acid deposition lasted one to two years. To assess the volcanic winter using climate proxies, significant effort has been invested in directly detecting the sulfate signal of the CI eruption in polar ice cores, but these attempts have turned out to be fruitless. Several large sulfate peaks occurring near the onset of HE-4 have been tentatively attributed to
5110-450: Was discovered that the Phlegraean Fields and Mount Vesuvius have a common magma chamber at a depth of 10 km (6.2 mi). The region's volcanic nature has been recognized since Antiquity , investigated and studied for many centuries. Methodical scientific research began in the late 19th century. The yellow tuff stone was extensively quarried for centuries, which left large underground cavities that served as aqueducts and cisterns for
5183-691: Was further derived from the French word volcan (volcano), which was even further derived from Vulcanus , the Latin name of the Roman god of fire and metalworking . The Latin word is of Etruscan origin, but unknown meaning. Volcanologists research many aspects of volcanic processes to better understand planetary formation or to monitor current and future volcanic eruptions in order to protect citizens living in volcanic hazard zones. Volcanologists work at universities, museums or other national research institutes (often including volcano observatories), or in industry. Volcanologists working in academia will be usually involved in teaching geology classes if based at
5256-483: Was sourced from the lowermost, less evolved portions of the chamber. These two units represented the last stage of eruption and were only emplaced as very proximal deposits along the caldera rim. Most of the ultra-distal dispersal > 1,500 km (930 mi) was associated with this stage. Calculations of exposed and inferred thickness and area of pyroclastic density currents yield a total ignimbrite volume of 60–83 km (14–20 cu mi) of magma. Consequently,
5329-721: Was the name given by the Ancient Egyptians to the semi-solid, semi-aquatic region characterized by papyrus forests to the north of the cultivated Nile delta, and, by extension, the sea beyond. The Ancient Greeks called the Mediterranean simply ἡ θάλασσα ( hē thálassa ; "the Sea") or sometimes ἡ μεγάλη θάλασσα ( hē megálē thálassa ; "the Great Sea"), ἡ ἡμετέρα θάλασσα ( hē hēmetérā thálassa ; "Our Sea"), or ἡ θάλασσα ἡ καθ’ ἡμᾶς ( hē thálassa hē kath’hēmâs ; "the sea around us"). The Romans called it Mare Magnum ("Great Sea") or Mare Internum ("Internal Sea") and, starting with
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