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67-687: Adale was mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea , written by an anonymous writer who lived in the first century AD when Egypt was occupied by the Romans. Adale then appeared in the reports of Ibn Batuta and other explorers from Andulus. When the trade between East Africa, Arabia, and India boomed in the 1700s-1800s, Adale bordered the 10-mile strip of the Benadir Coast in which Zanzibar’s Omani rulers claimed. With exception to 5 nautical miles of Warsheikh,

134-608: A bay. Even today the residents identify these waters as a bay, referring to it as a 'female sea', as opposed to the more violent open sea on the other side of the island of Mafia. Felix Chami has found archaeological evidence for extensive Roman trade on Mafia Island and, not far away, on the mainland, near the mouth of the Rufiji River, which he dated to the first few centuries. Furthermore, J. Innes Miller points out that Roman coins have been found on Pemba island , just north of Rhapta. Nevertheless, Carl Peters has argued that Rhapta

201-501: A hub for trade with the interior, in the Gangetic plain: Besides this there are ex-ported great quantities of fine pearls, ivory, silk cloth, spikenard from the Ganges, malabathrum from the places in the interior, transparent stones of all kinds, diamonds and sapphires, and tortoise-shell; that from Chryse Island, and that taken among the islands along the coast of Damirica (Limyrike). They make

268-408: A little frankincense, (that known as far-side), the harder cinnamon, duaca, Indian copal and macir, which are imported into Arabia; and slaves, but rarely. Aksum is mentioned in the Periplus as an important market place for ivory, which was exported throughout the ancient world: From that place to the city of the people called Auxumites there is a five days' journey more; to that place all the ivory

335-638: A period, some time about 126 AD, he was a friend of the emperor Hadrian 's, who appointed him to the Senate . He was appointed to the position consul suffectus around 130 AD, and then, in 132 AD (although Howatson shows 131), he was made prefect or legate (governor) of Cappadocia by Hadrian, a service he continued for six years. Historian Cassius Dio states that not long after the Bar Kokhba revolt in Judea had been quelled, in 135 AD, King Pharasmanes II of Iberia caused

402-541: A port of call for merchants from Phoenicia , ancient Egypt , ancient Greece , Persia , Yemen , Nabataea , Azania , the Roman Empire , and elsewhere, as it possessed a strategic location along the coastal route from Azania to the Red Sea. Merchants from as far afield as Indonesia and Malaysia passed through Opōnē, trading spices, silks and other goods, before departing south for Azania or north to South Arabia or Egypt on

469-448: A struggle in which Arrian's two legions were victorious. Within the work, Arrian explicitly identified the particular means of pursuing warfare as being based on Greek methods. Ektaxis kata Alanon is also translated as Acies contra Alanos . The work was known for a time as A History of the Alani ( Alanike via Photius ). A fragment describing a plan of battle against the Alani

536-412: A time to fall into his pupillage, a fact attested to by Lucian . All that is known about the life of Epictetus is due to Arrian, in that Arrian left an Encheiridion ( Handbook ) of Epictetus' philosophy. After Epirus, he went to Athens, and while there, he became known as the "young Xenophon" as a consequence of the similarity of his relationship to Epictetus as Xenophon had to Socrates . For

603-485: A variety of things pertaining to India , and the voyage of Nearchus in the Persian Gulf. The first part of Indica was based largely on the work of the same name of Megasthenes , the second part based on a journal written by Nearchus . Written 136/137 AD (in the 20th year of Hadrian ), Techne Taktike is a treatise on Roman cavalry and military tactics, and includes information on the nature, arms and discipline of

670-433: Is "lakkos chromatinos" . The name lakkos appears nowhere else in ancient Greek or Roman literature. The name re-surfaces in late medieval Latin as lacca , borrowed from medieval Arabic lakk in turn borrowed from Sanskritic lakh , meaning lac i.e. a red-coloured resin native to India used as a lacquer and used also as a red colourant. Some other named trade goods remain obscure. Ships from Himyar regularly travelled

737-697: Is a Greco-Roman periplus written in Koine Greek that describes navigation and trading opportunities from Roman Egyptian ports like Berenice Troglodytica along the coast of the Red Sea and others along the Horn of Africa , the Persian Gulf , Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean , including the modern-day Sindh region of Pakistan and southwestern regions of India . The text has been ascribed to different dates between

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804-435: Is a logbook recording sailing itineraries and commercial, political, and ethnological details about the ports visited. In an era before maps were in general use, it functioned as a combination of atlas and traveller's handbook . The Erythraean Sea ( Koinē Greek : Ἐρυθρὰ Θάλασσα , romanized:  Erythrà Thálassa , lit.   'Red Sea') was an ancient geographical designation that always included

871-529: Is a 12 book work mentioned by Photius in his Bibliotheca , of which only fragments remain. The Anabasis of Alexander comprises seven books. Arrian used Xenophon's account of the March of Cyrus as the basis for this work. History of the Diadochi or Events after Alexander is a work originally of ten books; a commentary on this work was written by Photius (FW Walbank, p. 8). Three extant fragments are

938-571: Is a continuous length of coast, and a bay extending two thousand stadia or more, along which there are Nomads and Fish-Eaters living in villages; just beyond the cape projecting from this bay there is another market-town by the shore, Cana, of the Kingdom of Eleazus, the Frankincense Country; and facing it there are two desert islands, one called Island of Birds, the other Dome Island, one hundred and twenty stadia from Cana. Inland from this place lies

1005-615: Is a profit when exchanged for the money of the country; and ointment, but not very costly and not much. And for the King there are brought into those places very costly vessels of silver, singing boys, beautiful maidens for the harem, fine wines, thin clothing of the finest weaves, and the choicest ointments. There are exported from these places spikenard , costus [ Saussurea costus ], bdellium , ivory, agate and carnelian , lycium , cotton cloth of all kinds, silk cloth, mallow cloth, yarn, long pepper and such other things as are brought here from

1072-623: Is a work about the Celtic sport of coursing hare with sighthounds, specifically the Celtic greyhounds: in Greek (plural) ouertragoi , in Latin (plural) vertragi . The work was inspired by and designed as an addition to an earlier exposition made by Xenophon, whom Arrian recognised to be the Ancient Greek authority on the subject of hunting with scent hounds. Ektaxis kata Alanon (Ἔκταξις κατὰ Ἀλανῶν)

1139-509: Is a work of a now fragmentary nature; the title is translated as Deployment against the Alani or The order of battle against the Alans or referred to simply as Alanica . It is thought not have been written as a presentation of facts but for literary reasons. Pertaining to the relevant historical facts, though, while governor of Cappadocia, Arrian repelled an invasion of the Alani sometime during 135 AD,

1206-535: Is ambiguous, describing China as a "great inland city Thina " that is a source of raw silk . The Periplus says that a direct sailing route from the Red Sea to the Indian peninsula across the open ocean was discovered by Hippalus (1st century   BC). Many trade goods are mentioned in the Periplus , but some of the words naming trade goods are found nowhere else in ancient literature, leading to guesswork as to what they might be. For example, one trade good mentioned

1273-484: Is another market-town, better than this, called Malao, distant a sail of about eight hundred stadia. The anchorage is an open roadstead, sheltered by a spit running out from the east. Here the natives are more peaceable. There are imported into this place the things already mentioned, and many tunics, cloaks from Arsinoe, dressed and dyed; drinking-cups, sheets of soft copper in small quantity, iron, and gold and silver coin, not much. There are exported from these places myrrh,

1340-456: Is believed to be the location of the ancient trade centre of Opōnē . Ancient Egyptian , Roman and Persian Gulf pottery has been recovered from the site by an archaeological team from the University of Michigan . Opōnē is in the thirteenth entry of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea , which in part states: And then, after sailing four hundred stadia along a promontory, toward which place

1407-552: Is brought from the country beyond the Nile through the district called Cyeneum, and thence to Adulis. According to the Periplus , the ruler of Aksum was Zoscales , who, besides ruling in Aksum also held under his sway two harbours on the Red Sea : Adulis (near Massawa ) and Avalites ( Assab ). He is also said to have been familiar with Greek literature: These places, from the Calf-Eaters to

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1474-412: Is called Abiria , but the coast is called Syrastrene . It is a fertile country, yielding wheat and rice and sesame oil and clarified butter, cotton and the Indian cloths made therefrom, of the coarser sorts. Very many cattle are pastured there, and the men are of great stature and black in color. The metropolis of this country is Minnagara , from which much cotton cloth is brought down to Barygaza. Under

1541-622: Is derived at the least from literature produced by Suidas . Arnobius (c. 3rd century AD ) mentions Arrian. Arrian was also known of by Aulus Gellius . Pliny the Younger addressed seven of his epistles to him. Simplicius made a copy of the Enchiridion, which was transmitted under the name of the monastic father Nilus during the 5th century, and as a result found in every monastery library. Nicholas Blancard made translations of Arrian in 1663 and 1668. The voyage of Nearchus and Periplus of

1608-473: Is highly esteemed and important. He produced eight extant works (cf. Syvänne, footnote of p. 260). The Indica and the Anabasis are the only works completely intact. His entire remaining oeuvre is known as FGrH 156 to designate those collected fragments that exist. This work is the earliest extant work that is dated with any confidence. It is a writing addressed to Emperor Hadrian. Arrian

1675-491: Is of another Kingdom, the Pandian . This place also is situated on a river, about one hundred and twenty stadia from the sea ... According to the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (53:17:15-27), Limyrike began at Naura and Tyndis ; Ptolemy (7.1.8) mentions only Tyndis as its starting point. The region probably ended at Kanyakumari ; it thus roughly corresponds to the present-day Malabar Coast . Further, this area served as

1742-511: Is of the Kingdom of Cerobothra ; it is a village in plain sight by the sea. Muziris, of the same kingdom, abounds in ships sent there with cargoes from Arabia , and by the Greeks ; it is located on a river (River Periyar ), distant from Tyndis by river and sea five hundred stadia, and up the river from the shore twenty stadia. Nelcynda is distant from Muziris by river and sea about five hundred stadia, and

1809-505: The Alani to invade neighbouring territories, including Cappadocia, where their advance was robustly halted by Arrian's legions. A second war was begun by the Alani (they are Massagetae ) at the instigation of Pharasmanes. It caused dire injury to the Albanian territory and Media , and then involved Armenia and Cappadocia; after which, as the Alani were not only persuaded by gifts from Vologaesus , but also stood in dread of Flavius Arrianus,

1876-594: The Chera kingdom , as well as the Early Pandyan Kingdom are mentioned in the Periplus as major centres of trade, pepper and other spices, metal work and semiprecious stones, between Damirica and the Roman Empire . According to the Periplus , numerous Greek seamen managed an intense trade with Muziris: Then come Naura ( Kannur ) and Tyndis , the first markets of Damirica or Limyrike , and then Muziris and Nelcynda , which are now of leading importance. Tyndis

1943-559: The Dissertations and the Discourses . The Discourses are also known as Diatribai and are apparently a verbatim recording of Epictetus' lectures. The Enchiridion is a short compendium of all Epictetus' philosophical principles. It is also known as a handbook, and A Mehl considers the Enchiridion to have been a vade mecum for Arrian. The Enchiridion is apparently a summary of

2010-488: The Gulf of Aden between Arabia Felix and the Horn of Africa and was often extended (as in this periplus) to include the present-day Red Sea , Persian Gulf , and Indian Ocean as a single maritime area. The 10th-century Byzantine manuscript which forms the basis of present knowledge of the Periplus attributes the work to Arrian , but apparently for no better reason than its position beside Arrian's much later Periplus of

2077-571: The Sabaeans and Homerites in the southwest corner of Arabia. The kingdom is known to have been a Roman ally at this period. Charibael is stated in the Periplus to be "a friend of the (Roman) emperors, thanks to continuous embassies and gifts" and, therefore, Azania could fairly be described as a vassal or dependency of Rome, just as Zesan is described in the 3rd-century Chinese history, the Weilüe . Trade with

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2144-694: The Vatican Palimpsest (of the 10th century AD), PSI 12.1284 ( Oxyrhynchus ), and the Gothenburg palimpsest (of the 10th century also), these possibly stemming originally from Photius. The writing is about the successors of Alexander the Great , circa 323 – 321 or 319. A lost work of seventeen books, fragments of Parthica were maintained by the Suda and Stephanus of Byzantium . The work survives only in adaptations made later by Photius and Syncellus . Translated,

2211-416: The current also draws you, there is another market-town called Opone, into which the same things are imported as those already mentioned, and in it the greatest quantity of cinnamon is produced, (the arebo and moto), and slaves of the better sort, which are brought to Egypt in increasing numbers; and a great quantity of tortoiseshell , better than that found elsewhere. In ancient times, Opōnē operated as

2278-515: The phalanx . The hippika gymnasia is a particular concern of Arrian in the treatise. Another translation of the title is Ars tactica , which, in Greek, is Τέχνη τακτική. This work has generally been considered in large part a panegyric to Hadrian, written for the occasion of his vīcennālia , although some scholars have argued that its second half may have had practical use. Cynegeticus (Κυνηγετικός), translated as A treatise on hunting with hounds , On Hunting , or On Coursing ,

2345-469: The trade routes that spanned the length of the Indian Ocean 's rim. As early as AD   50, Opōnē was well known as a center for the cinnamon trade, along with the trading of cloves and other spices , ivory , exotic animal skins and incense . The ancient port city of Malao , situated in present-day Berbera in northern Somalia, is also mentioned in the Periplus: After Avalites there

2412-464: The Azanian capital, Rhapta, remains unknown. However, archaeological indicators reported above suggest that it was located on the coast of Tanzania, in the region of the Rufiji River and Mafia Island. It is in this region where the concentration of Panchaea/Azanian period settlements has been discovered. If the island of Menuthias mentioned in the Periplus was Zanzibar , a short voyage south would land one in

2479-562: The Discourses. JB Stockdale considered that Arrian wrote eight books of which four were lost by the Middle Ages and the remaining ones became the Discourses . In a comparison of the contents of the Enchiridion with the Discourses , it is apparent that the former contains material not present within the latter, suggesting an original lost source for the Enchiridion . Friendly conversations with Epictetus ( Homiliai Epiktetou )

2546-528: The East African coast. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea describes the trading empire of Himyar and Saba , regrouped under a single ruler, " Charibael " (probably Karab'il Watar Yuhan'em II), who is said to have been on friendly terms with Rome : 23. And after nine days more there is Saphar, the metropolis, in which lives Charibael, lawful king of two tribes, the Homerites and those living next to them, called

2613-551: The Euxine Sea . One historical analysis, published by Wilfred Harvey Schoff in 1912, narrowed the date of the text to AD   59–62, in agreement with present-day estimates of the middle of the 1st century. Schoff additionally provides a historical analysis as to the text's original authorship, and arrives at the conclusion that the author was a " Greek in Egypt , a Roman subject". By Schoff's calculations, this would have been during

2680-502: The Indian harbour of Barygaza is described extensively in the Periplus . Nahapana , ruler of the Indo-Scythian Western Satraps is mentioned under the name Nambanus , as ruler of the area around Barigaza : 41. Beyond the gulf of Baraca is that of Barygaza and the coast of the country of Ariaca, which is the beginning of the Kingdom of Nambanus and of all India. That part of it lying inland and adjoining Scythia

2747-513: The Rufiji region. The 2nd-century geographer Ptolemy locates Rhapta at latitude 8° south, which is the exact latitude of the Rufiji Delta and Mafia Island. The metropolis was on the mainland about one degree west of the coast near a large river and a bay with the same name. While the river should be regarded as the modern Rufiji River, the bay should definitely be identified with the calm waters between

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2814-623: The Sabaites; through continual embassies and gifts, he is a friend of the Emperors. The Frankincense kingdom is described further east along the southern coast of the Arabian Peninsula , with the harbour of Cana (South Arabic Qana , modern Bi'r Ali in Hadramaut ). The ruler of this kingdom is named Eleazus , or Eleazar, thought to correspond to King Iliazz Yalit I: 27. After Eudaemon Arabia there

2881-539: The Western Satraps, Barigaza was one of the main centres of Roman trade in the subcontinent . The Periplus describes the many goods exchanged: 49. There are imported into this market-town (Barigaza), wine, Italian preferred, also Laodicean and Arabian ; copper, tin, and lead; coral and topaz; thin clothing and inferior sorts of all kinds; bright-colored girdles a cubit wide; storax, sweet clover, flint glass, realgar , antimony , gold and silver coin, on which there

2948-441: The author's residence to " Berenice rather than Alexandria ". John Hill maintains that "the Periplus can now be confidently dated to between AD 40 and 70 and, probably, between AD 40 and 50." This dating corresponds with the argumentation of L. Casson ("between A.D. 40 and 70") in his key book The Periplus Maris Erythraei: Text with Introduction, Translation and Commentary. The work consists of 66 sections, most of them about

3015-438: The banks of the Rufiji River just south of Dar es Salaam . The Periplus informs us that: Two runs beyond this island [Menuthias = Zanzibar ?] comes the very last port of trade on the coast of Azania, called Rhapta ["sewn"], a name derived from the aforementioned sewn boats, where there are great quantities of ivory and tortoise shell. Chami summarizes the evidence for Rhapta's location as follows: The actual location of

3082-628: The border between them and those on the Thina side, and they hold a festival for several days, spreading out the mats under them, and then take off for their own homes in the interior. Sêsatai are the source of malabathron . Schoff's translation mentions them as Besatae : they are a people similar to Kirradai and they lived in the region between " Assam and Sichuan ". Arrian Arrian of Nicomedia ( / ˈ æ r i ə n / ; Greek : Ἀρριανός Arrianos ; Latin : Lucius Flavius Arrianus ; c.  86/89  – c.  after 146/160 AD )

3149-601: The description of places is sufficiently accurate to identify their present locations; for others, there is considerable debate. For instance, " Rhapta " is mentioned as the farthest market down the African coast of " Azania ", but there are at least five locations matching the description, ranging from Tanga to south of the Rufiji River delta. The description of the Indian coast mentions the Ganges River clearly, yet after that it

3216-450: The first and third centuries, but a mid-first-century date is now the most commonly accepted. While the author is unknown, it is a first-hand description by someone familiar with the area and is nearly unique in providing accurate insights into what the ancient Hellenic world knew about the lands around the Indian Ocean . A periplus ( Koinē Greek : περίπλους , romanized:  períplous , lit.   'a sailing-around')

3283-426: The governor of Cappadocia, it came to a stop. Arrian referred to himself as "the second Xenophon", on account of his reputation and the esteem in which he was held. Lucian stated him to be: a Roman of the first rank with a life-long attachment to learning This quality is identified as paideia (παιδεία), which is the quality considered to be of one who is known as an educated and learned personage, i.e., one who

3350-401: The island of Mafia and the Rufiji area. The peninsula east of Rhapta would have been the northern tip of Mafia Island. The southern part of the bay is protected from the deep sea by numerous deltaic small islets separated from Mafia Island by shallow and narrow channels. To the north the bay is open to the sea and any sailor entering the waters from that direction would feel as if he were entering

3417-567: The length of a long paragraph. For instance, the short section 9 reads in its entirety: From Malao ( Berbera ) it is two courses to the mart of Moundou, where ships anchor more safely by an island lying very close to the land. The imports to this are as aforesaid [Chapter 8 mentions iron, gold, silver, drinking cups, etc.], and from it likewise are exported the same goods [Chapter 8 mentions myrrh, douaka, makeir, and slaves], and fragrant gum called mokrotou (cf. Sanskrit makaranda ). The inhabitants who trade here are more stubborn. In many cases,

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3484-414: The metropolis Sabbatha, in which the King lives. All the frankincense produced in the country is brought by camels to that place to be stored, and to Cana on rafts held up by inflated skins after the manner of the country, and in boats. And this place has a trade also with the far-side ports, with Barygaza and Scythia and Ommana and the neighboring coast of Persia . Ras Hafun in northern Somalia

3551-458: The other Berber country, are governed by Zoscales; who is miserly in his ways and always striving for more, but otherwise upright, and acquainted with Greek literature. Research by the Tanzanian archaeologist Felix A. Chami has uncovered remains of Roman trade items near the mouth of the Rufiji River and the nearby Mafia island , and makes a case that the ancient port of Rhapta was situated on

3618-430: The provincial capital of Bithynia . Cassius Dio called him Flavius Arrianus Nicomediensis. Sources provide similar dates for his birth, within a few years prior to 90, 89, and 85–90 AD. The line of reasoning for dates belonging to 85–90 AD is because of Arrian being made a consul around 130 AD, and the usual age for this, during this period, being 42 years of age. (ref. pp. 312, & SYME 1958, ibid. ). His family

3685-609: The public in Adale. Adale has a population of around 14,600 inhabitants. The broader Adale District has a total population of 46,720 residents. It is inhabited by Abgaal . Periplus of the Erythraean Sea The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea ( Koinē Greek : Περίπλους τῆς Ἐρυθρᾶς Θαλάσσης , Períplous tē̂s Erythrâs Thalássēs ), also known by its Latin name as the Periplus Maris Erythraei ,

3752-461: The rest of the strip included Mogadishu, Marka, Baraawe, and Kismayo – all the way to Zanzibar. The later ruins of Filonardi's fort can also be found in the Adale. During the pre-independence period in Italian Somaliland , the city was chosen by Vincenzo Filonardi as the headquarters of his newly created "Somalia Italiana". There was fierce anti-colonial resistance to this in Adale and around

3819-467: The surrounding areas that left 40 Abgaal men and 7 Italian men dead commemorated by a monument in Adale. On 3 October 2014 the town was liberated from the jihadist terrorist group Al-Shabaab by the Somalia National Army and AMISOM forces. Al-Shabaab had occupied the town for several years. According to AMISOM-sources Al-Shabaab did not mount any resistance because they had lost support from

3886-489: The time of Tiberius Claudius Balbilus , who coincidentally also was an Egyptian Greek. Schoff continues by noting that the author could not have been "a highly educated man" as "is evident from his frequent confusion of Greek and Latin words and his clumsy and sometimes ungrammatical constructions". Because of "the absence of any account of the journey up the Nile and across the desert from Coptos ", Schoff prefers to pinpoint

3953-555: The title is History of the Parthians . Arrian's aim in the work was to set forth events of the Parthian war of Trajan . The writing mentioned that the Parthians trace their origins to Artaxerxes II . A work of eight books, Bibliotheca (via Photius) states it is the fourth to have been written by Arrian. A work translated a Nicodemian script (minor) . Indica is a work on

4020-662: The various market-towns. Those bound for this market-town from Egypt make the voyage favorably about the month of July, that is Epiphi. Goods were also brought down in quantity from Ujjain , the capital of the Western Satraps: 48. Inland from this place and to the east, is the city called Ozene, formerly a royal capital; from this place are brought down all things needed for the welfare of the country about Barygaza, and many things for our trade: agate and carnelian, Indian muslins and mallow cloth, and much ordinary cloth. The lost port city of Muziris (near present day Kodungallur ) in

4087-475: The voyage to this place in a favorable season who set out from Egypt about the month of July, that is Epiphi. The Periplus also describes the annual fair in present-day Northeast India, on the border with China. Every year there turns up at the border of Thina, a certain tribe, short in body and very flat-faced ... called Sêsatai ... They come with their wives and children bearing great packs resembling mats of green leaves and then remain at some spot on

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4154-540: Was a Greek historian, public servant, military commander, and philosopher of the Roman period . The Anabasis of Alexander by Arrian is considered the best source on the campaigns of Alexander the Great . Scholars have generally preferred Arrian to other extant primary sources, though this attitude has changed somewhat in light of modern studies into Arrian's method. Arrian was born in Nicomedia (present-day İzmit ),

4221-406: Was a pupil of Epictetus around 108 AD, and, according to his own account, he was moved to publish his notes of Epictetus' lectures, which are known as Discourses of Epictetus , by their unauthorized dissemination. According to George Long , Arrian noted from Epictetus' lectures for his private use and some time later made of these, the Discourses . Photius states that Arrian produced two books

4288-647: Was found in Milan around the 17th century which was thought at that time to belong to the History . There were also a number of monographs or biographies, including of Dion of Syracuse , Timoleon of Corinth, and Tilliborus, a brigand or robber of Asia Minor , which are now lost. Everything known of his life derives from the 9th century writing of Photius in his Bibliotheca , and from those few references which exist within Arrian's own writings. The knowledge of his consulship,

4355-526: Was from the Greek provincial aristocracy, and his full name, L. Flavius Arrianus , indicates that he was a Roman citizen, suggesting that the citizenship went back several generations, probably to the time of the Roman conquest some 170 years before. Sometime during the second century AD (117 to 120 AD) while in Epirus, probably Nicopolis , Arrian attended lectures of Epictetus of Nicopolis, and proceeded within

4422-601: Was near modern-day Quelimane in Mozambique, citing the fact that (according to the Periplus ) the coastline there ran down towards the southwest. Peters also suggests that the description of the "Pyralaoi" (i.e., the "Fire people") – "situated at the entry to the [Mozambique] Channel" – indicates that they were the inhabitants of the volcanic Comoro Islands. He also maintains that Menuthias (with its abundance of rivers and crocodiles) cannot have been Zanzibar; i.e., Madagascar seems more likely. The Periplus informs us that Rhapta,

4489-408: Was under the firm control of a governor appointed by Arabian king of Musa, taxes were collected, and it was serviced by "merchant craft that they staff mostly with Arab skippers and agents who, through continual intercourse and intermarriage, are familiar with the area and its language". The Periplus explicitly states that Azania (which included Rhapta) was subject to " Charibael ", the king of both

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