Caesaraugusta or Caesar Augusta was the name of the Roman city of Zaragoza , founded as a Colonia Inmune from Rome in 14 BC, possibly on December 23, on the intensely Romanized Iberian city of Salduie . Its foundation occurred in the context of the reorganization of the provinces of Hispania by Caesar Augustus after his victory in the Astur-Cantabrian wars .
162-526: The new city received the name of " Colonia Caesar Augusta ". It enjoyed the privilege of bearing the full name of its founder, who entrusted its deductio , like many other tasks of the Empire , to his general and close friend Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa . Veteran soldiers of the legions IV Macedonica , VI Victrix and X Gemina , discharged after the hard campaign against the Asturians and Cantabrians, participated in
324-405: A priestly role . He could not marry a woman from a senatorial family, nor achieve legitimate senatorial rank himself, but during the early Empire, freedmen held key positions in the government bureaucracy, so much so that Hadrian limited their participation by law. The rise of successful freedmen—through political influence or wealth—is a characteristic of early Imperial society. The prosperity of
486-828: A propraetor . The roots of the Augustan reorganisation of Hispania are found in Pompey the Great 's division of Hispania between three of his legates at the end of the Republic, immediately before his civil war with Julius Caesar . As a result of the agreements that led to the formation of the First Triumvirate in 60 BC, Pompey had received the governorship of the Iberian provinces. Given that he preferred to remain in Rome , where he could oversee affairs in
648-480: A basement. Its entire perimeter housed a double interior portico that may have been closed to the south with a large imperial temple with a double colonnade peristyle , although the configuration of the south side and presence of the temple is still conjectural. It was paved with limestone slabs and built with various techniques of rigging: opus vittatum , opus africanum and opus caementicium or Roman concrete . The forum of Tiberius housed, in addition to
810-509: A few examples), the initial extension of the city would occupy the current neighborhood of Magdalena and Tenerías to the east until the course of the Huerva river, and to the south a strip of land that would reach Cinco de Marzo and San Miguel streets, parallel to the Coso Alto . One of the arguments presented is that in the second half of the 2nd century, houses in this area were abandoned, suggesting
972-425: A fifth of the population and played a major role in the economy. Slavery was a complex institution that supported traditional Roman social structures as well as contributing economic utility. In urban settings, slaves might be professionals such as teachers, physicians, chefs, and accountants; the majority of slaves provided trained or unskilled labour. Agriculture and industry, such as milling and mining, relied on
1134-584: A fine for a crime for which an humilior might receive a scourging . Execution, which was an infrequent legal penalty for free men under the Republic, could be quick and relatively painless for honestiores , while humiliores might suffer the kinds of torturous death previously reserved for slaves, such as crucifixion and condemnation to the beasts . In the early Empire, those who converted to Christianity could lose their standing as honestiores , especially if they declined to fulfil religious responsibilities, and thus became subject to punishments that created
1296-452: A framework for the provincial territory which brought the provincials into contact with Roman culture ( Latin rapidly became the common language of the province) and gave them access to highly developed economic networks and a monetary economy . Ceramics began to be imported in large quantities - Arretine ware from Italy under Augustus and Tiberius and Samian ware from Gaul between the reigns of Caligula and Vespasian . The province
1458-425: A freedman were born free, with full rights of citizenship. After manumission, a slave who had belonged to a Roman citizen enjoyed active political freedom ( libertas ), including the right to vote. His former master became his patron ( patronus ): the two continued to have customary and legal obligations to each other. A freedman was not entitled to hold public office or the highest state priesthoods, but could play
1620-617: A high-achieving group of freedmen is attested by inscriptions throughout the Empire . The Latin word ordo (plural ordines ) is translated variously and inexactly into English as "class, order, rank". One purpose of the Roman census was to determine the ordo to which an individual belonged. Two of the highest ordines in Rome were the senatorial and equestrian. Outside Rome, cities or colonies were led by decurions , also known as curiales . "Senator"
1782-565: A higher social class. Most of the emperors were bilingual but had a preference for Latin in the public sphere for political reasons, a "rule" that first started during the Punic Wars . Different emperors up until Justinian would attempt to require the use of Latin in various sections of the administration but there is no evidence that a linguistic imperialism existed during the early Empire. After all freeborn inhabitants were universally enfranchised in 212 , many Roman citizens would have lacked
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#17328456108371944-468: A house in Heroísmo Street, next to the remains of an urban road, and of a nymphaeum in 4 Doctor Palomar Street with a pond, a fountain and mural paintings. Major renovations were also undertaken in the theater. It is still a period of emerging economy, as can be attested by the completion of the road leading to the capital of Lusitania , Augusta Emerita . The Antonine period is characterized by
2106-401: A household or workplace, a hierarchy of slaves might exist, with one slave acting as the master of others. Talented slaves might accumulate a large enough peculium to justify their freedom, or be manumitted for services rendered. Manumission had become frequent enough that in 2 BC a law ( Lex Fufia Caninia ) limited the number of slaves an owner was allowed to free in his will. Following
2268-465: A knowledge of Latin. The wide use of Koine Greek was what enabled the spread of Christianity and reflects its role as the lingua franca of the Mediterranean during the time of the Empire. Following Diocletian's reforms in the 3rd century CE, there was a decline in the knowledge of Greek in the west. Spoken Latin later fragmented into the incipient romance languages in the 7th century CE following
2430-513: A lasting influence on the development of language , religion , art , architecture , literature , philosophy , law , and forms of government across its territories. Latin evolved into the Romance languages while Medieval Greek became the language of the East. The Empire's adoption of Christianity resulted in the formation of medieval Christendom . Roman and Greek art had a profound impact on
2592-454: A man as an equestrian. The census of 28 BC uncovered large numbers of men who qualified, and in 14 AD, a thousand equestrians were registered at Cádiz and Padua alone. Equestrians rose through a military career track ( tres militiae ) to become highly placed prefects and procurators within the Imperial administration. The rise of provincial men to the senatorial and equestrian orders
2754-554: A married woman could have sex only with her husband, but a married man did not commit adultery if he had sex with a prostitute or person of marginalized status. Childbearing was encouraged: a woman who had given birth to three children was granted symbolic honours and greater legal freedom (the ius trium liberorum ). At the time of Augustus, as many as 35% of the people in Roman Italy were slaves, making Rome one of five historical "slave societies" in which slaves constituted at least
2916-742: A reduced military garrison in the province, consisting of the Legio VII Gemina Felix and its auxiliary units, which was focused mainly on supporting the work of the provincial governor, carrying out policing, and supervising mining work in the province. Pliny the Elder served as procurator in Tarraconensis in AD 73. Under Diocletian , in 293, Hispania Tarraconensis was divided in three smaller provinces: Gallaecia , Carthaginensis and Tarraconensis. The Imperial province of Hispania Tarraconensis lasted until
3078-427: A sense of "Romanness". Roman society had multiple, overlapping social hierarchies . The civil war preceding Augustus caused upheaval, but did not effect an immediate redistribution of wealth and social power. From the perspective of the lower classes, a peak was merely added to the social pyramid. Personal relationships— patronage , friendship ( amicitia ), family , marriage —continued to influence politics. By
3240-507: A slave's rapist had to be prosecuted by the owner for property damage under the Aquilian Law . Slaves had no right to the form of legal marriage called conubium , but their unions were sometimes recognized. Technically, a slave could not own property, but a slave who conducted business might be given access to an individual fund ( peculium ) that he could use, depending on the degree of trust and co-operation between owner and slave. Within
3402-456: A surface area of around 380,000 km2 and an estimated population of 3-3.5 million (giving an average population density of 8-9 people/km2), at the date of its creation, Tarraconensis was probably the largest province in the Roman empire. Under Augustus ' division of the provinces in 27 BC, Tarraconensis was an Imperial province like Lusitania, while Baetica was a Senatorial province . Tarraconensis
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#17328456108373564-543: A temple or basilica and was perhaps the most relevant building of a forensic complex of a religious nature, and not commercial as would be that of the Plaza de las Catedrales . According to another theory of the location of the cardo, it could start from this forum and not need the setback that would lead to the door Cinegia from the street of Don Jaime I (also called San Gil), depending on the hypothesis and planimetry proposed by Maria Pilar Galve in 2004. To this period also belongs
3726-611: Is a cereal storage area to the north of the forum, which was accessed from the river port by means of a monumental staircase with a triple-passage door. The remains of this stairway can be seen in the Caesaragusta River Port Museum . Finally, in the excavations of the Palacio de los Pardo , current site of the Camón Aznar Museum , remains of a wall were found at the end of the 20th century that would have formed part of
3888-545: Is an aspect of social mobility in the early Empire. Roman aristocracy was based on competition, and unlike later European nobility , a Roman family could not maintain its position merely through hereditary succession or having title to lands. Admission to the higher ordines brought distinction and privileges, but also responsibilities. In antiquity, a city depended on its leading citizens to fund public works, events, and services ( munera ). Maintaining one's rank required massive personal expenditures. Decurions were so vital for
4050-453: Is disputed, perhaps falling shortly after his accession to power in AD 69 or in AD 74. The concession of this right was used by many tributary and subordinate communities in Tarraconensis to transform themselves into municipia , e.g. Nova Augusta ( Lara de los Infantes , Burgos ), Bergidum Flavium ( Torre del Bierzo , El Bierzo , León ), Segovia , Duratón ( Segovia ), and Aqua Flaviae ( Chaves , Portugal ). The main cities in
4212-613: Is traditionally regarded as the Pax Romana ("Roman Peace"). The cohesion of the empire was furthered by a degree of social stability and economic prosperity that Rome had never before experienced. Uprisings in the provinces were infrequent and put down "mercilessly and swiftly". The success of Augustus in establishing principles of dynastic succession was limited by his outliving a number of talented potential heirs. The Julio-Claudian dynasty lasted for four more emperors— Tiberius , Caligula , Claudius , and Nero —before it yielded in 69 AD to
4374-467: Is very significant. With the Flavian dynasty , the communication routes with the surroundings of Caesaraugusta were strengthened, as evidenced by a milestone located on the road to Bílbilis . New plots of land were inhabited in the city, such as the one at 6 Torrenueva Street. In addition, remains of boulder walls have been found outside the perimeter traditionally considered urbanized in 6 Palomeque Street, of
4536-510: The maximum decumanus (present-day Mayor and Espoz y Mina and Manifestación streets) and the cardo , which coincided approximately in its route with Jaime I street , although the confluence with the decumanus at the southern limit —located in the present-day Coso Alto and which could be found at any point from the Main Theater to the Cinegia Gate — is uncertain, since the layout of
4698-590: The Battle of Actium in 31 BC. In 27 BC the Senate gave him the title Augustus ("venerated") and made him princeps ("foremost") with proconsular imperium , thus beginning the Principate , the first epoch of Roman imperial history. Although the republic stood in name, Augustus had all meaningful authority. During his 40-year rule, a new constitutional order emerged so that, upon his death, Tiberius would succeed him as
4860-470: The Dominate . The emperor was the ultimate authority in policy- and decision-making, but in the early Principate, he was expected to be accessible and deal personally with official business and petitions. A bureaucracy formed around him only gradually. The Julio-Claudian emperors relied on an informal body of advisors that included not only senators and equestrians, but trusted slaves and freedmen. After Nero,
5022-723: The House of Orpheus , a domus of big proportions whose hall had a surface area of 47 m; or that of the Triumph of Bacchus that appeared next to an important sculptural group: the Ena Group (two nymphs performing music, reflecting exquisite taste, delicate chiseling and a philhellenistic taste introduced in the Empire under the Antonines ), preserved in the Marés museum in Barcelona ; previous dating, however, it
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5184-666: The Huns of Attila , led to the decline of the Western Roman Empire . With the fall of Ravenna to the Germanic Herulians and the deposition of Romulus Augustus in 476 by Odoacer , the Western Empire finally collapsed. The Eastern Roman Empire survived for another millennium with Constantinople as its sole capital, until the city's fall in 1453. Due to the Empire's extent and endurance, its institutions and culture had
5346-533: The Italian Renaissance . Rome's architectural tradition served as the basis for Romanesque , Renaissance and Neoclassical architecture , influencing Islamic architecture . The rediscovery of classical science and technology (which formed the basis for Islamic science ) in medieval Europe contributed to the Scientific Renaissance and Scientific Revolution . Many modern legal systems, such as
5508-561: The Legio VI Vitrix , two cavalry alae , and three infantry cohortes . In order to reinforce these troops, a new legion was recruited, the future Legio VII Gemina and a number of similar auxiliary units, notably the Vascones cohortes , but all these units joined Galba when he invaded Italy to seize the Imperial throne. In AD 69, Vitellius ordered the Legio X Gemina to be dispatched to
5670-587: The Mediterranean coast of Iberia in the 8th to 6th centuries BC. The Greeks later also established colonies along the coast. The Romans arrived in the 2nd century BC during the Second Punic War . The province Hispania Citerior Tarraconensis was established in the reign of Augustus as the direct successor of the Roman Republican province of Hispania Citerior ("nearer Hispania"), which had been ruled by
5832-691: The Napoleonic Code , descend from Roman law. Rome's republican institutions have influenced the Italian city-state republics of the medieval period, the early United States , and modern democratic republics . Rome had begun expanding shortly after the founding of the Roman Republic in the 6th century BC, though not outside the Italian Peninsula until the 3rd century BC. Thus, it was an "empire" (a great power) long before it had an emperor. The Republic
5994-514: The Nile Valley in Egypt. The empire completely circled the Mediterranean ... referred to by its conquerors as mare nostrum —'our sea'. Trajan's successor Hadrian adopted a policy of maintaining rather than expanding the empire. Borders ( fines ) were marked, and the frontiers ( limites ) patrolled. The most heavily fortified borders were the most unstable. Hadrian's Wall , which separated
6156-472: The Roman Senate granted Octavian overarching military power ( imperium ) and the new title of Augustus , marking his accession as the first Roman emperor . The vast Roman territories were organized into senatorial provinces, governed by proconsuls who were appointed by lot annually, and imperial provinces, which belonged to the emperor but were governed by legates . The first two centuries of
6318-586: The Roman tribe of Galeria, except for Caesaraugusta, which was in that of Aniensis. All free men who served as municipal magistrates ( duoviri or aediles ) in municipia would obtain Roman citizenship, being assigned to the tribe Quirina. According to Pliny the Elder, the Emperor Vespasian extended Latin citizenship to all other inhabitants of Hispania, which meant that they were legally permitted to conduct business under Roman law ( ius commercii ) and marry Roman woman ( ius conubii ). The date of this grant
6480-590: The Servile Wars of the Republic, legislation under Augustus and his successors shows a driving concern for controlling the threat of rebellions through limiting the size of work groups, and for hunting down fugitive slaves. Over time slaves gained increased legal protection, including the right to file complaints against their masters. A bill of sale might contain a clause stipulating that the slave could not be employed for prostitution, as prostitutes in ancient Rome were often slaves. The burgeoning trade in eunuchs in
6642-466: The aforementioned street in its southern half dates from a reform of the 18th century. The city had four main entrances, whose location was preserved until the 15th century, at both ends of the cardo and the decumanus: The city of Caesaraugusta thus became the most influential city in the middle valley of the Ebro, and its coinage spread throughout the interior of Tarraconensis , becoming predominant even in
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6804-499: The eastern empire lasted until the fall of Constantinople in 1453. By 100 BC, Rome had expanded its rule to most of the Mediterranean and beyond. However, it was severely destabilised by civil wars and political conflicts , which culminated in the victory of Octavian over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, and the subsequent conquest of the Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt. In 27 BC,
6966-568: The flamen Augusti and flamenica Augusti , who were chosen by the elites of the privileged communities of the province (the coloniae and municipia ). Each year, they chose one of their number to be the flamen and flamenica (they were not required to be married to one another) of the Imperial cult for the whole province, discharging their functions in the provincial forum in Tarraco. The fiscal administration of Tarraconensis mostly fell to an Imperial procurator ( procurator Caesaris ), appointed by
7128-421: The public baths that appeared on San Juan and San Pedro Street, which have now been converted into a museum space . Of these public baths, a swimming pool or natatio is preserved in good condition, surrounded by columns following examples of Roman representation. It would be a bathing facility arranged in consecutive axis, following the sequence natatio, frigidaria, tepidaria and caldaria . The interior
7290-478: The 293 communities that are subordinate to others) 179 cities, among which there are 12 coloniae , 13 cities of Roman citizens, 18 of old Latins , 1 city of foederati , and 135 cities subject to tax. All free inhabitants of Roman coloniae held Roman citizenship. The coloniae in the province, established by Julius Caesar , the Second Triumvirate , or Augustus , both coloniae and municipia belonged to
7452-542: The 3rd century and it has even been postulated (according to research from 2003), that the Roman colony of Caesaraugusta may have initially lacked walls, particularly those located to the east. The existence of a bridge over the Ebro River at the location of the current Stone Bridge (probably already existing in Salduie's time) is documented from the discovery of lead pipes that supported the bridge and brought drinking water from
7614-480: The 3rd century the theater of Caesaraugusta is modified again, which may indicate a new function for the space of this building, where perhaps the theatrical spectacle itself is no longer preeminent, in favor of the celebration of other types of entertainment. On the other hand, the 3rd century saw a proliferation of large houses representing the most prestigious citizens of the city. In them, polychrome mosaic pavements of great proportions can be found, such as that of
7776-555: The 600-member body by appointment. A senator's son belonged to the ordo senatorius , but he had to qualify on his own merits for admission to the Senate. A senator could be removed for violating moral standards. In the time of Nero, senators were still primarily from Italy , with some from the Iberian peninsula and southern France; men from the Greek-speaking provinces of the East began to be added under Vespasian. The first senator from
7938-400: The 6th and 7th centuries with the disintegration of the complex Imperial economy. Laws pertaining to slavery were "extremely intricate". Slaves were considered property and had no legal personhood . They could be subjected to forms of corporal punishment not normally exercised on citizens, sexual exploitation , torture, and summary execution . A slave could not as a matter of law be raped;
8100-401: The Augustan programme to restore traditional morality and social order, moral legislation attempted to regulate conduct as a means of promoting " family values ". Adultery was criminalized, and defined broadly as an illicit sex act ( stuprum ) between a male citizen and a married woman, or between a married woman and any man other than her husband. That is, a double standard was in place:
8262-455: The Emperor directly from among the equestrian order . This procurator was based in the provincial capital and managed the collection of taxes for the whole province. Nevertheless, from the late first century or early second century AD, the gold mines in the northwestern part of the province were managed by a separate procurator, the procurator metallorum , who was usually and Imperial freedman and
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#17328456108378424-571: The Empire saw a period of unprecedented stability and prosperity known as the Pax Romana ( lit. ' Roman Peace ' ). Rome reached its greatest territorial extent under Trajan ( r. 98–117 AD ), but a period of increasing trouble and decline began under Commodus ( r. 180–192 ). In the 3rd century, the Empire underwent a 49-year crisis that threatened its existence due to civil war, plagues and barbarian invasions . The Gallic and Palmyrene empires broke away from
8586-513: The Empire was engulfed by the Crisis of the Third Century , a period of invasions , civil strife , economic disorder , and plague . In defining historical epochs , this crisis sometimes marks the transition from Classical to Late Antiquity . Aurelian ( r. 270–275 ) stabilised the empire militarily and Diocletian reorganised and restored much of it in 285. Diocletian's reign brought
8748-611: The Iberian peninsula, accompanied by the Legio I Adiutrix . We do not know exactly where they were stationed; it may have been in Baetica and the southeastern part of Tarraconensis to prevent a possible invasion from North Africa, which was controlled by Lucius Clodius Macer . In any case, both legions and the Legio VI Victrix abandoned Vitellius and declared their support for Vespasian , who quickly sent them to Germania Inferior to suppress
8910-602: The Middle East. The Latin phrase imperium sine fine ("empire without end" ) expressed the ideology that neither time nor space limited the Empire. In Virgil 's Aeneid , limitless empire is said to be granted to the Romans by Jupiter . This claim of universal dominion was renewed when the Empire came under Christian rule in the 4th century. In addition to annexing large regions, the Romans directly altered their geography, for example cutting down entire forests . Roman expansion
9072-450: The Rhine and Danube. Roman jurists also show a concern for local languages such as Punic , Gaulish , and Aramaic in assuring the correct understanding of laws and oaths. In Africa , Libyco-Berber and Punic were used in inscriptions into the 2nd century. In Syria , Palmyrene soldiers used their dialect of Aramaic for inscriptions, an exception to the rule that Latin was the language of
9234-558: The Roman Republic ) while greatly extending its power beyond Italy. In 44 BC Julius Caesar was briefly perpetual dictator before being assassinated by a faction that opposed his concentration of power. This faction was driven from Rome and defeated at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC by Mark Antony and Caesar's adopted son Octavian . Antony and Octavian divided the Roman world between them, but this did not last long. Octavian's forces defeated those of Mark Antony and Cleopatra at
9396-443: The Roman conquest but operating under the direct supervision of the provincial governors. These communities - both Roman and indigenous - generally enjoyed a high level of autonomy, administering themselves without excessive intervention from the governors. Over time, the indigenous communities tended to adapt their institutions of self-government to match the model of the Roman municipia and coloniae . The principal difference between
9558-599: The Roman consuls at the local level, whose name appeared on the coinage. Exceptionally, they could be substituted by a prefect with attributions directly emanating from Rome. The duumvirs were assisted by a couple of aediles , in charge of the good functioning of the industries, public works and grain supply silos ( horrea ), and a quaestor who was in charge of the administration. The first duumvirs of Caesar Augusta were Quintus Lutatius, Marcus Fabius, Gaius Alsanus, Titus Cervius, Lucius Cassius and Gaius Valerius Fenestella , whose names refer to Italic families. Only
9720-430: The Roman legal concept of imperium , meaning "command" (typically in a military sense). Occasionally, successful consuls or generals were given the honorary title imperator (commander); this is the origin of the word emperor , since this title was always bestowed to the early emperors. Rome suffered a long series of internal conflicts, conspiracies, and civil wars from the late second century BC (see Crisis of
9882-448: The Roman world from what was perceived as an ever-present barbarian threat, is the primary surviving monument of this effort. Latin and Greek were the main languages of the Empire, but the Empire was deliberately multilingual. Andrew Wallace-Hadrill says "The main desire of the Roman government was to make itself understood". At the start of the Empire, knowledge of Greek was useful to pass as educated nobility and knowledge of Latin
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#173284561083710044-449: The account of his achievements ( Res Gestae ) prominently featured the geographical cataloguing of the Empire. Geography alongside meticulous written records were central concerns of Roman Imperial administration . The Empire reached its largest expanse under Trajan ( r. 98–117 ), encompassing 5 million km . The traditional population estimate of 55–60 million inhabitants accounted for between one-sixth and one-fourth of
10206-459: The annexation of these territories during the Cantabrian Wars (27–19 BC). Augustus himself resided from 27 to 26 BC at Segisama (modern Sasamón , Burgos ), and at Tarraco, where he received an embassy from India . During this period he was accompanied by his nephew and heir, Marcellus , and his stepson, the future emperor Tiberius , both of whom served as military tribunes in 25 BC in
10368-457: The banks of the Ebro River and next to the mouth of the Huerva and Gállego rivers, as well as for its complex supply and irrigation systems. In addition to the aforementioned baths, a multitude of cisterns , fountains, sewers and various sections of lead and sanitation pipes have been documented. Caesar Augusta was founded in 14 B.C. — although other dates have been proposed for the foundation of
10530-560: The beginning of the 21st century in the 3rd century), found between Coso Alto and Alfonso I streets . The remains of a domus with polychrome mural paintings, including representations of the muses , were also found at the end of the 20th century in Calle San Agustín 5-7. It is a style dated to the time of Hadrian (117-138), new in Caesaraugusta and characterized by a range of warm tones and figurative representation. It increases
10692-446: The capital, he delegated the government of Hispania to three legates: At the end of the civil wars , Pompey's division was consolidated by Augustus in 27 BC, when he formally established the three provinces of Hispania Citerior Tarraconensis, Hispania Ulterior Lusitania (corresponding to modern Portugal , apart from the northern region of the modern country, plus Spanish Extremadura ), and Hispania Ulterior Baetica (corresponding to
10854-455: The cities of the administrative demarcation. According to Fatás and Beltrán (1998), the remains of the Basilica found in the Palacio de los Pardo , at the confluence between the cardo and the decumanus, would constitute the solemn and religious forum; while the forum excavated under the plaza of La Seo would serve as the commercial and administrative forum of the city. During this period,
11016-455: The city and a set of industrial workshops among which the potteries stand out. Towards the end of the 2nd century, polychrome and decorative mosaics appear, such as the one in the great domus of San Juan de los Panetes dedicated to Orpheus (perhaps from the 3rd century). Other mosaics of great beauty are those of Eros and Pan , Eros and Psyche and the Triumph of Bacchus (also dated at
11178-480: The city had notable dimensions, without reaching those of the main sewer. Thus, there is a section in Espoz y Mina Street made of opus vittatum 1.2 m high by 0.6 m wide. The proportions of the sewers of Caesaraugusta are similar to those of other large Roman cities, and comparable, for example, to those of Augusta Emerita . From the time of the foundation of the city, Caesar Augusta was governed by two groups formed from
11340-409: The city was protected by the Huerva river . The discovery in 2000 of the House of Añón Street and its location in the eastern part of the city, outside the walls of what was supposed to be the area included within the walls of Caesaraugusta , together with other archaeological remains found, have led to the assumption that the urbanized area extended in its beginnings beyond the walled Roman city of
11502-570: The city, ranging from 25 to 12 B.C.— as an Colonia inmune where soldiers from the legions that fought with Caesar Augustus in Hispania between 29 and 26 B.C. were integrated into the Iberian Salduie , forming a new Roman colonial city of mixed character, as Strabo reflects in his Geographica (III, 2, 15). The new Colonia inmune occupied an area of 44 hectares , delimiting an area of more than 900 x 500 m around two axial axes of communication:
11664-418: The collapse of the Empire's west. The dominance of Latin and Greek among the literate elite obscure the continuity of other spoken languages within the Empire. Latin, referred to in its spoken form as Vulgar Latin , gradually replaced Celtic and Italic languages . References to interpreters indicate the continuing use of local languages, particularly in Egypt with Coptic , and in military settings along
11826-550: The command of a single Roman legate based at Tarraconensis and that the main mining regions, which supplied precious metals to the Imperial treasury (gold in the Galician Massif , silver in Sierra Morena ), were under the direct control of the Imperial administration, with easy access by sea to Italia and Rome, where the Imperial mints were located. In addition to creating the province and setting its borders, Augustus followed
11988-482: The conditions of martyrdom . The three major elements of the Imperial state were the central government, the military, and the provincial government. The military established control of a territory through war, but after a city or people was brought under treaty, the mission turned to policing: protecting Roman citizens, agricultural fields, and religious sites. The Romans lacked sufficient manpower or resources to rule through force alone. Cooperation with local elites
12150-714: The conflict with the Cantabrians – the pair's first military commands. The name of the province derives from its capital, Colonia Urbs Triumphalis Tarraco . The provincial borders were modified in 12 BC, in order to incorporate the Galician and Asturian territories which had previously belonged to Lusitania, and perhaps to an ephemeral Transduriana province before that, as well as the mining area around Castulo that had previously been part of Baetica. This reorganisation meant that all Roman troops stationed in Hispania were henceforth under
12312-428: The construction of the wall to the south and east at this time, which would cause the population to move from this area to the interior of the walls. A probable hypothesis is that the western and northern limits would have remained stable since the foundation of the city, even with a wall of opus caementicium that protected the most unprotected area, while in the east the wall was unnecessary in its early days thanks to
12474-488: The current Plaza de la Seo and the museum of the river port ) had a mercantile character linked to the transport of goods to and from Tortosa across the Ebro , and was very possibly in operation before the Roman colonial foundation. Attached to the east of the cardo, it consisted of a quadrangular square open to the river, limited only on its long sides, which housed two bodies of commercial premises (seven tabernacles preserved on
12636-469: The current province of Soria . The whole design of the colony was meticulously planned before its execution. The city was soon provided with a bridge, probably made of stone, a forum , aqueducts and a sewage system with drainage sewers. However, the most recent studies support the hypothesis that these infrastructures, bridge, river port, forum , market, pre-existed the Roman foundation, although in many cases they were reformed and enlarged, as happened with
12798-481: The deceased emperor's deification. The dominance of the emperor was based on the consolidation of powers from several republican offices. The emperor made himself the central religious authority as pontifex maximus , and centralized the right to declare war, ratify treaties, and negotiate with foreign leaders. While these functions were clearly defined during the Principate , the emperor's powers over time became less constitutional and more monarchical, culminating in
12960-449: The descent "from a kingdom of gold to one of rust and iron", a comment which has led some historians, notably Edward Gibbon , to take Commodus' reign as the beginning of the Empire's decline . In 212, during the reign of Caracalla , Roman citizenship was granted to all freeborn inhabitants of the empire. The Severan dynasty was tumultuous; an emperor's reign was ended routinely by his murder or execution and, following its collapse,
13122-574: The directions left by Julius Caesar in granting many communities in the province the privileged status of colonia or municipium (Roman or Latin ), especially along the Levante coast , the part of Baetica transferred to the province in 12 BC, and the Ebro Valley , along with some foundations on the Meseta Central and in the northeast. He also regularised the status of the other political entities in
13284-417: The east side), erected on plinths of opus vittatum and painting of the early style III. A simple covered portico closed the forum on the south side. The Roman colony of Caesaragusta had a whole network of sewers, with drains and pipes and drinking water supply guaranteed through aqueducts that collected the water in large collecting cisterns, and whose archaeological remains have been excavated mainly since
13446-467: The easternmost province, Cappadocia , was admitted under Marcus Aurelius. By the Severan dynasty (193–235), Italians made up less than half the Senate. During the 3rd century, domicile at Rome became impractical, and inscriptions attest to senators who were active in politics and munificence in their homeland ( patria ). Senators were the traditional governing class who rose through the cursus honorum ,
13608-457: The empire's most concerted effort against the perceived threat of Christianity , the " Great Persecution ". Diocletian divided the empire into four regions, each ruled by a separate tetrarch . Confident that he fixed the disorder plaguing Rome, he abdicated along with his co-emperor, but the Tetrarchy collapsed shortly after . Order was eventually restored by Constantine the Great , who became
13770-506: The empire. This legal egalitarianism required a far-reaching revision of existing laws that distinguished between citizens and non-citizens. Freeborn Roman women were considered citizens, but did not vote, hold political office, or serve in the military. A mother's citizen status determined that of her children, as indicated by the phrase ex duobus civibus Romanis natos ("children born of two Roman citizens"). A Roman woman kept her own family name ( nomen ) for life. Children most often took
13932-467: The end of the 20th century, the limits of the 1st century city were considered to be established by the remains of the preserved walls. However, at the beginning of the 21st century, a different evolution of the Roman city of Caesaraugusta took hold. According to the remains of the first and second centuries found outside the perimeter of the preserved walls (Plaza de la Magdalena, Antonio Agustín, Rebolería, Añón and Teniente Coronel Valenzuela streets, to cite
14094-609: The end of the Western Roman Empire in 476, when Romulus Augustulus was forced to abdicate to the Germanic warlord Odoacer . Odoacer ended the Western Empire by declaring Zeno sole emperor and placing himself as Zeno's nominal subordinate. In reality, Italy was ruled by Odoacer alone. The Eastern Roman Empire, called the Byzantine Empire by later historians, continued until the reign of Constantine XI Palaiologos ,
14256-410: The existence of a wall at the founding of the colony and its subsequent rebuilding in the 3rd century were long taken for granted. However, abundant archaeological remains make it doubtful that Caesaraugusta had a wall that surrounded the entire perimeter of the city until the 3rd century, at least not in the appearance shown by the remains of canvases preserved today, especially on the eastern side, where
14418-401: The expansion of the city's economic activities into rural areas, causing a significant growth of agricultural villas . An example of this is the one found between Alfonso V and Rebolería streets. It was centralized around a porticoed impluvium endowed with a central statue of a drunken Faun lying on a wineskin from which liquid flows, and has a parallel in the statues of recumbent nymphs of
14580-498: The exploitation of slaves. Outside Italy, slaves were on average an estimated 10 to 20% of the population, sparse in Roman Egypt but more concentrated in some Greek areas. Expanding Roman ownership of arable land and industries affected preexisting practices of slavery in the provinces. Although slavery has often been regarded as waning in the 3rd and 4th centuries, it remained an integral part of Roman society until gradually ceasing in
14742-504: The fact that it has an E-W axis orientation (entrance from the east), suggesting the existence of two connected forums. Apart from this finding, the appearance of the temples can be documented through the coins issued in Zaragoza. In a dupondius of the year 28 is represented a temple of hexastyle type that was accessed through three steps, with columns of attic type and a simple pediment decorated geometrically with inscribed triangles that
14904-457: The father's name, with some exceptions. Women could own property, enter contracts, and engage in business. Inscriptions throughout the Empire honour women as benefactors in funding public works, an indication they could hold considerable fortunes. The archaic manus marriage in which the woman was subject to her husband's authority was largely abandoned by the Imperial era, and a married woman retained ownership of any property she brought into
15066-619: The first emperor to convert to Christianity , and who established Constantinople as the new capital of the Eastern Empire. During the decades of the Constantinian and Valentinian dynasties, the empire was divided along an east–west axis, with dual power centres in Constantinople and Rome. Julian , who under the influence of his adviser Mardonius attempted to restore Classical Roman and Hellenistic religion , only briefly interrupted
15228-430: The forum, in the time of Tiberius . The bridge, the port and the baths may have been part of the endowments of the highly Romanized Salduie of the years 50-14 B.C. Due to this, the construction activity between 14 B.C. and 14 A.D. was limited if we consider the enormous urban works undertaken from the government of Tiberius, with the construction of the theater or the remodeling of the forum, among other actions. Until
15390-646: The foundation of the city, with the double intention of guaranteeing the defense of the territory at the same time as establishing the presence of Rome in it. Zaragoza had the status of an Colonia Inmune , granting it certain privileges such as the right to mint coins or the exemption from paying taxes. The new citizens were attached to the Aniense tribe. In the process of reorganization of Hispanic territories, three provinces were created, Tarraconense , Baetica and Lusitania , divided into juridical convents, minor districts with judicial and administrative functions; of these,
15552-456: The functioning of cities that in the later Empire, as the ranks of the town councils became depleted, those who had risen to the Senate were encouraged to return to their hometowns, in an effort to sustain civic life. In the later Empire, the dignitas ("worth, esteem") that attended on senatorial or equestrian rank was refined further with titles such as vir illustris ("illustrious man"). The appellation clarissimus (Greek lamprotatos )
15714-465: The future the risk of flooding of the Ebro, and Zaragoza benefited from it until today. The area around the city was also extensively cleared in order to develop agricultural land to supply the colony. The most outstanding work in the time of Tiberius (14 A.D. - 37) was the remodeling of the forum , which was enlarged by designing a large rectangle of more than 50 meters on the western side, which housed tents built with ashlar masonry and provided with
15876-497: The great public works, some of which can still be seen today: the forum , the river port , which made Caesaraugusta the main redistributor of goods in the Ebro valley , the public baths , the theater or the city's first bridge, located on the site of the current Stone Bridge and which was probably a work of ashlar or a mixture of stone and wood. Water also played an important role in Roman Zaragoza, both for its location on
16038-664: The historian Christopher Kelly described it: Then the empire stretched from Hadrian's Wall in drizzle-soaked northern England to the sun-baked banks of the Euphrates in Syria; from the great Rhine – Danube river system, which snaked across the fertile, flat lands of Europe from the Low Countries to the Black Sea , to the rich plains of the North African coast and the luxuriant gash of
16200-515: The influence of the latter was regarded with suspicion, and the emperor's council ( consilium ) became subject to official appointment for greater transparency . Though the Senate took a lead in policy discussions until the end of the Antonine dynasty , equestrians played an increasingly important role in the consilium . The women of the emperor's family often intervened directly in his decisions. Hispania Tarraconensis Hispania Tarraconensis
16362-507: The invasions of the 5th century, beginning in 409, when Suebi , Vandals and Alans crossed the Pyrenees, and ended with the establishment of a Visigothic kingdom . The invasion resulted in widespread exploitation of metals, especially gold , tin and silver . The alluvial gold mines at Las Medulas show that Roman engineers worked the deposits on a very large scale using several aqueducts up to 30 miles (48 km) long to tap water in
16524-476: The largest theaters in Hispania , with a surface area of 7,000 square meters (106 m in diameter) and a capacity for approximately 6,000 spectators. At the end of the 1980s, in the course of the remodeling works of the Plaza del Pilar , the foundations and part of the podium of a Capitoline temple appeared, located where today is the subway parking lot of the square, quite far from the only known forum, together with
16686-515: The last Roman emperor. He died in battle in 1453 against Mehmed II and his Ottoman forces during the siege of Constantinople . Mehmed II adopted the title of caesar in an attempt to claim a connection to the former Empire. His claim was soon recognized by the Patriarchate of Constantinople , but not by most European monarchs. The Roman Empire was one of the largest in history, with contiguous territories throughout Europe, North Africa, and
16848-486: The last decade of the 20th century. In addition, in the district of the Tanneries , there was a drainage system for the periodic flooding of the Ebro , consisting of a field of amphorae grouped together and placed inverted. Under the forum, and perpendicular to the Ebro, a large drainage sewer was designed: 2.82 m high and 2 m wide. It was built in opus caementicium with opus incertum lining. Other drainage systems in
17010-588: The late 1st century prompted legislation that prohibited the castration of a slave against his will "for lust or gain". Roman slavery was not based on race . Generally, slaves in Italy were indigenous Italians, with a minority of foreigners (including both slaves and freedmen) estimated at 5% of the total in the capital at its peak, where their number was largest. Foreign slaves had higher mortality and lower birth rates than natives, and were sometimes even subjected to mass expulsions. The average recorded age at death for
17172-462: The major work of the theater, whose construction began at the end of the government of Tiberius and was completed in the time of Claudius around 50 A.D. It occupied a site that had been destined for this theatrical infrastructure since the colonial planning of the period of Caesar Augustus. It was inspired by the model of the Theatre of Marcellus of Rome . A concrete structure ( opus caementicium )
17334-486: The marriage. Technically she remained under her father's legal authority, even though she moved into her husband's home, but when her father died she became legally emancipated. This arrangement was a factor in the degree of independence Roman women enjoyed compared to many other cultures up to the modern period: although she had to answer to her father in legal matters, she was free of his direct scrutiny in daily life, and her husband had no legal power over her. Although it
17496-416: The members of the three higher "orders", along with certain military officers. The granting of universal citizenship in 212 seems to have increased the competitive urge among the upper classes to have their superiority affirmed, particularly within the justice system. Sentencing depended on the judgment of the presiding official as to the relative "worth" ( dignitas ) of the defendant: an honestior could pay
17658-719: The military. The last reference to Gaulish was between 560 and 575. The emergent Gallo-Romance languages would then be shaped by Gaulish. Proto-Basque or Aquitanian evolved with Latin loan words to modern Basque . The Thracian language , as were several now-extinct languages in Anatolia, are attested in Imperial-era inscriptions. The Empire was remarkably multicultural, with "astonishing cohesive capacity" to create shared identity while encompassing diverse peoples. Public monuments and communal spaces open to all—such as forums , amphitheatres , racetracks and baths —helped foster
17820-410: The name of one aedile is known, Marcus Julius Antonianus , documented in the inscriptions on the lead pipes that, with aqueduct functions, were integrated into the bridge over the Ebro. Caesaraugusta was the capital of one of the seven judicial districts ( conventus iuridicus ) of the province of Tarraco . The conventus Caesaraugustanus was one of the largest and included Pamplona and Irún to
17982-511: The natural protection of the course of the Huerva , which would mark the eastern limit. In the 3rd century, in any case, the perimeter described above was definitively built or rebuilt with an ashlar wall, of which abundant remains are preserved. The ritual plowing of a sulcus primigenius —an act long shown on the reverses of the city's coinage —and erection of a city wall were general requisites of ancient Roman urban planning , particularly with regard to its formal colonies. Therefore,
18144-461: The nearby Gallego River to the city. It is more difficult to elucidate whether the bridge was already built in ashlar stone in Roman times, although the prestige of the capital of the Caesaraugustan legal convent and the required solidity derived from its function as an aqueduct of heavy pipes leads us to think that it was a stone bridge. The forum of the Augustan or Saluitan period (located in
18306-444: The new de facto monarch. As Roman provinces were being established throughout the Mediterranean, Italy maintained a special status which made it domina provinciarum ("ruler of the provinces"), and – especially in relation to the first centuries of imperial stability – rectrix mundi ("governor of the world") and omnium terrarum parens ("parent of all lands"). The 200 years that began with Augustus's rule
18468-484: The new Colonia inmune experienced significant economic growth, judging by the volume of coinage minted and the scale of the public works carried out, which, at a good pace, ended up giving the Caesaraugustean city the physiognomy of a large city. The entire bank of the Ebro was terraced at this time to prevent flooding up to a level equal to the current level of the Plaza del Pilar . The scope of these works solved for
18630-444: The north, Calahorra to the west, Alcalá de Henares to the south and Lérida to the east. Thus, Caesaraugusta was a center where legal matters were to be resolved in the second instance, whenever they could not be solved in the municipal jurisdiction. In addition, it had a religious capital, with its own cult, since it had a Genius conventus caesaraugustani with its own priesthood and received tributes and sacred offerings from all
18792-409: The one governed by Caesaraugusta, the conventus juridicus Caesaraugustanus , was one of the largest of the seven into which the province of Tarraconense was divided. Caesaraugusta assumed from the beginning the role of regional head, replacing the colony Victrix Ivlia Celsa (in the current Velilla de Ebro ). The period of the city's greatest apogee in the first and second centuries brought many of
18954-412: The political career track, but equestrians often possessed greater wealth and political power. Membership in the equestrian order was based on property; in Rome's early days, equites or knights had been distinguished by their ability to serve as mounted warriors, but cavalry service was a separate function in the Empire. A census valuation of 400,000 sesterces and three generations of free birth qualified
19116-507: The poor were other sources. Vernae , by contrast, were "homegrown" slaves born to female slaves within the household, estate or farm. Although they had no special legal status, an owner who mistreated or failed to care for his vernae faced social disapproval, as they were considered part of the family household and in some cases might actually be the children of free males in the family. Rome differed from Greek city-states in allowing freed slaves to become citizens; any future children of
19278-415: The preeminent Roman citizens: the ordo decuriornum or curia (the local senate) and the ordo Caesaragustanum (a group of magistrates), which made up an ordo or order of citizens of the highest rank, initially drawn from among the officers and veterans of the legions and appointed by the commanders to establish the first curia. At the head of the government of the city were two duumvirs , equivalent to
19440-627: The province Hispania Tarraconensis covered about two thirds of the Iberian Peninsula . The Pyrenees mountains to the north formed the border with Gaul . The border with Lusitania to the southwest ran from the Cale (modern Oporto , Portugal ) along the Douro river and then the Tormes river. The border with Baetica ran from Castulo (modern Linares ), through Acci ( Guadix ), to the bay of Almería . With
19602-489: The province since AD 61, was invited by Vindex to join his rebellion against Nero. When Galba received news that Nero had decided to have him killed, he accepted Vindex's offer, justifying the decision, according to Suetonius , by an oracle delivered by a young prophet two centuries earlier, which predicted that a new ruler of the world would arise in Clunia . Therefore, Galba proclaimed himself emperor at Clunia. After receiving
19764-457: The province was controlled in succession by partisans of Otho, then Vitelius , before finally coming under the control of Vespasian , the first Flavian emperor. Under Vespasian an edict seems to have been promulgated, perhaps in AD 74, which permitted many of the province's urban communities to become municipia with Latin rights over the course of his reign and that of his successors, Titus and Domitian . Vespasian also decided to maintain
19926-570: The province were: In order to guarantee order and security in the province after the Cantabrian Wars (26 BC–19 BC), three legions were established in the province: These legions were supported by various auxiliary units, like the Ala Parthorum and the Cohors IV Gallorum , but it is very difficult to tell exactly where and when these units were garrisoned in the peninsula. In AD 68, according to Suetonius , Galba removed one legion,
20088-507: The province, the civitates stipendiaria (communities subject to tribute), whose affairs could be directly intervened in by the governor. This policy was continued by Tiberius (AD 14–37), who increased the number of municipia in the northern part of the Meseta Central. Between the reigns of Augustus and Nero , imperial interventions led to the regularisation of the old pre-Roman roads and their conversion into Roman roads , which formed
20250-416: The remains of paintings of garlands and flowers. However, archaeological prospections have so far not documented the presence of insulae , or blocks of apartments. Caesaraugusta is already a city with an agricultural perimeter of great importance, irrigated by the four rivers that converge in its vicinity ( Jalón , Huerva , Gállego and Ebro ); necropolis located on the margins of the access roads to
20412-577: The revolt of Gaius Julius Civilis . Subsequently, in AD 74, Vespasian ordered the Legio VII Gemina to be garrisoned in Leon at the site of the old camp of the Legio VI Victrix . The Legio VII Gemina continued to garrison the province until the beginning of the 5th century AD. The Legio VII Gemina dispatched vexillationes to the following parts of the provinces in Hispania: By the last quarter of
20574-499: The scale of the province, at some point between the reigns of Tiberius and Claudius , the province was divided into seven conventus iuridici (assize districts), each managed by a legatus iuridicus , who was appointed by the Emperor directly. These districts were: In each of the conventus capitals there was an Imperial cult centre, dedicated to the Genius Augusti and the deified emperors, with its own male and female priests,
20736-453: The size of the pictorial ornamentation of the walls of the houses. Alongside these complex decorations, simpler models continue to appear, decorating the walls with marble imitations, which will last until the 4th century. Although the first half of the 3rd century AD is quite unknown as far as Caesaraugusta is concerned, this is a period of significant changes in the city. The surviving walls were rebuilt or constructed in this century, since it
20898-528: The slaves of the city of Rome was seventeen and a half years (17.2 for males; 17.9 for females). During the period of republican expansionism when slavery had become pervasive, war captives were a main source of slaves. The range of ethnicities among slaves to some extent reflected that of the armies Rome defeated in war, and the conquest of Greece brought a number of highly skilled and educated slaves. Slaves were also traded in markets and sometimes sold by pirates . Infant abandonment and self-enslavement among
21060-454: The southern part of Spain, i.e. Andalusia ). Citerior and Lusitania were Imperial provinces , while Baetica was a Senatorial province . The creation of these new provinces was achieved in order to facilitate the incorporation of the northwestern portion of the Iberian peninsula, inhabited by the Gallaeci , Cantabri , and Astures , into the Roman empire. Tarraconensis thus served as a base for
21222-636: The state and a series of short-lived emperors led the Empire, which was later reunified under Aurelian ( r. 270–275 ). The civil wars ended with the victory of Diocletian ( r. 284–305 ), who set up two different imperial courts in the Greek East and Latin West . Constantine the Great ( r. 306–337 ), the first Christian emperor , moved the imperial seat from Rome to Byzantium in 330, and renamed it Constantinople . The Migration Period , involving large invasions by Germanic peoples and by
21384-522: The strife-torn Year of the Four Emperors , from which Vespasian emerged as the victor. Vespasian became the founder of the brief Flavian dynasty , followed by the Nerva–Antonine dynasty which produced the " Five Good Emperors ": Nerva , Trajan , Hadrian , Antoninus Pius , and Marcus Aurelius . In the view of contemporary Greek historian Cassius Dio , the accession of Commodus in 180 marked
21546-461: The succession of Christian emperors. Theodosius I , the last emperor to rule over both East and West, died in 395 after making Christianity the state religion . The Western Roman Empire began to disintegrate in the early 5th century. The Romans fought off all invaders, most famously Attila , but the empire had assimilated so many Germanic peoples of dubious loyalty to Rome that the empire started to dismember itself. Most chronologies place
21708-518: The support of the governor of Lusitania, the future emperor Otho , he expanded the military forces of the province, which consisted of the Legio VI Victrix, two cavalry alae , and three infantry cohortes , by recruiting various auxiliaries , at least three cohorts of Vascones , and the Legio VII Galbiana , and then he set out for Rome in order to seize power. After Galba was assassinated,
21870-476: The surrounding mountains. By running fast water streams on the soft rocks, they were able to extract large quantities of gold by hydraulic mining methods ( Ruina montium ). When the gold had been exhausted, they followed the auriferous seams underground by tunnels using fire-setting to break up the much harder gold-bearing rocks. Pliny the Elder gives a good account of the methods used in Hispania, presumably based on his own observations. At its greatest extent,
22032-420: The temple, other buildings and monuments of representative and institutional character. Traces of the curia building and pedestals supporting an iconographic sculptural program dedicated to Augustus, his family and his successors have been traced. Near the maximum sewer that runs under the forum was found a statue of a boy from the time of Nero or Domitian , whom it could represent. On the other hand, there
22194-401: The theater for the use of the authorities, who thus had direct access to the seats reserved for them in the orchestral semicircle. This exclusive access can also be seen in the theaters of Turin or Minturno —although it is unique among those of Roman Hispania — and may be due to the variety of shows, not only dramatic, but perhaps also gladiatorial , which would be held there. It is one of
22356-562: The time of Nero , however, it was not unusual to find a former slave who was richer than a freeborn citizen, or an equestrian who exercised greater power than a senator. The blurring of the Republic's more rigid hierarchies led to increased social mobility , both upward and downward, to a greater extent than all other well-documented ancient societies. Women, freedmen, and slaves had opportunities to profit and exercise influence in ways previously less available to them. Social life, particularly for those whose personal resources were limited,
22518-428: The two types of community was the application of Roman law to them. For citizens of coloniae and muncipia it was obligatory, while for non-Romans it was optional, except in interactions with the Imperial authorities and with individual Roman citizens , in which case Roman law over-ruled local legal systems. According to Strabo, Pliny the Elder (who served as procurator the province), and Claudius Ptolemy , there
22680-570: The various dwellings excavated in Saragossa . Likewise, the appearance of ceramics from North Africa is documented and, in glazed ceramics, the colony continues to be nourished by production centers in the north of the Italic peninsula. The presence for the first time of pottery for everyday use from pottery workshops in Zaragoza, located in Calle Predicadores, from the middle of the first century AD,
22842-406: The villa of Virunum . The site was built from the 1st century, which gives another proof that the city, before the 3rd century, extended to the banks of the Huerva . Numerous examples of domus (or single-family houses) of wealthy citizens of the city had private baths, although other public thermal establishments have also appeared, such as those in the Plaza de Santa Marta , which preserved
23004-411: The world's total population and made it the most populous unified political entity in the West until the mid-19th century. Recent demographic studies have argued for a population peak from 70 million to more than 100 million . Each of the three largest cities in the Empire – Rome, Alexandria , and Antioch – was almost twice the size of any European city at the beginning of the 17th century. As
23166-442: Was a point of pride to be a "one-man woman" ( univira ) who had married only once, there was little stigma attached to divorce , nor to speedy remarriage after being widowed or divorced. Girls had equal inheritance rights with boys if their father died without leaving a will. A mother's right to own and dispose of property, including setting the terms of her will, gave her enormous influence over her sons into adulthood. As part of
23328-690: Was a substantial number of cities in Tarraconensis, especially in the Ebro Valley and on the Mediterranean coast, but fewer in number in the north and northwest, along the Cantabiran coast and in Galicia . Excepting the communities on the Balearic Islands , Pliny states that: Now, the whole province is divided into 7 conventus : Carthaginiensis, Tarraconensis, Caesaraugustus, Clunienis, Asturus, Lucensis, and Bracarus... The province itself contains (aside from
23490-464: Was an unstable period, corroborating the fact that the city of Rome itself had to be walled in this century when it felt threatened. The remains of the wall that can be seen today are a stretch of about eighty meters between the Central Market and the church of San Juan de los Panetes and the lower part of another stretch of two cubes in the northeast corner ( Paseo de Echegaray y Caballero ). In
23652-518: Was attributed these mosaics and sculptures to the 2nd century. Roman Empire The Roman Empire was the era of Roman civilisation lasting from 27 BC to 476 AD. Rome ruled the Mediterranean and much of Europe, Western Asia and North Africa. The Romans conquered most of this during the Republic , and it was ruled by emperors following Octavian 's assumption of effective sole rule in 27 BC. The western empire collapsed in 476 AD, but
23814-425: Was based at Asturica Augusta . These procurators reported directly to the emperor, not to the provincial governor, although in practice both had to collaborate with the provincial administration. The lowest level of administration in the province were the cities (Latin: civitates ), organised politically in the Roman manner ( coloniae and municipia ) or in a traditional mode retaining institutions that preceded
23976-505: Was decorated with marble slabs on the floors and walls, with the addition of floral ornamentation in the Julio-Claudian tradition. There were more public baths, and numerous private baths in private homes. Among the first are those found in the square of the cathedrals, from the time of Nero or Vespasian . In terms of material culture, in the second half of the first century A.D. there was a greater presence of Hispanic ceramics, found in
24138-518: Was dedicated to the pietas augusti . Later, in an as of the year 33 appears another tetrastyle temple of Corinthian columns with fluting . In the final Julio-Claudian stage, which includes the governments of Caligula , Claudius and Nero , numerous public works were also carried out, which ended up giving the city its definitive appearance in its ancient classical stage. Basically, empty plots of land were filled in, and landscaped spaces and other important infrastructures were built, such as
24300-600: Was effectively at peace except for an attempt at rebellion by the Astures under Nero which was easily suppressed by a primus pilus of the Legio VI Victrix . As a result, it was possible to progressively reduce the military garrison of the province. In AD 42-43, Claudius transferred the Legio IV Macedonica to Germania and in AD 63 Nero sent the Legio X Gemina to Pannonia . In AD 68, Galba , who had governed
24462-465: Was further defined by their citizenship. Most citizens held limited rights (such as the ius Latinum , "Latin right"), but were entitled to legal protections and privileges not enjoyed by non-citizens. Free people not considered citizens, but living within the Roman world, were peregrini , non-Romans. In 212, the Constitutio Antoniniana extended citizenship to all freeborn inhabitants of
24624-466: Was further fostered by a proliferation of voluntary associations and confraternities ( collegia and sodalitates ): professional and trade guilds, veterans' groups, religious sodalities, drinking and dining clubs, performing troupes, and burial societies . According to the jurist Gaius , the essential distinction in the Roman " law of persons " was that all humans were either free ( liberi ) or slaves ( servi ). The legal status of free persons
24786-539: Was mostly accomplished under the Republic , though parts of northern Europe were conquered in the 1st century, when Roman control in Europe, Africa, and Asia was strengthened. Under Augustus , a "global map of the known world" was displayed for the first time in public at Rome, coinciding with the creation of the most comprehensive political geography that survives from antiquity, the Geography of Strabo . When Augustus died,
24948-671: Was necessary to maintain order, collect information, and extract revenue. The Romans often exploited internal political divisions. Communities with demonstrated loyalty to Rome retained their own laws, could collect their own taxes locally, and in exceptional cases were exempt from Roman taxation. Legal privileges and relative independence incentivized compliance. Roman government was thus limited , but efficient in its use of available resources. The Imperial cult of ancient Rome identified emperors and some members of their families with divinely sanctioned authority ( auctoritas ). The rite of apotheosis (also called consecratio ) signified
25110-416: Was never a legal requirement for Latin in the Empire, but it represented a certain status. High standards of Latin, Latinitas , started with the advent of Latin literature. Due to the flexible language policy of the Empire, a natural competition of language emerged that spurred Latinitas , to defend Latin against the stronger cultural influence of Greek. Over time Latin usage was used to project power and
25272-445: Was not a nation-state in the modern sense, but a network of self-ruled towns (with varying degrees of independence from the Senate ) and provinces administered by military commanders. It was governed by annually elected magistrates ( Roman consuls above all) in conjunction with the Senate. The 1st century BC was a time of political and military upheaval, which ultimately led to rule by emperors. The consuls' military power rested in
25434-426: Was not itself an elected office in ancient Rome; an individual gained admission to the Senate after he had been elected to and served at least one term as an executive magistrate . A senator also had to meet a minimum property requirement of 1 million sestertii . Not all men who qualified for the ordo senatorius chose to take a Senate seat, which required legal domicile at Rome. Emperors often filled vacancies in
25596-412: Was of consular rank , while the other two were praetorian . The governor was entitled legatus Augusti pro praetore , who was a senator of consular rank. The capital of the province was the colonia of Tarraco . In the time of Augustus and Tiberius , according to Strabo , the province was garrisoned by three legions – subsequently reduced to two by Caligula , and to one by Nero . Because of
25758-470: Was one of three Roman provinces in Hispania . It encompassed much of the northern, eastern and central territories of modern Spain along with modern northern Portugal . Southern Spain, the region now called Andalusia , was the province of Hispania Baetica . On the Atlantic west lay the province of Lusitania , partially coincident with modern-day Portugal . The Phoenicians and Carthaginians colonised
25920-402: Was used in its construction to raise the grandstand that, in its exterior façade of three floors and twenty-two meters high, was covered with marble slabs or opus quadratum ashlars offering a monumental decoration. It had, however, a singular independent access from the central door of the façade to the orchestra of perpendicular layout to the tables or scena and that ran like an axis through
26082-447: Was used to designate the dignitas of certain senators and their immediate family, including women. "Grades" of equestrian status proliferated. As the republican principle of citizens' equality under the law faded, the symbolic and social privileges of the upper classes led to an informal division of Roman society into those who had acquired greater honours ( honestiores ) and humbler folk ( humiliores ). In general, honestiores were
26244-476: Was useful for a career in the military, government, or law. Bilingual inscriptions indicate the everyday interpenetration of the two languages. Latin and Greek's mutual linguistic and cultural influence is a complex topic. Latin words incorporated into Greek were very common by the early imperial era, especially for military, administration, and trade and commerce matters. Greek grammar, literature, poetry and philosophy shaped Latin language and culture. There
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