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120-792: Five members were appointed by the governor, two members were appointed by the president pro tempore of the Senate, and two members by the speaker of the Assembly. The members voted to limit their study to exclusively address redress for descendants of antebellum slavery in the United States, rather than a broader application to people of general Black African descent who live in the United States. After almost three years of fact-finding, reports, and public hearings, California’s first-in-the-nation reparations task force on Thursday, June 29th, 2023, released its final report to state lawmakers with recommendations for how

240-456: A French speaker . Based on a difference in use of language, a person may automatically form judgments about another person's wealth , education , social status , character or other traits, which may lead to discrimination. This has led to public debate surrounding localisation theories , likewise with overall diversity prevalence in numerous nations across the West . Linguistic discrimination

360-409: A gang injunction issued against them, as the work of geographer Stefano Bloch and anthropologist Susan A. Phillips shows. While racist covenants, conditions, and restrictions (CCRs) were ruled "unenforceable" by the U.S. Supreme Court in the landmark 1948 case Shelley v. Kraemer, this decision did not make them illegal; it only prevented courts from enforcing them. It was not until the passage of

480-415: A mixed strategy when playing against players assigned the same color as their own. The experimenters then added a cooperation option to the game, and found that disadvantaged players usually cooperated with each other, while advantaged players usually did not. They state that while the equilibria reached in the original hawk-dove game are predicted by evolutionary game theory , game theory does not explain

600-557: A 1979 consultation on the issue, the United States commission on civil rights defined religious discrimination in relation to the civil rights which are guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment . Whereas religious civil liberties, such as the right to hold or not to hold a religious belief, are essential for Freedom of Religion (in the United States as secured by the First Amendment ), religious discrimination occurs when someone

720-407: A certain socially undesirable group or social category. Before this sense of the word became almost universal, it was a synonym for discernment, tact and culture as in "taste and discrimination", generally a laudable attribute; to "discriminate against" being commonly disparaged. Moral philosophers have defined discrimination using a moralized definition. Under this approach, discrimination

840-618: A community, they may considered to be a form of "reverse redlining". The term "liquorlining" is sometimes used to describe high densities of liquor stores in low income and/or minority communities relative to surrounding areas. High densities of liquor stores are associated with crime and public health issues, which may in turn drive away supermarkets, grocery stores, and other retail outlets, contributing to low levels of economic development. Controlled for income, nonwhites face higher concentrations of liquor stores than do whites. One study done on "liquorlining" found that, in urban neighborhoods, there

960-503: A debt directly, and that the reparations might not come in the form of cash, but equivalent value, such as free health care programs or medical clinics. California is the first U.S. state to establish a body to study discrimination against African Americans and recommend reparations. Such an initiative is not without precedent, however; Germany made payments to Holocaust survivors and the United States made payments to Japanese Americans who were interned during World War II . In one case

1080-489: A different race or ethnicity . Modern variants of racism are often based in social perceptions of biological differences between peoples. These views can take the form of social actions , practices or beliefs, or political systems in which different races are ranked as inherently superior or inferior to each other, based on presumed shared inheritable traits, abilities, or qualities. It has been official government policy in several countries, such as South Africa during

1200-513: A donation to the church in return for every new application. Many working-class blacks wanted to be included in the nation's home-owning trend. Instead of empowering them to contribute to homeownership and community progress, predatory lending practices through reverse redlining stripped the equity homeowners sought and drained the wealth of those communities for the enrichment of financial firms . The growth of subprime lending , higher cost loans to borrowers with flaws on their credit records, prior to

1320-409: A family's land was taken through eminent domain and became a state park. Members are: senator Steven Bradford , Amos C. Brown , Cheryl Grills , Lisa Holder , assembly member Reginald Jones-Sawyer , Jovan Scott Lewis , Kamilah Moore (Chair), councilmember Monica Montgomery Steppe , and councilmember Donald K. Tamaki . Eight members are African American and the ninth Japanese American . Among

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1440-421: A key justification for reparations for a long time. In contrast, the task force on reparations for the state of California has proposed a sliding scale with a limit of $ 1.2 million for elderly Black individuals. The cash amount received a lot of attention, but it is mostly viewed as unachievable in a city with mounting fiscal challenges and a lack of political agreement on the subject. One of the recommendations of

1560-533: A large portion of Europe, was subjected to discrimination under Adolf Hitler and his Nazi party between 1933 and 1945. They were forced to live in ghettos, wear an identifying star of David on their clothes, and sent to concentration and death camps in rural Germany and Poland, where they were to be tortured and killed, all because of their Jewish religion. Many laws (most prominently the Nuremberg Laws of 1935) separated those of Jewish faith as supposedly inferior to

1680-537: A lesbian sexual orientation (by means of mentioning an engagement in a rainbow organisation or by mentioning one's partner name) lowers employment opportunities in Cyprus and Greece but overall, it has no negative effect in Sweden and Belgium. In the latter country, even a positive effect of revealing a lesbian sexual orientation is found for women at their fertile ages. Besides these academic studies, in 2009, ILGA published

1800-665: A majority-black or Hispanic neighborhood and you wanted to apply for a mortgage, Hudson City Savings Bank was not the place to go." The enforcement agencies cited additional evidence of discrimination in Hudson City's broker selection practices, noting that the bank received 80 percent of its mortgage applications from mortgage brokers but that the brokers with whom the bank worked were not located in majority African-American and Hispanic areas. On January 12, 2023, City National Bank of California agreed to pay $ 31,000,000 to resolve allegations of redlining from 2017 to at least 2020, brought by

1920-533: A name's fluency is subtle, small and subject to significantly changing norms. The Anti-discrimination laws of most countries allow and make exceptions for discrimination based on nationality and immigration status. The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD) does not prohibit discrimination by nationality, citizenship or naturalization but forbids discrimination "against any particular nationality". Discrimination on

2040-498: A national disclosure regulation or law to require banks to reveal their lending patterns. For many years, urban community organizations had battled neighborhood decay by attacking blockbusting (deceptive encouragement of white flight from neighborhoods in order to buy up real estate at a huge discount and then rent to low-income, usually black tenants), forcing landlords to maintain properties, and requiring cities to board up and tear down abandoned properties. These actions addressed

2160-475: A number of basic needs for an individual such as collective purpose, social contact, status, and activity. A person with a disability is often found to be socially isolated and work is one way to reduce his or her isolation. In the United States, the Americans with Disabilities Act mandates the provision of equality of access to both buildings and services and is paralleled by similar acts in other countries, such as

2280-407: A particular race out of a racist attitude, he or she will be acting in a discriminatory way even if he or she actually benefits the people he discriminates against by donating some money to them. Discrimination also develops into a source of oppression , the action of recognizing someone as 'different' so much that they are treated inhumanly and degraded. This moralized definition of discrimination

2400-412: A persistent adverse impact on the neighborhoods, with redlining affecting homeownership rates, home values and credit scores in 2010. Since many African-Americans could not access conventional home loans, they had to turn to predatory lenders (who charged high interest rates). Due to lower home ownership rates, slumlords were able to rent out apartments that would otherwise be owned. Retail redlining

2520-487: A person's name is one of the six things they focus on most. France has made it illegal to view a person's name on a résumé when screening for the initial list of most qualified candidates. Great Britain, Germany, Sweden, and the Netherlands have also experimented with name-blind summary processes. Some apparent discrimination may be explained by other factors such as name frequency. The effects of name discrimination based on

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2640-436: A preliminary report. Besides the reconstruction motion, the reparations task team highlighted many issues that have left Black communities behind, ranging from "a statewide ban on affirmative action" to discriminatory hurdles that have resulted in limited access to medical services. The city task force announced paying $ 5 million payment once, to anyone who qualifies in an effort to eliminate the racial wealth gap , which has been

2760-470: A record of purchases at retailers frequented by so-called "high-risk" customers, to be akin to redlining. Much of the economic impacts we find as a result of redlining and the banking system directly impact the African American community. Beginning in the 1960s, there was a large influx of black veterans and their families moving into suburban white communities. As blacks moved in, whites moved out and

2880-455: A red line around questionable areas on territorial maps." The New York Urban Coalition warned in 1978, "A neighborhood without insurance is a neighborhood doomed to death." Following a National Housing Conference in 1973, a group of Chicago community organizations led by The Northwest Community Organization (NCO) formed National People's Action (NPA), to broaden the fight against disinvestment and mortgage redlining in neighborhoods all over

3000-599: A report based on research carried out by Daniel Ottosson at Södertörn University College in Stockholm, Sweden . This research found that of the 80 countries around the world that continue to consider homosexuality illegal, five carry the death penalty for homosexual activity, and two do in some regions of the country. In the report, this is described as "State sponsored homophobia". This happens in Islamic states, or in two cases regions under Islamic authority. On February 5, 2005,

3120-583: A survey for the University of Kent , England, 29% of respondents stated that they had suffered from age discrimination. This is a higher proportion than for gender or racial discrimination. Dominic Abrams , social psychology professor at the university, concluded that ageism is the most pervasive form of prejudice experienced in the UK population. According to UNICEF and Human Rights Watch , caste discrimination affects an estimated 250 million people worldwide and

3240-557: A term for such hatred based upon one's sexual orientation is often called homophobia . Many continue to hold negative feelings towards those with non-heterosexual orientations and will discriminate against people who have them or are thought to have them. People of other uncommon sexual orientations also experience discrimination. One study found its sample of heterosexuals to be more prejudiced against asexual people than against homosexual or bisexual people. Employment discrimination based on sexual orientation varies by country. Revealing

3360-510: A young adult job applicant than an older job applicant. In Europe, Stijn Baert, Jennifer Norga, Yannick Thuy and Marieke Van Hecke, researchers at Ghent University , measured comparable ratios in Belgium. They found that age discrimination is heterogeneous by the activity older candidates undertook during their additional post-educational years. In Belgium, they are only discriminated if they have more years of inactivity or irrelevant employment. In

3480-1112: Is a spatially discriminatory practice among retailers. Taxicab services and delivery food may not serve certain areas, based on their ethnic-minority composition and assumptions about business (and perceived crime), rather than data and economic criteria, such as the potential profitability of operating in those areas. Consequently, consumers in these areas are vulnerable to prices set by fewer retailers. They may be exploited by retailers who charge higher prices and/or offer them inferior goods. A 2012 study by The Wall Street Journal found that Staples , The Home Depot , Rosetta Stone and some other online retailers displayed different prices to customers in different locations (distinct from shipping prices). Staples based discounts on proximity to competitors like OfficeMax and Office Depot . This generally resulted in higher prices for customers in more rural areas, who were on average less wealthy than customers seeing lower prices. Some service providers target low-income neighborhoods for nuisance sales. When those services are believed to have adverse effects on

3600-617: Is also an example of spatial inequality and economic inequality . The specific process termed "redlining" in the United States occurred on the background of racial segregation and discrimination against minority populations. It had its origins in sales practices of the National Association of Real Estate Boards and theories about race and property values codified by economists surrounding Richard T. Ely and his Institute for Research in Land Economics and Public Utilities, founded at

3720-421: Is clear that race has long affected and continues to affect the policies and practices of the insurance industry. Home-insurance agents may try to assess the ethnicity of a potential customer just by telephone, affecting what services they offer to inquiries about purchasing a home insurance policy. This type of discrimination is called linguistic profiling . There have also been concerns raised about redlining in

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3840-467: Is defined as acts, practices, or policies that wrongfully impose a relative disadvantage or deprivation on persons based on their membership in a salient social group. This is a comparative definition. An individual need not be actually harmed in order to be discriminated against. He or she just needs to be treated worse than others for some arbitrary reason. If someone decides to donate to help orphan children, but decides to donate less, say, to children of

3960-470: Is denied "equal protection under the law, equality of status under the law, equal treatment in the administration of justice, and equality of opportunity and access to employment, education, housing, public services and facilities, and public accommodation because of their exercise of their right to religious freedom". Sexism is a form of discrimination based on a person's sex or gender. It has been linked to stereotypes and gender roles , and may include

4080-443: Is distinct from a non-moralized definition - in the former, discrimination is wrong by definition, whereas in the latter, this is not the case. The United Nations stance on discrimination includes the statement: "Discriminatory behaviors take many forms, but they all involve some form of exclusion or rejection." The United Nations Human Rights Council and other international bodies work towards helping ending discrimination around

4200-453: Is mainly prevalent in parts of Asia (India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal, Japan) and Africa. As of 2011 , there were 200 million Dalits or Scheduled Castes (formerly known as "untouchables") in India. Discrimination against people with disabilities in favor of people who are not is called ableism or disablism . Disability discrimination, which treats non-disabled individuals as

4320-670: Is now known as the Racial Wealth Gap seen in the United States. Black families in America earned just $ 57.30 for every $ 100 in income earned by white families, according to the Census Bureau's Current Population Survey. For every $ 100 in white family wealth, black families hold just $ 5.04. In 2016, the median wealth for black and Hispanic families was $ 17,600 and $ 20,700, respectively, compared with white families' median wealth of $ 171,000. The black-white wealth gap has not recovered from

4440-399: Is tasked with administering and enforcing this law. The Equal Credit Opportunity Act (ECOA), codified at 15 U.S.C. § 1691 et seq., was enacted on October 28, 1974. This law makes it unlawful for any creditor to discriminate against any applicant regarding any aspect of a credit transaction based on race, color, religion, national origin, sex, marital status, or age (provided the applicant has

4560-521: Is weak correlation between demand for alcohol and supply of liquor stores. In December 2007, a class action lawsuit was brought against student loan lending giant Sallie Mae in the United States District Court for the District of Connecticut . The class alleged that Sallie Mae discriminated against African American and Hispanic private student loan applicants. The case alleged that

4680-509: The 2008 financial crisis , coupled with growing law enforcement activity in those areas, clearly showed a surge in manipulative practices. Not all subprime loans were predatory, but virtually all predatory loans were subprime. Predatory loans are dangerous because they charge unreasonably higher rates and fees compared to the risk, trapping homeowners in unaffordable debt and often costing them their homes and life savings. A survey of two districts of similar incomes, one being largely white and

4800-677: The Community Reinvestment Act . Redlining was prevalent in Canada from the 1930s to 1950s in Ontario, with intergenerational consequences that persist to the present day. In the United States, the Fair Housing Act of 1968 was passed to combat the practice of redlining. According to the Department of Housing and Urban Development, "The Fair Housing Act makes it unlawful to discriminate in

4920-601: The Equality Act 2010 in the UK. Linguistic discrimination (also called glottophobia, linguicism and languagism) is unfair treatment of people based upon their use of language and the characteristics of their speech, such as their first language , their accent , the perceived size of their vocabulary (whether or not the speaker uses complex and varied words), their modality , and their syntax . For example, an Occitan speaker in France will probably be treated differently from

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5040-658: The Federal Home Loan Bank Board (FHLBB), which oversaw S&Ls in cities all over the country. In 1974, Chicago's Metropolitan Area Housing Association (MAHA), made up of representatives of local organizations, succeeded in having the Illinois State Legislature pass laws mandating disclosure and outlawing redlining. In Massachusetts, organizers allied with NPA confronted a unique situation. Over 90% of home mortgages were held by state-chartered savings banks. A Jamaica Plain neighborhood organization pushed

5160-560: The Federal Housing Administration 's underwriting manual. The lenders had to consider FHA standards if they wanted to receive FHA insurance for their loans. FHA appraisal manuals instructed banks to steer clear of areas with "inharmonious racial groups", and recommended that municipalities enact racially restrictive zoning ordinances. Between 1945 and 1959, African Americans received less than 2 percent of all federally insured home loans. Banks and mortgage lenders were not

5280-501: The IRIN issued a reported titled "Iraq: Male homosexuality still a taboo". The article stated, among other things that honor killings by Iraqis against a gay family member are common and given some legal protection. In August 2009, Human Rights Watch published an extensive report detailing torture of men accused of being gay in Iraq , including the blocking of men's anuses with glue and then giving

5400-456: The United States , and has mostly been directed against African-Americans . The most common examples involve denial of credit and insurance , denial of healthcare , and the development of food deserts in minority neighborhoods. Reverse redlining occurs when a lender or insurer targets majority-minority neighborhood residents with inflated interest rates by taking advantage of

5520-685: The United States Department of Justice . ShoreBank , a community-development bank in Chicago 's South Shore neighborhood, was a part of the private sector fight against redlining. Founded in 1973, ShoreBank sought to combat racist lending practices in Chicago's African-American communities by providing financial services, especially mortgage loans, to local residents. In a 1992 speech, then-Presidential candidate Bill Clinton called ShoreBank "the most important bank in America". On August 20, 2010,

5640-523: The University of Wisconsin in 1920. With the National Housing Act of 1934 the federal government began to be involved in the practice and the concurrent establishment of the Federal Housing Administration (FHA). The FHA's formalized redlining process was developed by their Chief Land Economist, Homer Hoyt , as part of an initiative to develop the first underwriting criteria for mortgages . The implementation of this federal policy accelerated

5760-519: The apartheid era. Discriminatory policies towards ethnic minorities include the race-based discrimination against ethnic Indians and Chinese in Malaysia After the Vietnam War , many Vietnamese refugees moved to Australia and the United States, where they faced discrimination. Regional or geographic discrimination is a form of discrimination that is based on the region in which a person lives or

5880-511: The automotive insurance industry. Reviews of insurance scores based on credit are shown to have unequal results by ethnic group. The Ohio Department of Insurance in the early 21st century allows insurance providers to use maps and collection of demographic data by ZIP code in determining insurance rates. The FHEO Director of Investigations at the Department of Housing and Urban Development , Sara Pratt, wrote: Like other forms of discrimination,

6000-449: The southern or northern regions of the United States. It is often accompanied by discrimination that is based on accent, dialect, or cultural differences. Religious discrimination is valuing or treating people or groups differently because of what they do or do not believe in or because of their feelings towards a given religion . For instance, the Jewish population of Germany, and indeed

6120-524: The Christian population. Restrictions on the types of occupations that Jewish people could hold were imposed by Christian authorities. Local rulers and church officials closed many professions to religious Jews, pushing them into marginal roles that were considered socially inferior, such as tax and rent collecting and moneylending , occupations that were only tolerated as a " necessary evil ". The number of Jews who were permitted to reside in different places

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6240-646: The City of Chicago has been one of the most persistently racially segregated cities, despite efforts to improve mobility and reduce barriers. Other cities like Detroit , Houston , and Atlanta likewise have very pronounced black and white neighborhoods, the same neighborhoods that were originally redlined by financial institutions decades ago. While other cities have made progress, this continued racial segregation has contributed to reduced economic mobility for millions of people. Formerly redlined neighborhoods in places like Los Angeles have been shown to be more likely to have

6360-650: The English language. It is from the Latin discriminat- 'distinguished between', from the verb discriminare , from discrimen 'distinction', from the verb discernere (corresponding to "to discern"). Since the American Civil War the term "discrimination" generally evolved in American English usage as an understanding of prejudicial treatment of an individual based solely on their race, later generalized as membership in

6480-699: The Great Recession. In 2007, immediately before the Great Recession, the median wealth of blacks was nearly 14 percent that of whites. Although black wealth increased at a faster rate than white wealth in 2016, blacks still owned less than 10 percent of whites' wealth at the median. A multigenerational study of people from five race groups analyzed upward mobility trends in American cities. The study concluded that black men who grew up in racially segregated neighborhoods were substantially less likely to gain upward economic mobility, finding "black children born to parents in

6600-660: The Task Force, for the repeal of the Penal exception clause from the state constitution's ban on slavery and involuntary servitude, was placed on the November 2024 ballot by the Legislature as ACA 8 on June 27, 2024. Redlining Redlining is a discriminatory practice in which financial services are withheld from neighborhoods that have significant numbers of racial and ethnic minorities. Redlining has been most prominent in

6720-516: The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 5 is also aimed at ending all forms of discrimination on the basis of gender and sex. One's sexual orientation is a "predilection for homosexuality, heterosexuality, or bisexuality". Like most minority groups, homosexuals and bisexuals are vulnerable to prejudice and discrimination from the majority group. They may experience hatred from others because of their sexuality;

6840-471: The attention of insurance regulators in the Illinois Department of Insurance, as well as federal officers enforcing anti-racial discrimination laws. The United States Federal Government has enacted legislation since the 1970s to reduce the segregation of American cities. While many cities have reduced the amount of segregated neighborhoods, some still have clearly defined racial boundaries. Since 1990,

6960-480: The attorneys for the plaintiffs receiving $ 1.8 million in attorneys' fees. Credit card redlining is a spatially discriminatory practice among credit card issuers, of providing different amounts of credit to different areas, based on their ethnic-minority composition, rather than on economic criteria, such as the potential profitability of operating in those areas. Scholars assess certain policies, such as credit card issuers reducing credit lines of individuals with

7080-641: The bank was declared insolvent, closed by regulators and most of its assets were acquired by Urban Partnership Bank . In the mid-1970s, community organizations, under the banner of the NPA, worked to fight against redlining in South Austin, Illinois. One of these organizations was SACCC ( South Austin Coalition Community Council ), formed to restore South Austin's neighborhood and to fight against financial institutions accused of propagating redlining. This got

7200-461: The basis of nationality is usually included in employment laws (see above section for employment discrimination specifically). It is sometimes referred to as bound together with racial discrimination although it can be separate. It may vary from laws that stop refusals of hiring based on nationality, asking questions regarding origin, to prohibitions of firing, forced retirement, compensation and pay, etc., based on nationality. Discrimination on

7320-587: The basis of nationality may show as a "level of acceptance" in a sport or work team regarding new team members and employees who differ from the nationality of the majority of team members. In the GCC states, in the workplace, preferential treatment is given to full citizens, even though many of them lack experience or motivation to do the job. State benefits are also generally available for citizens only. Westerners might also get paid more than other expatriates. Racial and ethnic discrimination differentiates individuals on

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7440-430: The basis of real and perceived racial and ethnic differences and leads to various forms of the ethnic penalty . It can also refer to the belief that groups of humans possess different behavioral traits corresponding to physical appearance and can be divided based on the superiority of one race over another. It may also mean prejudice , discrimination, or antagonism directed against other people because they are of

7560-670: The belief that one sex or gender is intrinsically superior to another. Extreme sexism may foster sexual harassment , rape , and other forms of sexual violence . Gender discrimination may encompass sexism and is discrimination toward people based on their gender identity or their gender or sex differences. Gender discrimination is especially defined in terms of workplace inequality . It may arise from social or cultural customs and norms. Intersex persons experience discrimination due to innate, atypical sex characteristics . Multiple jurisdictions now protect individuals on grounds of intersex status or sex characteristics . South Africa

7680-430: The bottom household income quintile have a 2.5% chance of rising to the top quintile of household income, compared with 10.6% for whites." Because of this intergenerational poverty, black households are "stuck in place" and are less able to grow wealth. A 2017 study by Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago economists found that redlining—the practice whereby banks discriminated against the inhabitants of certain neighborhoods—had

7800-482: The capacity to contract). It also prohibits discrimination based on the applicant's income deriving from a public assistance program or the applicant's good faith exercise of any right under the Consumer Credit Protection Act. The ECOA applies to any person who regularly participates in credit decisions, including banks, retailers, bankcard companies, finance companies, and credit unions. The part of

7920-432: The complaint that the bank purposely rejected mortgage applications from black and Latino applicants. The final settlement required AB to open branches in non-white neighborhoods. New York Attorney General Eric Schneiderman announced a settlement with Evans Bank for $ 825,000 on September 10, 2015. An investigation had uncovered the erasure of black neighborhoods from mortgage lending maps. According to Schneiderman, of

8040-479: The concept only to socially salient groups is arbitrary, as well as raising issues of determining which groups would count as socially salient. The issue of which groups should count has caused many political and social debates. Based on realistic-conflict theory and social-identity theory, Rubin and Hewstone have highlighted a distinction among three types of discrimination: Discrimination, in labeling theory , takes form as mental categorization of minorities and

8160-422: The country. This organization, led by Chicago housewife Gale Cincotta and Shel Trapp , a professional community organizer, targeted The Federal Home Loan Bank Board, the governing authority over federally chartered Savings and loan associations (S&L) that held at that time the bulk of the country's home mortgages. NPA embarked on an effort to build a national coalition of urban community organizations to pass

8280-405: The credit quality of local businesses. Several State Attorneys General have begun investigating these de facto practices, which may violate fair lending laws. The NAACP filed a class-action lawsuit charging systematic racial discrimination by more than a dozen banks. Discrimination Discrimination is the process of making unfair or prejudicial distinctions between people based on

8400-563: The decay and isolation of minority inner-city neighborhoods through withholding of mortgage capital, making it even more difficult for neighborhoods to attract and retain families able to purchase homes. The discriminatory assumptions in redlining exacerbated residential racial segregation and urban decay in the United States. In 1935, the Federal Home Loan Bank Board (FHLBB) asked the Home Owners' Loan Corporation (HOLC) to look at 239 cities and create "residential security maps" to indicate

8520-648: The decision-making process in loans and insurance which allowed the insertion of discriminatory assessments into final decisions about either. In reverse redlining, lenders and insurers target minority consumers by charging them more than a similarly situated white consumer would be charged, specifically marketing the most expensive and onerous loan products. In the 2000s, some financial institutions considered black communities as suitable for subprime mortgages. Wells Fargo partnered with churches in black communities, where pastors would deliver "wealth building" sermons encouraging new mortgage applications. The bank would then make

8640-443: The definition of discrimination should be. Some philosophers have argued that discrimination should only refer to wrongful or disadvantageous treatment in the context of a socially salient group (such as race, gender, sexuality etc.) within a given context. Under this view, failure to limit the concept of discrimination would lead to it being overinclusive; for example, since most murders occur because of some perceived difference between

8760-609: The disinvestment issue into the statewide gubernatorial race. The Jamaica Plain Banking & Mortgage Committee and its citywide affiliate, The Boston Anti-redlining Coalition (BARC), won a commitment from Democratic candidate Michael S. Dukakis to order statewide disclosure through the Massachusetts State Banking Commission. After Dukakis was elected, his new Banking Commissioner ordered banks to disclose mortgage-lending patterns by ZIP code . The suspected redlining

8880-549: The door for slum landlords (who could get approved for low interest loans in those communities) to take over and do as they saw fit. Gregory D. Squires wrote in 2003 that data showed that race continues to affect the policies and practices of the insurance industry. Racial profiling or redlining has a long history in the property-insurance industry in the United States. From a review of industry underwriting and marketing materials, court documents, and research by government agencies, industry and community groups, and academics, it

9000-979: The early 21st century, brokers and telemarketers actively encouraged subprime mortgages to be offered to minority residents. A majority of the loans were refinance transactions, allowing homeowners to take cash out of their appreciating property or pay off credit card and other debt. Redlining has helped preserve residential segregation between blacks and whites in the United States. Lending institutions such as Wells Fargo have shown that they treat black mortgage applicants differently when they are buying homes in white neighborhoods than when buying homes in black neighborhoods by offering them subprime and predatory loans when black residents try and integrate neighborhoods. The inequality in loaning extends past residential to commercial loans as well; Dan Immergluck writes that in 2002, small businesses in black neighborhoods received fewer loans, even after accounting for business density, business size, industrial mix, neighborhood income, and

9120-721: The early- to mid-1970s, a time period that focused on under-representation and action policies intended to remedy the effects of past discrimination in both government and the business world. Article 15 of the Constitution of India prohibits discrimination against any citizen on grounds of caste, religion, sex, race or place of birth etc. Similarly, the Constitution of India guarantees several rights to all citizens irrespective of gender, such as right to equality under Article 14, right to life and personal liberty under Article 21. Indian Penal Code , 1860 (Section 153 A) - Criminalises

9240-446: The economic impact led to the passing of the Community Reinvestment Act in 1977. Racial and economic redlining set the people who live in these communities up for failure from the start, so much so that banks would often deny people who came from these areas bank loans or offered them at stricter repayment rates. As a result, there was a very low rate at which people (in particular African Americans) were able to own their homes; opening

9360-554: The emergence of cooperation in the disadvantaged group. Citing earlier psychological work of Matthew Rabin , they hypothesize that a norm of differing entitlements emerges across the two groups, and that this norm could define a "fairness" equilibrium within the disadvantaged group. The psychological impact of discrimination on health refers to the cognitive pathways through which discrimination impacts mental and physical health in members of marginalized , subordinate, and low-status groups (e.g. racial and sexual minorities). Research on

9480-458: The experimental laboratory", and that neither classical game theory nor neoclassical economics can explain this. In 2002, Varoufakis and Shaun Hargreaves-Heap ran an experiment where volunteers played a computer-mediated, multiround hawk-dove game . At the start of each session, each participant was assigned a color at random, either red or blue. At each round, each player learned the color assigned to his or her opponent, but nothing else about

9600-497: The factors Sallie Mae used to underwrite private student loans caused a disparate impact on students attending schools with higher minority populations. The suit also alleged that Sallie Mae failed to properly disclose loan terms to private student loan borrowers. The lawsuit was settled in 2011. The terms of the settlement included Sallie Mae agreeing to make a $ 500,000 donation to the United Negro College Fund and

9720-420: The federal Fair Housing Act of 1968 that such discriminatory practices were explicitly outlawed. State-Level Legislation: Public Awareness and Education Digital Archives and Databases: Universities and nonprofits are creating searchable databases of racial covenants to help homeowners and researchers access information about these restrictive clauses. The practice of redlining actively helped to create what

9840-603: The groups, classes, or other categories to which they belong or are perceived to belong, such as race , gender , age , species , religion , physical attractiveness or sexual orientation . Discrimination typically leads to groups being unfairly treated on the basis of perceived statuses based on ethnic, racial, gender or religious categories. It involves depriving members of one group of opportunities or privileges that are available to members of another group. Discriminatory traditions, policies, ideas, practices and laws exist in many countries and institutions in all parts of

9960-499: The history of insurance redlining began in conscious, overt racial discrimination practiced openly and with significant community support in communities throughout the country. There was documented overt discrimination in practices relating to residential housing—from the appraisal manuals which established an articulated "policy" of preferences based on race, religion and national origin. to lending practices which only made loans available in certain parts of town or to certain borrowers, to

10080-426: The lack of lending competition relative to non-redlined neighborhoods. The effect also emerges when service providers artificially restrict the supply of real estate available for loanable funds to nonwhites, thus providing alternative pretext for higher rates. Neighborhoods which were targeted for blockbusting were also subject to reverse redlining. In the 1960s, sociologist John McKnight originally coined

10200-503: The law that defines its authority and scope is known as Regulation B, referenced as 12 C.F.R. § 1002.1(b) (2017). from the (b) that appears in Title 12 part 1002's official identifier: 12 C.F.R. § 1002.1(b) (2017). Failure to comply with Regulation B can subject a financial institution to civil liability for actual and punitive damages in individual or class actions. Liability for punitive damages can be as much as $ 10,000 in individual actions and

10320-438: The lesser of $ 500,000 or 1% of the creditor's net worth in class actions. The Community Reinvestment Act (CRA), passed by Congress in 1977, requires banks to apply the same lending criteria in all communities. In May 2015, the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development announced that Associated Bank had agreed to a $ 200 million settlement over redlining in Chicago and Milwaukee. The three-year HUD observation led to

10440-475: The level of security for real-estate investments in each surveyed city. On the maps, the newest areas—those considered desirable for lending purposes—were outlined in green and known as "Type A". These were typically affluent suburbs on the outskirts of cities. "Type B" neighborhoods, outlined in blue, were considered "Still Desirable", whereas older "Type C" were labeled "Declining" and outlined in yellow. "Type D" neighborhoods were outlined in red and were considered

10560-433: The majority group. In such cases it is intended to remove discrimination that minority groups may already face. Reverse discrimination can be defined as the unequal treatment of members of the majority groups resulting from preferential policies, as in college admissions or employment, intended to remedy earlier discrimination against minorities. Conceptualizing affirmative action as reverse discrimination became popular in

10680-411: The maps were used by private and public entities for years afterward to deny loans to people in black communities, though planners and historians have debated the exact role of HOLC and its maps in redlining. Redlining maps even became prominent under private organizations, such as appraiser J. M. Brewer's 1934 map of Philadelphia. Private organizations created maps designed to meet the requirements of

10800-516: The market value of these homes dropped dramatically. In observation of said market values, bank lenders were able to keep close track by literally drawing red lines around the neighborhoods on a map. These lines signified areas that they would not invest in. By way of racial redlining, not only banks but savings and loans companies, insurance companies, grocery chains, and even pizza delivery companies thwarted economic vitality in black communities. The severe lacking in civil rights laws in combination with

10920-721: The men laxatives. Although gay marriage has been legal in South Africa since 2006, same-sex unions are often condemned as "un-African". Research conducted in 2009 shows 86% of black lesbians from the Western Cape live in fear of sexual assault. A number of countries, especially those in the Western world , have passed measures to alleviate discrimination against sexual minorities, including laws against anti-gay hate crimes and workplace discrimination. Some have also legalized same-sex marriage or civil unions in order to grant same-sex couples

11040-513: The most risky for mortgage support. While about 85% of the residents of such neighborhoods were white, they included most of the African-American urban households. These neighborhoods tended to be the older districts in the center of cities; often they were also African-American neighborhoods , and only six majority African-American neighborhoods in the entire United States were not evaluated as "Type D." Urban planning historians theorize that

11160-405: The only private entities to develop redlining practices. Property insurance companies also instituted rigid redlining policies in the post-World War II period. According to urban historian Bench Ansfield, the postwar advent of comprehensive homeowners' insurance was limited to the suburbs and withheld from neighborhoods of color in U.S. cities. One Aetna bulletin from 1964 advised underwriters to "use

11280-431: The opponent. Hargreaves-Heap and Varoufakis found that the players' behavior within a session frequently developed a discriminatory convention, giving a Nash equilibrium where players of one color (the "advantaged" color) consistently played the aggressive "hawk" strategy against players of the other, "disadvantaged" color, who played the acquiescent "dove" strategy against the advantaged color. Players of both colors used

11400-547: The other largely black, found that bank branches in the black community offered exclusively subprime loans. Studies found out that high-income blacks were almost twice as likely to end up with subprime home-purchase mortgages compared to low-income whites. Fueled by deep racism, some loan officers referred to blacks as "mud people" and to subprime lending as "ghetto loans". Lower savings rate and distrust of banks, stemming from this legacy of redlining, may explain why there are fewer financial institutions in minority neighborhoods. In

11520-420: The over 1,100 mortgage applications the bank received between 2009 and 2012, only four were from African Americans. Following this investigation, The Buffalo News reported that more banks could be investigated for the same reasons in the near future. The most notable examples of such DOJ and HUD settlements have focused heavily on community banks in large metropolitan areas, but banks in other regions have been

11640-418: The perpetrator and the victim, many murders would constitute discrimination if the social salience requirement is not included. Thus this view argues that making the definition of discrimination overinclusive renders it meaningless. Conversely, other philosophers argue that discrimination should simply refer to wrongful disadvantageous treatment regardless of the social salience of the group, arguing that limiting

11760-515: The region in which a person was born. It differs from national discrimination because it may not be based on national borders or the country in which the victim lives, instead, it is based on prejudices against a specific region of one or more countries. Examples include discrimination against Chinese people who were born in regions of the countryside that are far away from cities that are located within China, and discrimination against Americans who are from

11880-440: The relation between discrimination and health became a topic of interest in the 1990s, when researchers proposed that persisting racial/ethnic disparities in health outcomes could potentially be explained by racial/ethnic differences in experiences with discrimination. Although the bulk of the research tend to focus on the interactions between interpersonal discrimination and health, researchers studying discrimination and health in

12000-424: The right to be free from government sponsored social discrimination. Due to a belief in the capacity to perceive pain or suffering shared by all animals, abolitionist or vegan egalitarianism maintains that the interests of every individual (regardless of their species), warrant equal consideration with the interests of humans, and that not doing so is speciesist . Philosophers have debated as to how inclusive

12120-571: The same definition. Linguistic discrimination is culturally and socially determined due to preference for one use of language over others. Discrimination based on a person's name may also occur, with researchers suggesting that this form of discrimination is present based on a name's meaning, its pronunciation, its uniqueness, its gender affiliation, and its racial affiliation. Research has further shown that real world recruiters spend an average of just six seconds reviewing each résumé before making their initial "fit/no fit" screen-out decision and that

12240-501: The same protections and benefits as opposite-sex couples. In 2011, the United Nations passed its first resolution recognizing LGBT rights. Reverse discrimination is discrimination against members of a dominant or majority group, in favor of members of a minority or historically disadvantaged group. This discrimination may seek to redress social inequalities under which minority groups have had less access to privileges enjoyed by

12360-602: The short-term issues of neighborhood decline. Neighborhood leaders began to learn that these issues and conditions were symptoms of disinvestment that was the true, though hidden, underlying cause of these problems. They changed their strategy as more data was gathered. With the help of NPA, a coalition of loosely affiliated community organizations began to form. At the Third Annual Housing Conference held in Chicago in 1974, eight hundred delegates representing 25 states and 35 cities attended. The strategy focused on

12480-726: The solutions proposed by the group were a public apology from California for its role in permitting slavery and its numerous legacies of white supremacy, as well as payments to people whose ancestors were slaves. The California Task Force to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African Americans issued its final report to the California Legislature on June 29, 2023. According to the New York Times , while several American cities are considering comparable solutions, none has been as active as San Francisco , whose 15-member task team has provided municipal officials with 111 proposals in

12600-445: The standard of 'normal living', results in public and private places and services, educational settings, and social services that are built to serve 'standard' people, thereby excluding those with various disabilities. Studies have shown that disabled people not only need employment in order to be provided with the opportunity to earn a living but they also need employment in order to sustain their mental health and well-being. Work fulfils

12720-475: The state should atone for its history of racial violence and discrimination against Black residents. The task force convened in 2021. In 2022, the committee received testimony about segregation, redlining , voter restrictions, and other forms of discrimination and discussed whether it was appropriate to pay reparations to all African Americans in California or only those whose ancestors were enslaved. The committee

12840-505: The subject of such orders as well, including First United Security Bank in Thomasville, Alabama, and Community State Bank in Saginaw, Michigan. The United States Department of Justice announced a $ 33 million settlement with Hudson City Savings Bank , which services New Jersey , New York , and Pennsylvania , on September 24, 2015. The six-year DOJ investigation had proven that the company

12960-488: The term to describe the discriminatory practice in the United States, Chicago , of banks classifying certain neighborhoods as "hazardous," or not worthy of investment due to the racial makeup of their residents. In the 1980s, a Pulitzer Prize -winning series of articles by investigative reporter Bill Dedman demonstrated how Atlanta banks would often lend in lower-income white neighborhoods but not in middle-income or even upper-income Black neighborhoods. Blacklisting

13080-424: The terms, conditions, or privileges of sale of a dwelling because of race or national origin. The Act also makes it unlawful for any person or entity involved in residential real estate-related transactions to discriminate against any person in making available such a transaction, or in the terms or conditions of such a transaction, because of race or national origin." The Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity

13200-681: The use of stereotype . This theory describes difference as deviance from the norm, which results in internal devaluation and social stigma that may be seen as discrimination. It is started by describing a "natural" social order. It is distinguished between the fundamental principle of fascism and social democracy. The Nazis in 1930s-era Germany and the pre-1990 Apartheid government of South Africa used racially discriminatory agendas for their political ends. This practice continues with some present day governments. Economist Yanis Varoufakis (2013) argues that "discrimination based on utterly arbitrary characteristics evolves quickly and systematically in

13320-440: The use of language that promotes discrimination or violence against people on the basis of race, caste, sex, place of birth, religion, gender identity, sexual orientation or any other category. Important UN documents addressing discrimination include: Social theories such as egalitarianism assert that social equality should prevail. In some societies, including most developed countries, each individual's civil rights include

13440-420: The world, including some, where such discrimination is generally decried. In some places, countervailing measures such as quotas have been used to redress the balance in favor of those who are believed to be current or past victims of discrimination. These attempts have often been met with controversy, and sometimes been called reverse discrimination . The term discriminate appeared in the early 17th century in

13560-559: The world. Ageism or age discrimination is discrimination and stereotyping based on the grounds of someone's age. It is a set of beliefs, norms, and values which used to justify discrimination or subordination based on a person's age. Ageism is most often directed toward elderly people, or adolescents and children. Age discrimination in hiring has been shown to exist in the United States. Joanna Lahey, professor at The Bush School of Government and Public Service at Texas A&M , found that firms are more than 40% more likely to interview

13680-510: Was a related mechanism employed by redlining institutions to keep track of areas, groups, and people that the discriminating party intended to exclude . In academic literature , redlining falls under the broader category of credit rationing . The documented history of redlining in the United States is a manifestation of the historical systemic racism that has had wide-ranging impacts on American society , two examples being educational and housing inequality across racial groups. Redlining

13800-485: Was at first considered an act of racism. In the mid-1980s, linguist Tove Skutnabb-Kangas captured the idea of language-based discrimination as linguicism, which was defined as "ideologies and structures which are used to legitimize, effectuate, and reproduce unequal divisions of power and resources (both material and non-material) between groups which are defined on the basis of language". Although different names have been given to this form of discrimination, they all hold

13920-454: Was intentionally avoiding granting mortgages to Latinos and African Americans and purposely avoided expanding into minority-majority communities. The Justice Department called it the "largest residential mortgage redlining settlement in its history." As a part of the settlement agreement, HCSB was forced to open branches in non-white communities. As U.S. Attorney Paul Fishman explained to Emily Badger for The Washington Post , "[i]f you lived in

14040-725: Was limited; they were concentrated in ghettos and banned from owning land. In Saudi Arabia, non- Muslims are not allowed to publicly practice their religions and they cannot enter Mecca and Medina . Furthermore, private non-Muslim religious gatherings might be raided by the religious police . In Maldives, non-Muslims living and visiting the country are prohibited from openly expressing their religious beliefs, holding public congregations to conduct religious activities, or involving Maldivians in such activities. Those expressing religious beliefs other than Islam may face imprisonment of up to five years or house arrest, fines ranging from 5,000 to 20,000 rufiyaa ($ 320 to $ 1,300), and deportation. In

14160-492: Was presented with calculations for certain scenarios that include figures amounting to hundreds of thousands of dollars in reparations for each California resident who can prove they are the descendant of an enslaved person. One estimate suggested "just under $ 1 million for each Black Californian descended from slaves," based on a calculation of $ 127,000 per year of life expectancy gap between Black and White Californians. Kamilah Moore noted that California could not afford to pay such

14280-593: Was revealed. Richard W. "Rick" Wise, a former community organizer who led the Boston organizing, has published a novel, Redlined , which gives a somewhat fictionalized account of the anti-redlining campaign. NPA and its affiliates achieved disclosure of lending practices with the passage of The Home Mortgage Disclosure Act of 1975. The required transparency and review of loan practices began to change lending practices. NPA began to work on reinvestment in areas that had been neglected. Their support helped gain passage in 1977 of

14400-420: Was the first country to explicitly add intersex to legislation, as part of the attribute of 'sex'. Australia was the first country to add an independent attribute, of 'intersex status'. Malta was the first to adopt a broader framework of 'sex characteristics', through legislation that also ended modifications to the sex characteristics of minors undertaken for social and cultural reasons. Global efforts such as

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