Misplaced Pages

#273726

126-419: In virology , gain-of-function research is usually employed with the intention of better understanding current and future pandemics . In vaccine development, gain-of-function research is conducted in the hope of gaining a head start on a virus and being able to develop a vaccine or therapeutic before it emerges. The term "gain of function" is sometimes applied more narrowly to refer to "research which could enable

252-579: A model organism for rodent species), proving that certain agricultural scenarios carry the risk of allowing H5N1 to cross over into mammals. As in the Fouchier and Kawaoka experiments above, the viruses in this study were also significantly less lethal after the modification. Critics of the 2013 Chen group study (including Simon Wain-Hobson of the Pasteur Institute and former Royal Society President Robert May ) decried this as an unsafe experiment that

378-493: A 2009 H1N1 circulating in humans infected the same cell as an avian influenza H5N1. Importantly, the experiments had been conducted before a research pause on H5N1 experiments had been agreed upon by the greater virologist community. They used these experiments to determine that certain genes, if reassorted in such a dual-infection scenario in the wild, would allow transmission of the H5N1 virus more easily in mammals (notably guinea pigs as

504-487: A Consensus Statement authored by 18 founding members, including Amir Attaran , Barry Bloom , Arturo Casadevall , Richard H. Ebright , Alison Galvani , Edward Hammond, Thomas Inglesby , Michael Osterholm , David Relman , Richard Roberts , Marcel Salathé and Silja Vöneky . Since its initial publication, over 300 scientists, academics, and physicians have added their signature. The statement advocates for all work involving potential pandemic pathogens to be halted until

630-1564: A Newcastle Disease Virus-Based H9 Avian Influenza Live Vaccine. Avian Disease, 2010, 54(S1), 290-293. 10. Guobin Tian, Xianying Zeng, Yanbing Li, Jianzhong Shi, Hualan Chen*. Protective Efficacy of the H5 Inactivated Vaccine against Different Highly Pathogenic H5N1 Avian Influenza Viruses Isolated in China and Vietnam. Avian Disease, 2010, 54(S1), 287-289. 11. Neumann G, Chen H, Gao GF, Shu Y, Kawaoka Y. H5N1 influenza viruses: outbreaks and biological properties. Cell Research, 2010, 20(1):51-61 12. Qimeng Tao, Xiurong Wang, Hongmei Bao, Jianan Wu, Lin Shi, Yanbing Li, Chuanling Qiao, Yakovlevich SA, Mikhaylovna PN, Hualan Chen. Detection and differentiation of four poultry diseases using asymmetric reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction in combination with oligonucleotide microarrays. J Vet Diagn Invest. 2009;21(5):623-632 13. Chuantian Xu, Qiyun Zhu, Huanliang Yang, Xiumei Zhang, Chuanling Qiao, Yan Chen, Xiaoguang Xin, Hualan Chen*. Two genotypes of H1N2 influenza viruses appeared among pigs in China. Journal of Clinical Virology. 2009, 46: 192-195. 14. Hualan Chen, Zhigao Bu. Development and application of avian influenza vaccines in China. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology. 2009;333:153-62 (Review) 15. Hualan Chen. Avian influenza vaccination:

756-554: A disadvantage in that it does not differentiate infectious and non-infectious viruses and "tests of cure" have to be delayed for up to 21 days to allow for residual viral nucleic acid to clear from the site of the infection. In laboratories many of the diagnostic test for detecting viruses are nucleic acid amplification methods such as PCR. Some tests detect the viruses or their components as these include electron microscopy and enzyme-immunoassays . The so-called "home" or "self"-testing gadgets are usually lateral flow tests , which detect

882-441: A greater weight on certain virus properties to maintain family uniformity. A unified taxonomy (a universal system for classifying viruses) has been established. Only a small part of the total diversity of viruses has been studied. As of 2021, 6 realms, 10 kingdoms, 17 phyla, 2 subphyla, 39 classes, 65 orders, 8 suborders, 233 families, 168 subfamilies , 2,606 genera, 84 subgenera , and 10,434 species of viruses have been defined by

1008-462: A group of viruses that infect bacteria, now called bacteriophages (or commonly 'phages'), and the French-Canadian microbiologist Félix d'Herelle described viruses that, when added to bacteria on an agar plate , would produce areas of dead bacteria. He accurately diluted a suspension of these viruses and discovered that the highest dilutions (lowest virus concentrations), rather than killing all

1134-533: A joint suggestion to expand the role of existing research ethics committees to also evaluate proposals of DURC. From 2014 to 2017, the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy and the Department of Health and Human Services instituted a gain-of-function research moratorium and funding pause on any dual-use research into specific pandemic-potential pathogens ( influenza , MERS , and SARS ) while

1260-517: A light microscope, sequencing is one of the main tools in virology to identify and study the virus. Traditional Sanger sequencing and next-generation sequencing (NGS) are used to sequence viruses in basic and clinical research, as well as for the diagnosis of emerging viral infections, molecular epidemiology of viral pathogens, and drug-resistance testing. There are more than 2.3 million unique viral sequences in GenBank. NGS has surpassed traditional Sanger as

1386-528: A live attenuated H5N1 vaccine in nonhuman primates. PLoS Pathogens, 2009, 5(5), e1000409 21. Chuanling Qiao, Yongping Jiang, Guobin Tian, Xiurong Wang, Chengjun Li, Xiaoguang Xin, Hualan Chen, Kangzhen Yu. Recombinant Fowlpox Virus Vector-based Vaccine Completely Protects Chickens from H5N1 Avian Influenza Virus. Antiviral Research, 2009, 81(3):234-8 22. Shufang Fan, Guohua Deng, Jiasheng Song, Guobin Tian, Yongbing Suo, Yongping Jiang, Yuntao Guan, Zhigao Bu, Yoshihiro Kawaoka, Hualan Chen. Two amino acid residues in

SECTION 10

#1732854519274

1512-491: A mechanism to engage the life sciences community and the broader public and solicit feedback on optimal approaches to ensure effective federal oversight of GOF research as part of a broader U.S. government deliberative process. The Cambridge Working Group was formed by Harvard epidemiologist Marc Lipsitch with fellow scientists at a meeting held in Cambridge, Massachusetts, following a "trifecta" of biosecurity incidents involving

1638-481: A new chimeric version of the virus. All of the six mice exposed to the ancestral variant died; eight of the ten mice exposed to the chimeric variant died; and none of the ten mice exposed to Omicron died. This suggests that "mutations outside of spike are major determinants of the attenuated pathogenicity of Omicron 209 in K18-hACE2 mice". According to the preprint, the work was supported by grants from various branches of

1764-612: A pandemic-potential pathogen to replicate more quickly or cause more harm in humans or other closely-related mammals." Some forms of gain-of-function research (specifically work which involves certain select agent pathogens) carry inherent biosafety and biosecurity risks, and are thus also referred to as dual use research of concern (DURC) . To mitigate these risks while allowing the benefits of such research, various governments have mandated that DURC experiments be regulated under additional oversight by institutions (so-called institutional "DURC" committees) and government agencies (such as

1890-633: A quantitative and objective assessment of the risks has been undertaken. It then argues that alternative approaches that do not involve such risks should be used instead. The group engaged in public advocacy, influencing the US government's decision in December 2014 to suspend funding of research that would create certain types of novel potential pandemic pathogens. Shortly after the Cambridge Working Group released its position statement, Scientists for Science

2016-723: A researcher at the Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, the director of the Key Laboratory of Animal Influenza of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, and an academician of the Chinese Academy of Sciences.[15] Member of the 12th and 13th National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference.[15] On the afternoon of November 1, 2018,

2142-402: A series of significant progress and creative research results, and initially clarified the molecular genetics, antigenic variation and pathogenicity of the avian influenza virus. The law of evolution provides a comprehensive scientific basis for the early warning and forecasting of the epidemic, prevention and control strategies, the development and use of diagnostic reagents and vaccines. During

2268-401: A statistical probability such as the volume of the test sample needed to ensure 50% of the hosts cells, plants or animals are infected. This is called the median infectious dose or ID 50 . Infective bacteriophages can be counted by seeding them onto "lawns" of bacteria in culture dishes. When at low concentrations, the viruses form holes in the lawn that can be counted. The number of viruses

2394-460: A top speed of around 100,000 rpm, are and this difference is used in a method called differential centrifugation . In this method the larger and heavier contaminants are removed from a virus mixture by low speed centrifugation. The viruses, which are small and light and are left in suspension, are then concentrated by high speed centrifugation. Following differential centrifugation, virus suspensions often remain contaminated with debris that has

2520-498: A two-day symposium to discuss the potential risks and benefits of gain-of-function research. The event was attended by scientists from around the world, including George Gao , Gabriel Leung and Michael Selgelid , Baruch Fischhoff , Alta Charo , Harvey Fineberg , Jonathan Moreno , Ralph Cicerone , Margaret Hamburg , Jo Handelsman , Samuel Stanley , Kenneth Berns , Ralph Baric , Robert Lamb , Silja Vöneky , Keiji Fukuda , David Relman , and Marc Lipsitch . Shortly thereafter,

2646-459: A virus causes disease is its virulence . These fields of study are called plant virology , animal virology and human or medical virology . Virology began when there were no methods for propagating or visualizing viruses or specific laboratory tests for viral infections. The methods for separating viral nucleic acids ( RNA and DNA ) and proteins , which are now the mainstay of virology, did not exist. Now there are many methods for observing

SECTION 20

#1732854519274

2772-416: A worrying lack of transparency from oversight panels. Virology Virology is the scientific study of biological viruses . It is a subfield of microbiology that focuses on their detection, structure, classification and evolution, their methods of infection and exploitation of host cells for reproduction, their interaction with host organism physiology and immunity, the diseases they cause,

2898-670: Is virus classification . It is artificial in that it is not based on evolutionary phylogenetics but it is based shared or distinguishing properties of viruses. It seeks to describe the diversity of viruses by naming and grouping them on the basis of similarities. In 1962, André Lwoff , Robert Horne , and Paul Tournier were the first to develop a means of virus classification, based on the Linnaean hierarchical system. This system based classification on phylum , class , order , family , genus , and species . Viruses were grouped according to their shared properties (not those of their hosts) and

3024-597: Is a Chinese veterinary virologist best known for researching animal epidemic diseases. She is a member of the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) and a member of the Food and Agriculture Organization Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT). She is now a researcher and PhD Supervisor at Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences . She has been listed among

3150-469: Is also dependent on the size of area that the user is counting. A larger area will require more time but can provide a more accurate representation of the sample. Results of the FFA are expressed as focus forming units per milliliter, or FFU/ When an assay for measuring the infective virus particle is done (Plaque assay, Focus assay), viral titre often refers to the concentration of infectious viral particles, which

3276-634: Is different from the total viral particles. Viral load assays usually count the number of viral genomes present rather than the number of particles and use methods similar to PCR . Viral load tests are an important in the control of infections by HIV. This versatile method can be used for plant viruses. Molecular virology is the study of viruses at the level of nucleic acids and proteins. The methods invented by molecular biologists have all proven useful in virology. Their small sizes and relatively simple structures make viruses an ideal candidate for study by these techniques. For further study, viruses grown in

3402-406: Is formed. The FFA is particularly useful for quantifying classes of viruses that do not lyse the cell membranes, as these viruses would not be amenable to the plaque assay. Like the plaque assay, host cell monolayers are infected with various dilutions of the virus sample and allowed to incubate for a relatively brief incubation period (e.g., 24–72 hours) under a semisolid overlay medium that restricts

3528-405: Is now known as the tobacco mosaic virus : crushed leaf extracts from infected tobacco plants remained infectious even after filtration to remove bacteria. Ivanovsky suggested the infection might be caused by a toxin produced by bacteria, but he did not pursue the idea. At the time it was thought that all infectious agents could be retained by filters and grown on a nutrient medium—this was part of

3654-435: Is particularly useful when studying the genetics of viruses that have segmented genomes (fragmented into two or more nucleic acid molecules) such as influenza viruses and rotaviruses . The genes that encode properties such as serotype can be identified in this way. Often confused with reassortment, recombination is also the mixing of genes but the mechanism differs in that stretches of DNA or RNA molecules, as opposed to

3780-411: Is relatively inert but easily self-forms a gradient when centrifuged at high speed in an ultracentrifuge. Buoyant density centrifugation can also be used to purify the components of viruses such as their nucleic acids or proteins. The separation of molecules based on their electric charge is called electrophoresis . Viruses and all their components can be separated and purified using this method. This

3906-500: Is then expressed as plaque forming units . For the bacteriophages that reproduce in bacteria that cannot be grown in cultures, viral load assays are used. The focus forming assay (FFA) is a variation of the plaque assay, but instead of relying on cell lysis in order to detect plaque formation, the FFA employs immunostaining techniques using fluorescently labeled antibodies specific for a viral antigen to detect infected host cells and infectious virus particles before an actual plaque

Gain-of-function research - Misplaced Pages Continue

4032-429: Is usually done in a supporting medium such as agarose and polyacrylamide gels . The separated molecules are revealed using stains such as coomasie blue , for proteins, or ethidium bromide for nucleic acids. In some instances the viral components are rendered radioactive before electrophoresis and are revealed using photographic film in a process known as autoradiography . As most viruses are too small to be seen by

4158-571: Is very sensitive and specific, but can be easily compromised by contamination. Most of the tests used in veterinary virology and medical virology are based on PCR or similar methods such as transcription mediated amplification . When a novel virus emerges, such as the covid coronavirus, a specific test can be devised quickly so long as the viral genome has been sequenced and unique regions of the viral DNA or RNA identified. The invention of microfluidic tests as allowed for most of these tests to be automated, Despite its specificity and sensitivity, PCR has

4284-541: The CDC , including the accidental exposure of viable anthrax to personnel at CDC's Roybal Campus, the discovery of six vials containing viable smallpox from the 1950s, labeled as Variola but in a box with other samples poorly labeled, at the FDA's White Oak campus, and the accidental shipping of H9N2 vials contaminated with H5N1 from the CDC lab to a USDA lab. On July 14, 2014, the group published

4410-764: The Chief Medical Advisor to the United States Office of the President , senator Rand Paul stated that "the U.S. has been collaborating with Shi Zhengli of the Wuhan Virology Institute , sharing discoveries about how to create super viruses. This gain-of-function research has been funded by the NIH." Fauci responded "with all due respect, you are entirely and completely incorrect...the NIH has not ever and does not now fund gain-of-function research [conducted at]

4536-659: The NIH lifted the moratorium because gain-of-function research was deemed "important in helping us identify, understand, and develop strategies and effective countermeasures against rapidly evolving pathogens that pose a threat to public health ." During the COVID-19 pandemic a number of speculative theories emerged about the origin of the SARS-CoV-2 virus and links to gain-of-function research . In January 2021, University of Saskatchewan virologist Angela Rasmussen wrote that one version of

4662-473: The germ theory of disease . In 1898, the Dutch microbiologist Martinus Beijerinck repeated the experiments and became convinced that the filtered solution contained a new form of infectious agent. He observed that the agent multiplied only in cells that were dividing, but as his experiments did not show that it was made of particles, he called it a contagium vivum fluidum (soluble living germ) and reintroduced

4788-730: The "Ten Scientific Figures of the Year" by Nature in 2013. She won the L'Oréal-UNESCO Awards for Women in Science in 2016, and was elected to the Chinese Academy of Sciences in 2017. Chen was born in Jingyuan County , Baiyin , Gansu province in 1969. In 1987, she was admitted to the Department of Veterinary Medicine of Gansu Agricultural University. In 1991, after receiving a bachelor's degree, she continued to major in veterinary pathology in

4914-491: The "lab leak" theory was unproven, and also stated "citing the 80% figure alone leaves out key context, including that the resulting strain was less fatal than the original, which killed 100% of mice. Experts say this kind of research is not unusual and the experiment was conducted in accordance with accepted safety procedures.") All research funded by the NIH that can make COVID more virulent or transmissible must undergo an extra gain-of-function review. Critics charged that, because

5040-580: The 12th Executive Committee of the All-China Women's Federation held its first plenary meeting. Chen Hualan was elected as the vice chairman of the All-China Women's Federation.[15] Chen is married and has a son. Research Summary Chen Hualan presided over the National Avian Influenza Reference Laboratory and systematically carried out the epidemiological monitoring and research work of avian influenza in China, and achieved

5166-661: The 2014 moratorium, because the experiments involved "naturally-occurring viruses" adding that the moratorium had "no teeth". However, most recently NIH deputy director Richard Tabak clarified in Congressional testimony on May 16, 2024, that the NIH did fund "generic" gain-of-function research at the Wuhan Institute of Virology. When asked if the NIH funded gain-of-function research at the WIH, Tabak replied, "It depends on your definition of gain-of function research. If you're speaking about

Gain-of-function research - Misplaced Pages Continue

5292-546: The Center for International Security Studies' Biological Research Security System. The document also recommended the aforementioned as potential resources for countries to develop their own policies and procedures for DURC. The European Academies Science Advisory Council has formed a working group to examine the issues raised by gain-of-function research and to make recommendations for the management of such research and its outputs. The possibility for developing common approaches between

5418-548: The China Outstanding Young Science and Technology Talent Award.[14] In November 2017, she was elected an academician of the Chinese Academy of Sciences.[14] In March 2018, she served as a member of the Agricultural and Rural Committee of the 13th National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference.[15] In November 2018, Vice Chairman (concurrently) of the All-China Women's Federation,

5544-579: The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences. In 1999, she went to the Influenza Sub-center of the Centers for Disease Control of the United States for post-doctoral work and collaborative research on bird flu.[13] In 2002, she returned to China and served as a researcher at the Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, and successively served as the director of

5670-497: The Department of Veterinary Medicine of Gansu Agricultural University and studied as a graduate student. In 1994, after graduating with a master's degree, she was admitted to the Graduate School of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences.[13] In 1997, she obtained a doctorate degree in infectious disease and preventive veterinary medicine, and then worked as an assistant researcher at the Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of

5796-1096: The ICTV. The general taxonomic structure of taxon ranges and the suffixes used in taxonomic names are shown hereafter. As of 2021, the ranks of subrealm, subkingdom, and subclass are unused, whereas all other ranks are in use. The Nobel Prize-winning biologist David Baltimore devised the Baltimore classification system. The Baltimore classification of viruses is based on the mechanism of mRNA production. Viruses must generate mRNAs from their genomes to produce proteins and replicate themselves, but different mechanisms are used to achieve this in each virus family. Viral genomes may be single-stranded (ss) or double-stranded (ds), RNA or DNA, and may or may not use reverse transcriptase (RT). In addition, ssRNA viruses may be either sense (+) or antisense (−). This classification places viruses into seven groups: Hualan Chen Chen Hualan ( simplified Chinese : 陈化兰 ; traditional Chinese : 陳化蘭 ; pinyin : Chén Huàlán ; born March 1969)

5922-606: The Key Laboratory of Animal Influenza of the Ministry of Agriculture and the director of the National Avian Influenza Reference Laboratory.[13] On November 9, 2005, she won the 2nd China Young Women Scientist Award. In 2006, she won the China Youth May 4 Medal.[13] In 2008, she served as the director of the Avian Influenza Reference Laboratory of the World Organization for Animal Health. In 2008, she

6048-525: The NIH's recombinant DNA advisory committee). A mirrored approach can be seen in the European Union 's Dual Use Coordination Group (DUCG). Importantly, regulations in the United States and European Union both mandate that at least one unaffiliated member of the public should be "active participants" in the oversight process. Significant debate has taken place in the scientific community on how to assess

6174-523: The NIH, which claimed no gain-of-function research at all was funded by the NIH. Several scientists have criticized the US government's GoFR regulations as having serious shortcomings (especially with regard to the NIH's funding of the EcoHealth Alliance grant proposal). Ebright has remarked that the process is not applied to all experiments which are implicated in the government's policies, while virologists David Relman and Angela Rasmussen have cited

6300-509: The NIH. (However, the NIH later denied funding the experiments. The researchers later stated the NIH did not fund the experiments directly.) On 17 October, the Daily Mail ran the headline "Boston University CREATES a new COVID strain that has an 80% kill rate—echoing dangerous experiments feared to have started the pandemic". (The headline was later flagged "as part of Facebook's efforts to combat false news and misinformation". PolitiFact noted

6426-616: The NSABB published "Recommendations for the Evaluation and Oversight of Proposed Gain-of-Function Research". On 9 January 2017, the HHS published the "Recommended Policy Guidance for Departmental Development of Review Mechanisms for Potential Pandemic Pathogen Care and Oversight" (P3CO). This report sets out how "pandemic potential pathogens" should be regulated, funded, stored, and researched to minimize threats to public health and safety. On 19 December 2017,

SECTION 50

#1732854519274

6552-1399: The National Natural Science Foundation of China.<be> <be> Journal Papers & Patented Inventions As of 2014, Chen Hualan has published more than 50 SCI papers related to avian influenza research in important international academic journals; he has obtained 6 new veterinary drug certificates for avian influenza vaccines, of which 3 are genetic engineering vaccines; and 7 national invention patents have been obtained<be> Representative articles 1. Yanbing Li, Liling Liu, Yi Zhang, Zhenhua Duan, Guobin Tian, Xianying Zeng, Jianzhong Shi, Licheng Zhang, Hualan Chen*. New lineage of H5N1 influenza virus detected in wild birds in Qinghai, western China. Emerging Infectious Disease, 2010, in press. 2. Ying Chen, Gongxun Zhong, Guojun Wang, Guohua Deng, Yanbing Li, Jianzhong Shi, Zhuo Zhang, Yuntao Guan, Yongping Jiang, Zhigao Bu, Yoshihiro Kawaoka, Hualan Chen*. Dogs are highly susceptible to H5N1 avian influenza virus. Virology. 2010, 405, 15-19, on-line, June 25. 3. Lihong Tao, Jinying Ge, Xijun Wang, Hongyue Zhai, Tao Hua, Bolin Zhao, Dongni Kong, Chinglai Yang, Hualan Chen*, and Zhigao Bu*. Molecular Basis of Neurovirulence of Flury Rabies Virus Vaccine Strains: Importance of

6678-1021: The Polymerase and the Glycoprotein R333Q Mutation. Journal of Virology. 2010, 84 (17), 8926-8936. on-line, June 10 4. Yanbing Li, Jianzhong Shi, Gongxun Zhong, Guohua Deng, Guobin Tian, Jinying Ge, Xianying Zeng, Jiasheng Song, Dongming Zhao, Liling Liu, Yongping Jiang, Yuntao Guan, Zhigao Bu, Hualan Chen*. Continued evolution of H5N1 influenza viruses in wild birds, domestic poultry and humans in China from 2004 to 2009. Journal of Virology. 2010, 84(17), 8389-8379. On-line, June 10. 5. Yujie Tang, Gongxun Zhong, Lianhui Zhu, Xing Liu, Yufei Shan, Huapeng Feng, Zhigao Bu, Hualan Chen*, and Chen Wang. Herc5 Attenuates Influenza A Virus by Catalyzing ISGylation of Viral NS1 Protein. Journal of Immunology, 2010, 184, 5777-5790 6. Bo Wah Leung, Hualan Chen, George G. Brownlee. Correlation between polymerase activity and pathogenicity in two duck H5N1 influenza viruses suggests that

6804-766: The Type I Interferon Response in Mice. J Virol. 2009 83(11): 5825-34 19. Kashiwagi T, Leung BW, Deng T, Chen H, Brownlee GG.. The N-terminal region of the PA subunit of the RNA polymerase of influenza A/HongKong/156/97 (H5N1) influences promoter binding. PLoS ONE. 2009; 4(5):e5473. 20. Shufang Fan, Yuwei Gao, Kyoko Shinya, Chris K-F. Li, Yanbing Li, Jianzhong Shi, Yongping Jiang, Yongbing Suo, Tiegang Tong, Gongxun Zhong, Jiasheng Song, Ying Zhang, Guobin Tian, Yuntao Guan, Xiaoning Xu, Zhigao Bu, Yoshihiro Kawaoka, Hualan Chen. Immunogenicity and protective efficacy of

6930-516: The US government granted exceptions to the GoFR moratorium to 7 out of 18 research projects that had been affected. On March 10–11, 2016, the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine held its second public symposium to discuss potential U.S. government policies for the oversight of gain-of-function (GOF) research. The symposium was held at the request of the U.S. government to provide

7056-632: The US, where regulations were previously less strict than in the EU, a new governmental policy and review mechanism was launched for "Potential Pandemic Pathogen Care and Oversight" (P3CO). In May 2013, a group led by Hualan Chen , director of China 's National Avian Influenza Reference Laboratory , published several experiments they had conducted at the BSL3+ laboratory of the Harbin Veterinary Research Institute , investigating what would happen if

7182-753: The United States and Europe has been explored. In May 2014, the German National Ethics Council presented a report to the Bundestag on proposed guidance for governance of GoFR. The report called for national legislation on DURC. As of May 2021, the German government has not passed the endorsed legislation. The NEC also proposed a national code-of-conduct for researchers to consent, endorsing which experiments qualify as misconduct and which do not, based on founding principles of public benefit. The German Research Foundation and German National Academy of Sciences made

7308-494: The WHO it was concluded that this work was an important contribution to public health surveillance of H5N1 viruses and to a better understanding of the properties of these viruses, but that broader global discussions were needed. The European Academies of Science Advisory Council (EASAC) concluded that all required laws, rules, regulations, and codes of conduct are in place in several EU countries to continue this type of work responsibly. In

7434-578: The Wuhan Institute of Virology." The Washington Post fact-checking team later rated Paul's statements as containing "significant omissions and/or exaggerations". NIH funding to the EcoHealth Alliance and later sub-contracted to the Wuhan Institute of Virology was not to support gain-of-function experiments, but instead to enable the collection of bat samples in the wild. EcoHealth Alliance spokesperson Robert Kessler has also categorically denied

7560-562: The accusation. The Washington Post also quoted Rutgers University biosecurity expert Richard Ebright 's dissenting opinion about Fauci's testimony, demonstrating that there is disagreement about what qualifies as "gain of function" research. Ebright asserted that experiments conducted under the EcoHealth grant "met the definition for gain-of-function research of concern under the 2014 Pause ." MIT molecular biologist Alina Chan has argued that these experiments would not have been affected by

7686-461: The air between mammals, thus having the potential to cause a human pandemic, revealing the H5N1 virus from a new perspective. A real threat to global public health. In July, she and researchers found that the H7N9 virus is not pathogenic to poultry, but after the virus invades the human body and mutates, its pathogenicity and horizontal transmission ability to mammals are significantly enhanced, thus revealing

SECTION 60

#1732854519274

7812-499: The air made when the ferrets' coughed or sneezed. Proponents of the Kawaoka and Fouchier experiments cited several benefits: these answered the question of how a virus like H5N1 could possibly become airborne in humans, allowed other researchers to develop vaccines and therapeutics which specifically targeted these amino acid changes, and also demonstrated that there was a linkage between transmissibility in avian viruses and lethality: while

7938-416: The antibodies they react with. The use of the antibodies which were once exclusively derived from the serum (blood fluid) of animals is called serology . Once an antibody–reaction has taken place in a test, other methods are needed to confirm this. Older methods included complement fixation tests , hemagglutination inhibition and virus neutralisation . Newer methods use enzyme immunoassays (EIA). In

8064-433: The bacteria, formed discrete areas of dead organisms. Counting these areas and multiplying by the dilution factor allowed him to calculate the number of viruses in the original suspension. Phages were heralded as a potential treatment for diseases such as typhoid and cholera , but their promise was forgotten with the development of penicillin . The development of bacterial resistance to antibiotics has renewed interest in

8190-484: The centrifugation. In some cases, preformed gradients are used where solutions of steadily decreasing density are carefully overlaid on each other. Like an object in the Dead Sea , despite the centrifugal force the virus particles cannot sink into solutions that are more dense than they are and they form discrete layers of, often visible, concentrated viruses in the tube. Caesium chloride is often used for these solutions as it

8316-446: The chimera could have combined Omicron's high transmissibility with the ancestral strain's lethality, the experiment should have undergone the extra review. The researchers deny that the research was funded by the NIH, and also deny that the experiment qualified as gain-of-function in the first place. Significant debate has taken place in the scientific community on how to assess risk-benefit of gain-of-function research, and how to engage

8442-405: The determination of the structure of viruses. Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites and because they only reproduce inside the living cells of a host these cells are needed to grow them in the laboratory. For viruses that infect animals (usually called "animal viruses") cells grown in laboratory cell cultures are used. In the past, fertile hens' eggs were used and the viruses were grown on

8568-543: The detrimental effect they have on the host cell. These cytopathic effects are often characteristic of the type of virus. For instance, herpes simplex viruses produce a characteristic "ballooning" of the cells, typically human fibroblasts . Some viruses, such as mumps virus cause red blood cells from chickens to firmly attach to the infected cells. This is called "haemadsorption" or "hemadsorption". Some viruses produce localised "lesions" in cell layers called plaques , which are useful in quantitation assays and in identifying

8694-575: The discovery of unlogged smallpox samples, and injecting a chicken with the wrong strain of influenza . These incidents were not related to gain-of-function research. One of the goals of the moratorium was to reduce the handling of dangerous pathogens by all laboratories until safety procedures were evaluated and improved. Subsequently, symposia and expert panels were convened by the National Science Advisory Board for Biosecurity (NSABB) and National Research Council (NRC). In May 2016,

8820-428: The documented species of animal, plant, and bacterial viruses were discovered during these years. In 1957 equine arterivirus and the cause of bovine virus diarrhoea (a pestivirus ) were discovered. In 1963 the hepatitis B virus was discovered by Baruch Blumberg , and in 1965 Howard Temin described the first retrovirus . Reverse transcriptase , the enzyme that retroviruses use to make DNA copies of their RNA,

8946-405: The environment, are used in phage display techniques for screening proteins DNA sequences. They are a powerful tool in molecular biology. All viruses have genes which are studied using genetics . All the techniques used in molecular biology, such as cloning, creating mutations RNA silencing are used in viral genetics. Reassortment is the switching of genes from different parents and it

9072-444: The epidemiology, diagnostic technology, new vaccine development, molecular evolution and molecular pathogenic mechanism of animal influenza, especially avian influenza, and successfully developed H5 The subtype inactivated avian influenza vaccine and the new "avian influenza and Newcastle disease recombinant dual live vaccine" represent the international advanced level and development trend of the avian influenza vaccine development. After

9198-506: The existence of H7N9 virus. The risk of a pandemic among adults. These results have been published in the English version of "Science Bulletin" and "Science (SCIENCE)" magazine.[13] On November 20, 2019, the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences released 10 basic scientific research results that can fully represent the frontier research level of my country's agricultural science and technology in 2018 and have made major breakthroughs, including:

9324-712: The experience in China. Rev Sci Tech. 2009, 28(1): 267-74 (Review) 16. Jiyong Zhou, Wenbo Sun, Junhua Wang, Junqing Guo, Wei Yin, Nanping Wu, Lanjuan Li, Yan Yan, Ming Liao, Yu Huang, Kaijian Luo, Xuetao Jiang, Hualan Chen. Characterization of the H5N1 Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Virus derived from Wild Pikas in China. J Virol. 2009, 83: 8957-8964 17. Hualan Chen. H5N1 avian influenza in China. Sci China C Life Sci. 2009, 52(5):419-27. (Review) 18. Szretter KJ, Gangappa S, Belser JA, Zeng H, Chen H, Matsuoka Y, Sambhara S, Swayne DE, Tumpey TM, Katz JM. Early Control of H5N1 Influenza Virus Replication by

9450-469: The first time in the 1930s when electron microscopes were invented. These microscopes use beams of electrons instead of light, which have a much shorter wavelength and can detect objects that cannot be seen using light microscopes. The highest magnification obtainable by electron microscopes is up to 10,000,000 times whereas for light microscopes it is around 1,500 times. Virologists often use negative staining to help visualise viruses. In this procedure,

9576-402: The first virus to be grown without using solid animal tissue or eggs. This work enabled Hilary Koprowski , and then Jonas Salk , to make an effective polio vaccine . The first images of viruses were obtained upon the invention of electron microscopy in 1931 by the German engineers Ernst Ruska and Max Knoll . In 1935, American biochemist and virologist Wendell Meredith Stanley examined

9702-541: The full molecules, are joined during the RNA or DNA replication cycle. Recombination is not as common as reassortment in nature but it is a powerful tool in laboratories for studying the structure and functions of viral genes. Reverse genetics is a powerful research method in virology. In this procedure complementary DNA (cDNA) copies of virus genomes called "infectious clones" are used to produce genetically modified viruses that can be then tested for changes in say, virulence or transmissibility. A major branch of virology

9828-438: The full structure of the virus in 1955. In the same year, Heinz Fraenkel-Conrat and Robley Williams showed that purified tobacco mosaic virus RNA and its protein coat can assemble by themselves to form functional viruses, suggesting that this simple mechanism was probably the means through which viruses were created within their host cells. The second half of the 20th century was the golden age of virus discovery, and most of

9954-437: The generic term, yes we did, because- but this is research, the generic term goes on in many many labs around the country, it is not regulated, and the reason it is not regulated is because it poses no harm or threat to anybody." Tabak did not clarify what "generic" gain-of-function research was or how it differs from normal gain-of-function research, so it is unclear to what extent this testimony differs from previous statements by

10080-707: The global community at large, the ethical acceptability of such experiments depends on the extent to which it is accepted internationally. In 2010, the World Health Organization developed a non-binding guidance document for DURC, summarizing the positions of many different nations as "self-governing" and others as strictly following oversight based on the International Health Regulations, the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC) , and

10206-601: The group's founding members, University of Pittsburgh virologist W. Paul Duprex , has argued ( c.  2014 ) that the then-recent few events were exceptions to an overall good record of lab safety, and that these exceptions should not have been a reason for shutting down experiments that may have been of tangible benefit to public health. He and other SfS signatories have argued that these pathogens are already subject to extensive regulations and that it would be more advantageous and effective to focus on improving lab safety and oversight, ensuring that experiments are conducted in

10332-428: The high vacuum inside the electron microscope and the electron beam itself is destructive. In cryogenic electron microscopy the structure of viruses is preserved by embedding them in an environment of vitreous water . This allows the determination of biomolecular structures at near-atomic resolution, and has attracted wide attention to the approach as an alternative to X-ray crystallography or NMR spectroscopy for

10458-429: The information invoked previous gain-of-function work on coronaviruses to promulgate the idea that the virus was of laboratory origin. Rasmussen stated that this was unlikely, due to the intense scrutiny and government oversight to which GoFR is subject, and it is improbable that research on hard-to-obtain coronaviruses could occur under the radar. In a congressional hearing on May 11, 2021, about Anthony Fauci 's role as

10584-406: The laboratory need purifying to remove contaminants from the host cells. The methods used often have the advantage of concentrating the viruses, which makes it easier to investigate them. Centrifuges are often used to purify viruses. Low speed centrifuges, i.e. those with a top speed of 10,000 revolutions per minute (rpm) are not powerful enough to concentrate viruses, but ultracentrifuges with

10710-431: The live poultry market during the same period. It is the first internationally from the perspective of etiology. The source of the new H7N9 influenza virus was revealed, which provided an important basis for the scientific prevention and control of H7N9 avian influenza in China. In May, they discovered that the H5N1 virus could indeed reassort with the human influenza virus to obtain the ability to transmit efficiently through

10836-1255: The matrix protein M1 contribute to the virulence difference of H5N1 avian influenza viruses in mice. Virology, 2009, 384: 29-32 23. Murakami S, Horimoto T, Mai le Q, Nidom CA, Chen H, Muramoto Y, Yamada S, Iwasa A, Iwatsuki-Horimoto K, Shimojima M, Iwata A, Kawaoka Y. Growth determinants for H5N1 influenza vaccine seed viruses in MDCK cells. Journal of Virology, 2008, 82: 10502-9 24. Beibei Jia, Jianzhong Shi, Yanbing Li, Kyoko Shinya, Yukiko Muramoto, Xianying Zeng, Guobin Tian, Yoshihiro Kawaoka, Hualan Chen. Pathogenicity of Chinese H5N1 Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Viruses in Pigeons. Archives of Virology, 2008, 153: 1821-1826 25. Chengjun Li, Jihui Ping, Bo Jing, Guohua Deng, Yongping Jiang, Yanbing Li, Guobin Tian, Kangzhen Yu, Zhigao Bu, Hualan Chen. H5N1 influenza marker vaccine for serological differentiation between vaccinated and infected chickens. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 2008, 372(2): 293-7 26. Kiyoko Iwatsuki-Horimoto, Yasuko Hatta, Masato Hatta, Yukiko Muramoto, Hualan Chen, Yoshihiro Kawaoka, Taisuke Horimoto. Limited compatibility between

10962-471: The membranes surrounding the embryo. This method is still used in the manufacture of some vaccines. For the viruses that infect bacteria, the bacteriophages , the bacteria growing in test tubes can be used directly. For plant viruses, the natural host plants can be used or, particularly when the infection is not obvious, so-called indicator plants, which show signs of infection more clearly. Viruses that have grown in cell cultures can be indirectly detected by

11088-410: The more traditional hierarchy. Starting in 2018, the ICTV began to acknowledge deeper evolutionary relationships between viruses that have been discovered over time and adopted a 15-rank classification system ranging from realm to species. Additionally, some species within the same genus are grouped into a genogroup . The ICTV developed the current classification system and wrote guidelines that put

11214-432: The most common ones are laboratory modified plasmids (small circular molecules of DNA produced by bacteria). The viral nucleic acid, or a part of it, is inserted in the plasmid, which is the copied many times over by bacteria. This recombinant DNA can then be used to produce viral components without the need for native viruses. The viruses that reproduce in bacteria, archaea and fungi are informally called "phages", and

11340-405: The most popular approach for generating viral genomes. Viral genome sequencing as become a central method in viral epidemiology and viral classification . Data from the sequencing of viral genomes can be used to determine evolutionary relationships and this is called phylogenetic analysis . Software, such as PHYLIP , is used to draw phylogenetic trees . This analysis is also used in studying

11466-403: The ones that infect bacteria – bacteriophages – in particular are useful in virology and biology in general. Bacteriophages were some of the first viruses to be discovered, early in the twentieth century, and because they are relatively easy to grow quickly in laboratories, much of our understanding of viruses originated by studying them. Bacteriophages, long known for their positive effects in

11592-524: The particles including the defective ones. Infectivity assays measure the amount (concentration) of infective viruses in a sample of known volume. For host cells, plants or cultures of bacterial or animal cells are used. Laboratory animals such as mice have also been used particularly in veterinary virology. These are assays are either quantitative where the results are on a continuous scale or quantal, where an event either occurs or it does not. Quantitative assays give absolute values and quantal assays give

11718-880: The polymerase contributes to pathogenicity. Virology, 2010, 401：96-106. 7. Yuwei Gao, Ying Zhang, Kyoko Shinya, Guohua Deng, Yongping Jiang, Zejun Li, Yutao Guan, Guobin Tian, Yanbing Li, Jianzhong Shi, Liling Liu, Xianying Zeng, Zhigao Bu, Xianzhu Xia, Yoshihiro Kawaoka, Hualan Chen*. Identification of Amino Acids in HA and PB2 Critical for the Transmission of H5N1 Avian Influenza Viruses in a Mammalian Host. PLoS Pathogens, 2009, 5(12): e1000709. 8. Yongping Jiang, Hongbo Zhang, Guojun Wang, Pingjing Zhang, Guobin Tian, Zhigao Bu, and Hualan Chen*. Protective Efficacy of H7 Subtype Avian Influenza DNA Vaccine. Avian Disease, 2010, 54(S1), 294-296. 9. Jinying Ge, Guobin Tian, Xianying Zeng, Yongping Jiang, Hualan Chen and Zhigao Bu*. Generation and Evaluation of

11844-420: The prevention and control of avian influenza, the rapid and accurate diagnosis of a large number of samples from all over the country played a key role in the timely and effective control of the epidemic. It has made a significant contribution to the control of the bird flu epidemic. Leading the National Avian Influenza Reference Laboratory has made a series of significant progress and creative research results in

11970-426: The promotion and application, it has greatly improved the prevention and control of poultry in China and the world. The ability of influenza has very important socio-economic and public health significance.[13] In April 2013, Chen Hualan and her scientific research team discovered that the new H7N9 influenza virus that causes human infection in China is highly homologous to the H7N9 avian influenza virus that existed in

12096-421: The public and open discussion of the risks and benefits was necessary. Several also wrote that sensationalized headlines and framings of the ongoing process as a "debate" with "opposing sides" had negatively affected the process, while the reality is much more collegial. International outlook and engagement on gain-of-function research policy and regulation vary by country and region. Due to the potential effect on

12222-536: The public in deliberations for policymaking. These concerns encompass biosafety , relating to the accidental release of a pathogen into the population, biosecurity relating to the intentional release of a pathogen into the population, and bioethics , the principles of biorisk management and research review procedures. In December 2014, the National Research Council and the Institute of Medicine organized

12348-501: The public interest. Notable signatories are Constance Cepko , Dickson Despommier , Erica Ollmann Saphire , Geoffrey Smith , Karla Kirkegaard , Sean Whelan , Vincent Racaniello and Yoshihiro Kawaoka . Columbia University virologist Ian Lipkin , who signed both statements, said "there has to be a coming together of what should be done". Founders of both groups published a series of letters detailing their discussions and viewpoints. All authors, however, agreed that more education of

12474-584: The public. In early 2011, two groups were investigating how flu viruses specific to birds could possibly cross over and create pandemics in humans: one led by Yoshihiro Kawaoka at the University of Wisconsin–Madison in Madison, Wisconsin, and another led by Ron Fouchier at Erasmus University Medical Center in the Netherlands. Both groups had both serially passaged H5N1 avian influenza in ferrets, manually taking

12600-547: The rapid development of the H7N9 highly pathogenic avian influenza virus Evolution and its successful prevention and control. The research was led by the team of Academician Chen Hualan from the Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences. Through large-scale monitoring of poultry avian influenza viruses, the H7N9 highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses were systematically studied and successfully developed H5 and H7 bivalents. The avian influenza inactivated vaccine, monitoring results showed that

12726-449: The regulatory environment and review process were reconsidered and overhauled. Under the moratorium, any laboratory who conducted such research would put their future funding (for any project, not just the indicated pathogens) in jeopardy. The NIH has said 18 studies were affected by the moratorium. The moratorium was a response to laboratory biosecurity incidents that occurred in 2014, including not properly inactivating anthrax samples,

12852-399: The risks and benefit of gain-of-function research, how to publish such research responsibly, and how to engage the public in an open and honest review. In January 2020, the National Science Advisory Board for Biosecurity convened an expert panel to revisit the rules for gain-of-function research and provide more clarity in how such experiments are approved, and when they should be disclosed to

12978-407: The same sedimentation coefficient and are not removed by the procedure. In these cases a modification of centrifugation, called buoyant density centrifugation , is used. In this method the viruses recovered from differential centrifugation are centrifuged again at very high speed for several hours in dense solutions of sugars or salts that form a density gradient, from low to high, in the tube during

13104-402: The species of virus by plaque reduction assays . Viruses growing in cell cultures are used to measure their susceptibility to validated and novel antiviral drugs . Viruses are antigens that induce the production of antibodies and these antibodies can be used in laboratories to study viruses. Related viruses often react with each other's antibodies and some viruses can be named based on

13230-489: The spread of infectious virus, creating localized clusters (foci) of infected cells. Plates are subsequently probed with fluorescently labeled antibodies against a viral antigen, and fluorescence microscopy is used to count and quantify the number of foci. The FFA method typically yields results in less time than plaque or fifty-percent-tissue-culture-infective-dose (TCID 50 ) assays, but it can be more expensive in terms of required reagents and equipment. Assay completion time

13356-515: The spread of viral infections in communities ( epidemiology ). When purified viruses or viral components are needed for diagnostic tests or vaccines, cloning can be used instead of growing the viruses. At the start of the COVID-19 pandemic the availability of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 RNA sequence enabled tests to be manufactured quickly. There are several proven methods for cloning viruses and their components. Small pieces of DNA called cloning vectors are often used and

13482-424: The structure and functions of viruses and their component parts. Thousands of different viruses are now known about and virologists often specialize in either the viruses that infect plants, or bacteria and other microorganisms , or animals. Viruses that infect humans are now studied by medical virologists. Virology is a broad subject covering biology, health, animal welfare, agriculture and ecology. Louis Pasteur

13608-468: The techniques to isolate and culture them, and their use in research and therapy. The identification of the causative agent of tobacco mosaic disease (TMV) as a novel pathogen by Martinus Beijerinck (1898) is now acknowledged as being the official beginning of the field of virology as a discipline distinct from bacteriology . He realized the source was neither a bacterial nor a fungal infection , but something completely different. Beijerinck used

13734-602: The therapeutic use of bacteriophages. By the end of the 19th century, viruses were defined in terms of their infectivity , their ability to pass filters, and their requirement for living hosts. Viruses had been grown only in plants and animals. In 1906 Ross Granville Harrison invented a method for growing tissue in lymph , and in 1913 E. Steinhardt, C. Israeli, and R.A. Lambert used this method to grow vaccinia virus in fragments of guinea pig corneal tissue. In 1928, H. B. Maitland and M. C. Maitland grew vaccinia virus in suspensions of minced hens' kidneys. Their method

13860-450: The tobacco mosaic virus and found it was mostly made of protein. A short time later, this virus was separated into protein and RNA parts. The tobacco mosaic virus was the first to be crystallised and its structure could, therefore, be elucidated in detail. The first X-ray diffraction pictures of the crystallised virus were obtained by Bernal and Fankuchen in 1941. Based on her X-ray crystallographic pictures, Rosalind Franklin discovered

13986-496: The type of nucleic acid forming their genomes. In 1966, the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) was formed. The system proposed by Lwoff, Horne and Tournier was initially not accepted by the ICTV because the small genome size of viruses and their high rate of mutation made it difficult to determine their ancestry beyond order. As such, the Baltimore classification system has come to be used to supplement

14112-454: The vaccine effectively blocked the H7N9 virus from spreading in poultry, and it also achieved "immediate results" in blocking human infection with the H7N9 virus. Project commitment & achievement reward Since 1994, Chen Hualan has been engaged in basic research and applied research related to avian influenza and swine influenza, and has presided over more than 20 scientific research projects such as national "key research", "863", "973", and

14238-399: The virus from one ferret to another, until it was capable of spreading via respiratory droplets . The normally bird-specific virus, through replication over time in the ferrets' lungs, had adopted several amino acid changes that enabled it to replicate in the mammalian lungs, which are notably colder than those found in birds. This small change also allowed the virus to transmit via droplets in

14364-495: The virus had become more transmissible, it had also become significantly less deadly. Various critics of the research (including members of Congress) responded to the publications with alarm. Others called the experiments an "engineered doomsday." Questions were raised by other scientists including Marc Lipsitch of the T. H. Chan School of Public Health at Harvard University about the relative risks and benefits of this research. At an international technical consultation convened by

14490-446: The virus using a tagged monoclonal antibody . These are also used in agriculture, food and environmental sciences. Counting viruses (quantitation) has always had an important role in virology and has become central to the control of some infections of humans where the viral load is measured. There are two basic methods: those that count the fully infective virus particles, which are called infectivity assays, and those that count all

14616-487: The viruses are suspended in a solution of metal salts such as uranium acetate. The atoms of metal are opaque to electrons and the viruses are seen as suspended in a dark background of metal atoms. This technique has been in use since the 1950s. Many viruses were discovered using this technique and negative staining electron microscopy is still a valuable weapon in a virologist's arsenal. Traditional electron microscopy has disadvantages in that viruses are damaged by drying in

14742-412: The word virus . Beijerinck maintained that viruses were liquid in nature, a theory later discredited by Wendell Stanley , who proved they were particulate. In the same year, Friedrich Loeffler and Paul Frosch passed the first animal virus, aphthovirus (the agent of foot-and-mouth disease ), through a similar filter. In the early 20th century, the English bacteriologist Frederick Twort discovered

14868-417: The word "virus" to describe the mysterious agent in his ' contagium vivum fluidum ' ('contagious living fluid'). Rosalind Franklin proposed the full structure of the tobacco mosaic virus in 1955. One main motivation for the study of viruses is because they cause many infectious diseases of plants and animals. The study of the manner in which viruses cause disease is viral pathogenesis . The degree to which

14994-501: The work as "remarkable" and said that it demonstrated the "very real threat" that "continued circulation of H5N1 strains in Asia and Egypt" poses. A preprint by Boston University researchers, published on 14 October 2022, described their experiments splicing the SARS-CoV-2 BA.1 Omicron 's spike protein into an ancestral SARS-CoV-2 variant isolated in the early days of the pandemic, creating

15120-506: The years before PCR was invented immunofluorescence was used to quickly confirm viral infections. It is an infectivity assay that is virus species specific because antibodies are used. The antibodies are tagged with a dye that is luminescencent and when using an optical microscope with a modified light source, infected cells glow in the dark. PCR is a mainstay method for detecting viruses in all species including plants and animals. It works by detecting traces of virus specific RNA or DNA. It

15246-655: Was awarded the National Science Fund for Distinguished Young Scholars. In 2009, joined the Jiu San Society.[14] In October 2015, she was awarded the "World Outstanding Female Scientist Achievement Award" by UNESCO-L'Oréal, and is the fifth Chinese to receive this award. In the same year, she was named one of the "Global Highly Cited Scientists" by Thomson Reuters.[14] In June 2016, she won the National Outstanding Science and Technology Talent Award and

15372-524: Was first described in 1970 by Temin and David Baltimore independently. In 1983 Luc Montagnier 's team at the Pasteur Institute in France, first isolated the retrovirus now called HIV. In 1989 Michael Houghton 's team at Chiron Corporation discovered hepatitis C . There are several approaches to detecting viruses and these include the detection of virus particles (virions) or their antigens or nucleic acids and infectivity assays. Viruses were seen for

15498-448: Was formed by 37 signatories taking an alternative position, that "biomedical research on potentially dangerous pathogens can be performed safely and is essential for a comprehensive understanding of microbial disease pathogenesis, prevention and treatment." Since its publication, the SfS statement has received 200+ signatures from working scientists, academics, and biosafety professionals. One of

15624-545: Was not widely adopted until the 1950s when poliovirus was grown on a large scale for vaccine production. Another breakthrough came in 1931 when the American pathologist Ernest William Goodpasture and Alice Miles Woodruff grew influenza and several other viruses in fertilised chicken eggs. In 1949, John Franklin Enders , Thomas Weller , and Frederick Robbins grew poliovirus in cultured cells from aborted human embryonic tissue,

15750-564: Was unable to find a causative agent for rabies and speculated about a pathogen too small to be detected by microscopes. In 1884, the French microbiologist Charles Chamberland invented the Chamberland filter (or Pasteur-Chamberland filter) with pores small enough to remove all bacteria from a solution passed through it. In 1892, the Russian biologist Dmitri Ivanovsky used this filter to study what

15876-735: Was unnecessary to prove the intended conclusions, calling Chen's work "appallingly irresponsible" and also raising concerns about the biosafety of the laboratory itself. Others (including the Director of the WHO Collaborating Centre on Influenza in Tokyo, Masato Tashiro) praised Chen's laboratory as "state of the art." Jeremy Farrar , director of the Oxford University Clinical Research Unit in Ho Chi Minh City, described

#273726