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112-685: Central Office for South Vietnam (abbreviated COSVN / ˈ k ɑː z v ɪ n / ; Vietnamese : Văn phòng Trung ương Cục miền Nam ), officially known as the Central Executive Committee of the People's Revolutionary Party from 1962 until its dissolution in 1976, was the American term for the North Vietnamese political and military headquarters inside South Vietnam during the Vietnam War . It

224-636: A minor syllable occurred). These fricatives were not present in Proto-Viet–Muong, as indicated by their absence in Mường , but were evidently present in the later Proto-Vietnamese stage. Subsequent loss of the minor-syllable prefixes phonemicized the fricatives. Ferlus 1992 proposes that originally there were both voiced and voiceless fricatives, corresponding to original voiced or voiceless stops, but Ferlus 2009 appears to have abandoned that hypothesis, suggesting that stops were softened and voiced at approximately

336-801: A Hanoi intermediary. The headquarters was reportedly created in 1961 when the southern and central branches of the Lao Dong Party (the Vietnamese Communist Party) merged into the Central Directorate for the South. An advance element of the Party's Central Committee, the headquarters was chartered to direct VC guerrilla operations in South Vietnam. Major General Tran Luong came south in May 1961 to reorganize

448-410: A champion of Vietnam reforms even when he lacked formal western training and should not be considered young even by a more relaxed standards of East Asian countries. Historians are also able to consider if it was a handover and collaborative effort where the right people were at the right place to reform Vietnam at the same time challenges the main narrative of Nguyễn Văn Linh's contributions to consider

560-606: A decade, given their near total importance in controlling the war effort. It had become an obsession of Richard Nixon in his view to win the war. The Joint Chiefs of Staff claimed to have located the enemy's headquarters inside Cambodia — what the United States called the Central Office for South Vietnam, or COSVN. The chiefs envisioned it as a "Bamboo Pentagon," concealed beneath the jungle's canopy. They thought that if you could blow up this central headquarters, you could cripple

672-508: A dedicated, innovative, creative leader who tries his best to contribute to the Party. State and serving the people. After the national funeral, in the afternoon of this day he was buried at the Ho Chi Minh City Cemetery. Nguyễn Văn Linh had charted the evolution of the reforms of the party organization. Scholars argue that Linh's contributions and importance in reform gave a very detailed and clear analysis of his program to reform

784-411: A grassroots movement "to help the party correct, rectify, and overcome its shortcomings in the earlier years, some might consider that it was Võ Văn Kiệt who opined in 1995 that businessmen should be encouraged to succeed for the economy by understanding the economics of business. Võ Văn Kiệt’s actions led others to consider him as a key architect of the market revolution since its inception. In considering

896-447: A main vowel component followed by a shorter semivowel offglide /j/ or /w/ . There are restrictions on the high offglides: /j/ cannot occur after a front vowel (i, ê, e) nucleus and /w/ cannot occur after a back vowel (u, ô, o) nucleus. The correspondence between the orthography and pronunciation is complicated. For example, the offglide /j/ is usually written as i ; however, it may also be represented with y . In addition, in

1008-460: A near obsessive fixture for US and South Vietnamese leadership, given that it coordinated the complete activities of the Viet Cong. In fact these two organizations were composed of individuals living in thatched huts in the jungle just like all the guerrillas, and so there was no physical structure of any kind and existed as a highly-mobile headquarter to direct the Viet Cong war effort. The apparatus of

1120-401: A new pseudonym N.V.L with the column Nói và Làm ("Say and Do"). He wrote a series of articles "Things to be done immediately", signed NVL. According to journalist Hữu Thọ: At that time I worked at Nhan Dan newspaper. The evening of May 24, 1987 was my turn to be on duty at the editorial board. At around 5:30 p.m., when everyone had gone home, there was only me and the secretariat left in

1232-532: A process of tonogenesis , in which distinctions formerly expressed by final consonants became phonemic tonal distinctions when those consonants disappeared. These characteristics have become part of many of the genetically unrelated languages of Southeast Asia; for example, Tsat (a member of the Malayo-Polynesian group within Austronesian ), and Vietnamese each developed tones as a phonemic feature. After

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1344-626: A representative on the Government Council for Nationalities, an advisory body of the Czech Government for matters of policy towards national minorities and their members. It also grants the community the right to use Vietnamese with public authorities and in courts anywhere in the country. Vietnamese is taught in schools and institutions outside of Vietnam, a large part contributed by its diaspora . In countries with Vietnamese-speaking communities Vietnamese language education largely serves as

1456-405: A reputation as a reformer” during Linh's time as party secretary of Ho Chi Minh city after 1975. Linh penned articles to give weight to reform experiments where experimentation of policies was allowed before such practices were sanctioned in his critical role to the state. However, one might also see Võ Văn Kiệt as the southerner reformer who placed himself to critics of central government policies in

1568-534: A role to link descendants of Vietnamese immigrants to their ancestral culture. In neighboring countries and vicinities near Vietnam such as Southern China, Cambodia, Laos, and Thailand, Vietnamese as a foreign language is largely due to trade, as well as recovery and growth of the Vietnamese economy. Since the 1980s, Vietnamese language schools ( trường Việt ngữ/ trường ngôn ngữ Tiếng Việt ) have been established for youth in many Vietnamese-speaking communities around

1680-511: A stage commonly termed Middle Vietnamese ( tiếng Việt trung đại ). The pronunciation of the "rime" of the syllable, i.e. all parts other than the initial consonant (optional /w/ glide, vowel nucleus, tone and final consonant), appears nearly identical between Middle Vietnamese and modern Hanoi pronunciation. On the other hand, the Middle Vietnamese pronunciation of the initial consonant differs greatly from all modern dialects, and in fact

1792-465: A stroke in 1989, but political rivalries probably also played into his decision. He was succeeded by Đỗ Mười , a supporter of Linh's reforms. He was Advisor of the Party's Central Committee from 1991 to December 1997. Starting with a surprising speech at the 7th National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam and then series of letters to the country's newspapers, Linh eventually renounced

1904-546: A third of the Vietnamese lexicon in all realms, and may account for as much as 60% of the vocabulary used in formal texts. Vietic languages were confined to the northern third of modern Vietnam until the "southward advance" ( Nam tiến ) from the late 15th century. The conquest of the ancient nation of Champa and the conquest of the Mekong Delta led to an expansion of the Vietnamese people and language, with distinctive local variations emerging. After France invaded Vietnam in

2016-576: Is also important to know how sources might not always give us the full story. The harsh realities and economic crisis were both not necessary or sufficient conditions for the reform fully take place but it was the entrepreneurial process which saw structural changes and later kicked off innovation in Vietnam. While Linh had contributed to the process of Đổi Mới by restructuring the economy nationwide, working on investment and allocation of financial resources to increase efficiency and effectiveness of policies and

2128-460: Is also spoken by the Jing people traditionally residing on three islands (now joined to the mainland) off Dongxing in southern Guangxi Province , China . A large number of Vietnamese speakers also reside in neighboring countries of Cambodia and Laos . In the United States, Vietnamese is the sixth most spoken language , with over 1.5 million speakers, who are concentrated in a handful of states. It

2240-692: Is believed to have dispersed around 2000 BC. The arrival of the agricultural Phùng Nguyên culture in the Red River Delta at that time may correspond to the Vietic branch. This ancestral Vietic was typologically very different from later Vietnamese. It was polysyllabic, or rather sesquisyllabic , with roots consisting of a reduced syllable followed by a full syllable, and featured many consonant clusters. Both of these features are found elsewhere in Austroasiatic and in modern conservative Vietic languages south of

2352-415: Is notated i or y (with the difference between the two often indicating differences in the quality or length of the preceding vowel), and after /ð/ and /β/ , where it is notated ĕ . This ĕ , and the /j/ it notated, have disappeared from the modern language. Note that b [ɓ] and p [p] never contrast in any position, suggesting that they are allophones. The language also has three clusters at

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2464-472: Is often mistaken for a tilde in modern reproductions of early Vietnamese writing. As a result of emigration , Vietnamese speakers are also found in other parts of Southeast Asia , East Asia , North America , Europe , and Australia . Vietnamese has also been officially recognized as a minority language in the Czech Republic . As the national language, Vietnamese is the lingua franca in Vietnam. It

2576-542: Is pronounced with one of six inherent tones , centered on the main vowel or group of vowels. Tones differ in: Tone is indicated by diacritics written above or below the vowel (most of the tone diacritics appear above the vowel; except the nặng tone dot diacritic goes below the vowel). The six tones in the northern varieties (including Hanoi), with their self-referential Vietnamese names, are: Nguy%E1%BB%85n V%C4%83n Linh Nguyễn Văn Linh ( Vietnamese: [ŋwǐənˀ van liŋ̟] ; 1 July 1915 – 27 April 1998)

2688-410: Is significantly closer to the modern Saigon dialect than the modern Hanoi dialect. The following diagram shows the orthography and pronunciation of Middle Vietnamese: ^1 [p] occurs only at the end of a syllable. ^2 This letter, ⟨ ꞗ ⟩ , is no longer used. ^3 [j] does not occur at the beginning of a syllable, but can occur at the end of a syllable, where it

2800-460: Is the first language of the majority of the Vietnamese population, as well as a first or second language for the country's ethnic minority groups . In the Czech Republic , Vietnamese has been recognized as one of 14 minority languages, on the basis of communities that have resided in the country either traditionally or on a long-term basis. This status grants the Vietnamese community in the country

2912-634: Is the third-most spoken language in Texas and Washington; fourth-most in Georgia, Louisiana, and Virginia; and fifth-most in Arkansas and California. Vietnamese is the third most spoken language in Australia other than English, after Mandarin and Arabic. In France, it is the most spoken Asian language and the eighth most spoken immigrant language at home. Vietnamese is the sole official and national language of Vietnam. It

3024-618: Is written using the Vietnamese alphabet ( chữ Quốc ngữ ). The alphabet is based on the Latin script and was officially adopted in the early 20th century during French rule of Vietnam . It uses digraphs and diacritics to mark tones and some phonemes . Vietnamese was historically written using chữ Nôm , a logographic script using Chinese characters ( chữ Hán ) to represent Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary and some native Vietnamese words, together with many locally invented characters representing other words. Early linguistic work in

3136-446: Is written with two Chinese characters or in a composite character made of two different characters. This conveys the transformation of the Vietnamese lexicon from sesquisyllabic to fully monosyllabic under the pressure of Chinese linguistic influence, characterized by linguistic phenomena such as the reduction of minor syllables; loss of affixal morphology drifting towards analytical grammar; simplification of major syllable segments, and

3248-467: The 6th Congress , Vietnam slowly transformed into a market economy which brought success to the reform. These were key evidences towards the assessments of the Nguyen Van Linh narrative in considering his contributions in the renovation, modernisation and industrialization of Vietnam which made him a responsible contributor. In another perspective, Võ Văn Kiệt could perhaps also be seen as being one of

3360-674: The Cambodian Campaign of 1970, the COSVN moved westward to the area around Kratié . This was confirmed by first-person testimony provided to staff from the Cambodia-based media production group Camerado in 2008, during research for the motion picture Freedom Deal , which dramatizes the 1970 Cambodian Incursion from the point of view of the Cambodian people. A Cambodian community in the vicinity of Phnom Sambok, North of Kratié town, confirmed

3472-565: The Doi Moi reform, Vietnam ’s economy has gradually developed. After only 1 year, the inflation rate of 774% decreased to only 323.1% and then continued to decrease to only 34.7%. He also promoted diplomatic relations with other countries with the motto "Vietnam wants to be friends with countries around the world". Thanks to that, Vietnam normalized diplomatic relations with China , Japan and Western countries and established diplomatic relations with South Korea and United States thereby promoting

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3584-920: The First Indochina War ensued. Meanwhile, Linh rose in the party hierarchy becoming a member of the Central Committee in 1960. During the Vietnam War , Nguyễn Văn Linh was the party secretary for the Viet Cong in South Vietnam , which had seen him direct the guerrilla resistance against the American-allied government there, but most of his duties were organizational rather than military. He also specialised in propaganda, studying and attempting to influence American politics in favour of North Vietnam . He trained special undercover Vietcong spies who infiltrated government organisations in Saigon. In 1968, Linh directed

3696-631: The Joint Chiefs of Staff to exist deep inside the jungles of Cambodia . A further belief that destroying it would bring about an end to the Vietnam War helped lead to the American Invasion of Cambodia on April 29, 1970. Vietnamese language Like many languages in Southeast Asia and East Asia , Vietnamese is highly analytic and is tonal . It has head-initial directionality, with subject–verb–object order and modifiers following

3808-543: The Korku language in Central India and Vietnamese. He suggested that Korku , Mon , and Vietnamese were part of what he termed "Mon–Annam languages" in a paper published in 1856. Later, in 1920, French-Polish linguist Jean Przyluski found that Mường is more closely related to Vietnamese than other Mon–Khmer languages, and a Viet–Muong subgrouping was established, also including Thavung , Chut , Cuoi , etc. The term "Vietic"

3920-521: The Tet Offensive against South Vietnam. This surprise attack throughout most South Vietnamese towns and cities was a turning point of the Vietnam War . After the end of the Vietnam War and the re-unification of Vietnam in 1975, Linh was inducted to the Communist Party's Politburo and became party chief of the capital Saigon . He favoured a slow transformation of the formerly capitalist southern part of

4032-597: The Vietnamese orthography with the phonetic pronunciation to the right. Some consonant sounds are written with only one letter (like "p"), other consonant sounds are written with a digraph (like "ph"), and others are written with more than one letter or digraph (the velar stop is written variously as "c", "k", or "q"). In some cases, they are based on their Middle Vietnamese pronunciation; since that period, ph and kh (but not th ) have evolved from aspirated stops into fricatives (like Greek phi and chi ), while d and gi have collapsed and converged together (into /z/ in

4144-536: The 175th Radio Research Field Station at Bien Hoa. These two sub-divisions usually occupied a location removed from, but generally near, the headquarters itself, as determined by ARDF or airborne radio direction finding . One of the central frustrations of the US military during the conflict was the Democratic Republic of Vietnam 's (North Vietnam) use of Laos and Cambodia as logistical conduits and base areas. During

4256-497: The 1979 Sino-Vietnamese War . In 1989, he ordered the withdrawal of Vietnamese troops from Cambodia, where they had been sent to remove Pol Pot 's Khmer Rouge regime. However, as far as domestic policy is concerned, Linh felt there was little need for change. "It is not objectively necessary to establish a political mechanism of pluralism and multiparty government," he stated, while always referring to Western-style democratic systems as " demagogic bourgeois democracies". He criticised

4368-508: The 7th they broke out of the encirclement and fled north to unite with the COSVN in the Cambodian Kratié province. Trương Như Tảng , then Minister of Justice in the PRG, recounts the march to the northern bases as day after day of forced marches in the rain. Just before the column crossed route 7 heading north, they received word that on April 3 the 9th Division had fought and won in a battle near

4480-520: The CO and COSVN had to move around all the time in order to avoid bombing and search and destroy operations conducted by the Americans, and was both physically capable of defending itself and highly mobile to continue to the nature of the war. Therefore, it can be stated that the CO and COSVN never had any kind of physical form. US and South Vietnamese intelligence services had continually targeted COSVN for nearly

4592-561: The French colonial era. The following diagram shows the phonology of Proto–Viet–Muong (the nearest ancestor of Vietnamese and the closely related Mường language ), along with the outcomes in the modern language: ^1 According to Ferlus, * /tʃ/ and * /ʄ/ are not accepted by all researchers. Ferlus 1992 also had additional phonemes * /dʒ/ and * /ɕ/ . ^2 The fricatives indicated above in parentheses developed as allophones of stop consonants occurring between vowels (i.e. when

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4704-710: The Red River Delta and into the adjacent uplands, possibly to escape Chinese encroachment. The oldest layer of loans from Chinese into northern Vietic (which would become the Viet–Muong subbranch) date from this period. The northern Vietic varieties thus became part of the Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area , in which languages from genetically unrelated families converged toward characteristics such as isolating morphology and similar syllable structure. Many languages in this area, including Viet–Muong, underwent

4816-519: The Red River area. The language was non-tonal, but featured glottal stop and voiceless fricative codas. Borrowed vocabulary indicates early contact with speakers of Tai languages in the last millennium BC, which is consistent with genetic evidence from Dong Son culture sites. Extensive contact with Chinese began from the Han dynasty (2nd century BC). At this time, Vietic groups began to expand south from

4928-648: The Regional Military Headquarters. Senior General Nguyễn Chí Thanh , a member of the northern politburo , arrived at COSVN in late 1963 or early 1964 to serve as southern regional political officer and became the dominant figure at the headquarters until his death during a visit to Hanoi in July 1967. This regional command structure reported through Thanh to the PAVN general staff in Hanoi. When Phạm Hùng replaced Thanh as

5040-672: The Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) tried again. The initial ARVN attack of the Cambodian Campaign was launched by ARVN and US ground forces, which attempted to "clean out the sanctuaries". PAVN/NLF forces, however, had already been evacuated on March 19. COSVN and its sub-divisions had already withdrawn to the Kratié area and successfully avoided destruction. A marked reduction in radio traffic and transmitter power also made them difficult to place accurately at their new location, despite close 24-hour monitoring. The military benefits and tragic repercussions of

5152-495: The South by supporting innovative economic schemes. Linh could also be seen as a third group of leaders who were similar in age to the second generation leaders (but joined earlier and hence promoted earlier to where they were). While Linh was widely trumpeted as an economic reformer, he was actually as capable as anyone in tightening the screw of politics. This provided another perspective as to how capable and important Linh was. In addition, Võ Văn Kiệt had also been well recognized as

5264-527: The South to the North, take a plane with everyone; cutting down on security protection,... In the political sphere, Linh tried to improve relations with both the United States and China . In 1990, he and Đỗ Mười secretly visited China and met Chinese leader Jiang Zemin normalizing diplomatic relations between the two countries after over 10 years of tension, becoming the first Vietnamese leader to do so since

5376-527: The Vietnam communist party within the wider context of Đổi Mới . Linh showed flexibility and adaptability with an inclination for the unorthodox spin to policy making. Scholars like Stern see that Linh relied less on mobilizational instruments, campaigns exhortations, symbols and more on bureaucratically co-ordinated programmes. He was able to utilize unique combinations of resources to attack specific party related problems, often relying on media and selected mass organizations to propel his reformist ideologies. Linh

5488-526: The Vietnamese political elite. Linh died of liver cancer on 27 April 1998, in Ho Chi Minh City just 3 days before the 23rd anniversary of the liberation of the South, he was 82 years old. His state funeral was held on April 29, 1998 and he lied in state at Thong Nhat Hall, Ho Chi Minh City. In the eulogy of the Party Central Committee, General Secretary Lê Khả Phiêu commented that Linh is

5600-538: The administration of President Lyndon B. Johnson , the US military was generally not allowed by its civilian commanders to widen the war by attacking the supply routes and sanctuaries in both countries due to their ostensible neutrality . An attempt was made to capture or destroy the headquarters during Operation Junction City , a massive search and destroy operation launched in the border region in February and March 1967. Hampering bombing runs against rebel bases like COSVN

5712-470: The altered political playing field and could not push past the conservative majority and his own political beliefs to welcome true change in the Vietnamese political landscape. This view carries quite a generic stance on Linh amongst the scholarship published and if Linh truly had been a conservative the above categories would then be problematic in accessing his true legacy and contributions. Scholarship in some parts also acknowledges that Võ Văn Kiệt as one of

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5824-568: The article and if the editorial board saw it, he would publish it. The article has the title "Things to do immediately", signed NVL. From 1986 to 1991, during his term as General Secretary, Nguyễn Văn Linh made a decisive contribution to turning the situation around, paving the way for the new guava cause to move forward. In order to overcome the inadequacies and backwardness of Vietnam's centralized, bureaucratic and subsidized mechanism, he introduced new ideas, new concepts, and new ways of doing things. He abolished what Southerners often called "blocking

5936-411: The attack trajectory". While the bombing runs still caused extensive damage, the early warnings from 1968 to 1970 prevented them from killing a single military or civilian leader in the headquarters complexes. On January 4, 1968, some of COSVN officials from Tây Ninh province encountered American soldiers when they were attempting to transfer food in the jungle, Huỳnh Tấn Phát 's daughter Huỳnh Lan Khanh

6048-411: The authorization of establishing credit cooperatives, foreign bank branches and the join stocks bank to separate budgetary functions away from central bank functions in reforming the economy a key step which cannot be ignored. Being the first deputy Prime Minister then, he was game in taking an unprecedented method in setting up two key independent specialist expert groups to conduct research and studies on

6160-423: The beginning of syllables, which have since disappeared: Most of the unusual correspondences between spelling and modern pronunciation are explained by Middle Vietnamese. Note in particular: De Rhodes's orthography also made use of an apex diacritic, as in o᷄ and u᷄ , to indicate a final labial-velar nasal /ŋ͡m/ , an allophone of /ŋ/ that is peculiar to the Hanoi dialect to the present day. This diacritic

6272-406: The bombing and invasion have been contentious subjects. Westmoreland thought that it was "unfortunate" that Nixon had announced the capture of COSVN as one of the primary objectives of the Cambodian operations. This left Nixon open to critics, who were already scornful of Nixon, to mock the notion of the president obsessing over COSVN as if it were a "holy grail". US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger

6384-446: The centralized bureaucratic subsidy mechanism, shifting to a multi-sector economy, operating according to the market mechanism with State management. In 1987, he spoke and wrote many important articles clarifying his views on innovation, especially the issues he raised under the title "Things to be done immediately" under the pen name N.V.L (which means "Nói và làm” or “Nhảy vào lửa”) to create positive changes in social life Vietnam . With

6496-488: The change of suprasegment instruments. For example, the modern Vietnamese word "trời" (heaven) was read as *plời in Old/Ancient Vietnamese and as blời in Middle Vietnamese. The writing system used for Vietnamese is based closely on the system developed by Alexandre de Rhodes for his 1651 Dictionarium Annamiticum Lusitanum et Latinum . It reflects the pronunciation of the Vietnamese of Hanoi at that time,

6608-543: The city of Krek, Cambodia against ARVN forces. Years later, Trương would recall that during the escape of the Provisional Revolutionary Government just how "close [South Vietnamese] were to annihilating or capturing the core of the Southern resistance - elite units of our frontline fighters along with the civilian and much of the military leadership. A month later, at the end of April, the US and Army of

6720-516: The country causing him to come into conflict with his party colleagues. In the late 1970s, though considered a promising party politician, he had repeated arguments with Lê Duẩn , Ho Chi Minh 's successor as party leader, preventing him from rising further in the hierarchy. In 1982, he was even removed from the Politburo. According to his friends, Linh resigned after an argument over the future of South Vietnam, in which he defended private capital. In

6832-460: The coup was swift. Even before Lon Nol's March 12 ultimatum for PAVN and NFL forces to leave Cambodia, they had begun expanding their logistical system (the Ho Chi Minh trail ) from southeastern Laos into northeastern Cambodia. After Sihanouk's overthrow and Lon Nol's anti-Vietnamese movements, PAVN launched an offensive (Campaign X ) against the Cambodian army. They quickly seized large portions of

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6944-414: The current narrative. Linh also could be seen to have also got to where he was with self promotion more than what he was able to do. This opens up avenues for us to question and consider if any other contenders then might actually be equally important in the grand scheme of Vietnam's economic renovation . Some might contend that Linh achieved some initial and limited success in making the party responsive to

7056-466: The daughter languages from distinctions in the initial and final consonants. Vietnamese tones developed as follows: Glottal-ending syllables ended with a glottal stop /ʔ/ , while fricative-ending syllables ended with /s/ or /h/ . Both types of syllables could co-occur with a resonant (e.g. /m/ or /n/ ). At some point, a tone split occurred, as in many other mainland Southeast Asian languages . Essentially, an allophonic distinction developed in

7168-442: The diphthongs [āj] and [āːj] the letters y and i also indicate the pronunciation of the main vowel: ay = ă + /j/ , ai = a + /j/ . Thus, tay "hand" is [tāj] while tai "ear" is [tāːj] . Similarly, u and o indicate different pronunciations of the main vowel: au = ă + /w/ , ao = a + /w/ . Thus, thau "brass" is [tʰāw] while thao "raw silk" is [tʰāːw] . The consonants that occur in Vietnamese are listed below in

7280-557: The eastern and northeastern parts of the country, isolating and besieging or overrunning a number of Cambodian cities, including Kampong Cham . Fearing a joint ARVN–Cambodian attack after the coup, COSVN was evacuated to the newly Vietnamese-controlled Kratié Province of Cambodia on March 19, 1970. As the PRG and NLF headquarters prepared to follow the COSVN into Cambodia on March 30, they were surrounded in their bunkers by South Vietnamese forces flown in by helicopter. Surrounded, they awaited till nightfall and then with security provided by

7392-423: The economy. Linh’s activeness in key military and key diplomatic activities as efficient in improving the standing of Vietnam and aiding his decision making process during the reforms. He was also responsible for economic reform successes and not the same reasons Linh himself had claimed, thereby creating "another method” in considering Linh's contributions and legacy. As the policies of Nguyen Van Linh were adopted at

7504-428: The editorial office that day. The comrade on duty at gate 71 Hang Trong brought in an envelope saying it was from an elderly person driving a Lada car. milk color sent to the editorial board. Although there was no express stamp, because the envelope was from the Central Office, I opened it immediately. In the envelope were letters and a handwritten article. The letter was signed Nguyen Van Linh, clearly stating that he sent

7616-423: The effects of his own policies, accusing foreign investors of exploiting his native country and harming socialism. He attacked the growing gap between the rich and the poor and accused American companies of dumping goods on the country rather than helping it with investments and technology. He then wrote a regular newspaper column called "Things That Must Be Done Immediately" attacking corruption and incompetence among

7728-550: The enemy's capacity to command and control attacks on US forces in South Vietnam. McCain said the United States should destroy it and win the damn war. In 1965, nearly 400 US warplanes attempted to wipe out COSVN in an aerial attack, but had no effect on the elusive shadow command. Near-daily B-52 raids against its headquarters in Memot, Cambodia failed to kill any of its leadership and insertion of US / RVN Special Forces teams usually wound up dead or returning with heavy casualties, and it

7840-483: The growth model from his experiences in Ho Chi Minh city, driving him towards the key leaders in “fence breaking” experiments in the lead up towards the 6th Party Congress . This also paints Kiệt in different dimensions where he was willing to reflect on his own policies and make adaptations to ensure what was best for the nation, a key trait and contribution towards Vietnam's economic successes. Võ Văn Kiệt had supported

7952-535: The important key proponents of the reform programme. In this aspect we have to calibrate our understanding to consider Võ Văn Kiệt’s contributions with both perspectives included. Nguyễn Văn Linh could also be seen as the nominal brains of Đổi Mới but was publicly horrified by his results of his own inspirations. He was also at one point especially hostile toward Võ Văn Kiệt by publicly accusing Võ Văn Kiệt of corruption even when they had once been close allies. While Linh publicly took an even stronger position in favor of

8064-430: The key respected leaders had tried to work with numerous directors of nationally owned enterprises in hopes to promote better reforms in a larger scale without subverting party hierarchies by not uprooting the leadership but allowing the party to change its mind to slowly come to a new consensus. Võ Văn Kiệt had also implicitly approved using the economic model of North Vietnam across the nation but later found problems with

8176-884: The late 19th and early 20th centuries ( Logan 1852, Forbes 1881, Müller 1888, Kuhn 1889, Schmidt 1905, Przyluski 1924, and Benedict 1942) classified Vietnamese as belonging to the Mon–Khmer branch of the Austroasiatic language family (which also includes the Khmer language spoken in Cambodia , as well as various smaller and/or regional languages , such as the Munda and Khasi languages spoken in eastern India, and others in Laos , southern China and parts of Thailand). In 1850, British lawyer James Richardson Logan detected striking similarities between

8288-446: The late 19th century, French gradually replaced Literary Chinese as the official language in education and government. Vietnamese adopted many French terms, such as đầm ('dame', from madame ), ga ('train station', from gare ), sơ mi ('shirt', from chemise ), and búp bê ('doll', from poupée ), resulting in a language that was Austroasiatic but with major Sino-influences and some minor French influences from

8400-409: The location of staging areas for "large numbers of North Vietnamese vehicles and numerous structures" in the nearby forest. A Time magazine article in 1970 reported that rather than being a jungle Pentagon as often conceived, "COSVN is actually a staff of some 2,400 people who are widely dispersed and highly mobile", traveling between various bunkers and meeting places by bicycle and motorbike. It

8512-427: The main syllable). When a minor syllable occurred, the main syllable's initial consonant was intervocalic and as a result suffered lenition , becoming a voiced fricative. The minor syllables were eventually lost, but not until the tone split had occurred. As a result, words in modern Vietnamese with voiced fricatives occur in all six tones, and the tonal register reflects the voicing of the minor-syllable prefix and not

8624-499: The matter. He was adept in using the advice from both groups and combined the best ideas to develop an ordinance on the banking sector, to his credit, he later also created a department responsible for mobilizing intellectual resources from the former regime in the South. All of these contributions reflect his forward looking attitudes and areas which would later become important contribution towards Vietnam's successful ongoing reform process. Linh had also been described as “having earned

8736-442: The mid-1980s the Vietnamese economy experienced crisis, making a more liberal, market-based economy more of a sensible option to many politicians. This led to Linh's being re-instated in the Politburo in 1985 (and Permanent Secretariat 1986), under the direction of General Secretary Trường Chinh draft political report and even being made party general secretary the following year. Immediately, he started reforming Vietnam's economy. He

8848-495: The narratives of both persons, it is important to note that that Võ Văn Kiệt and his allies might have used ideologies, whether called socialist or market as practical tools to advance their own strategic objectives and power. An objective way to weigh perspectives would be to understand that these members also ultimately wanted power to their advantage and this added another dimension in analysing how one worked towards contributing along with his true agenda balanced. Apart from these it

8960-497: The north and /j/ in the south). Not all dialects of Vietnamese have the same consonant in a given word (although all dialects use the same spelling in the written language). See the language variation section for further elaboration. Syllable-final orthographic ch and nh in Vietnamese has had different analyses. One analysis has final ch , nh as being phonemes /c/, /ɲ/ contrasting with syllable-final t , c /t/, /k/ and n , ng /n/, /ŋ/ and identifies final ch with

9072-404: The old communist policies, blaming them on corrupt leaders. Thus, Linh's policies were the constant target of criticism from the more conservative elements in the Communist Party. Linh stepped down as party leader in 1991 at the 7th National Congress , having announced his withdrawal a year before. His poor health was cited as the cause, as he had been hospitalised for what is suspected to have been

9184-405: The plain-voiced stops became voiceless and the allotones became new phonemic tones. The implosive stops were unaffected, and in fact developed tonally as if they were unvoiced. (This behavior is common to all East Asian languages with implosive stops.) As noted above, Proto-Viet–Muong had sesquisyllabic words with an initial minor syllable (in addition to, and independent of, initial clusters in

9296-628: The politburo's representative, he also became the first secretary of both COSVN and the MAPC. During the early 1960s, COSVN was located in South Vietnam's Tây Ninh Province , northwest of Saigon near the Cambodian border. During the period of 1965–1970, the headquarters was located in and around the Cambodian Mimot plantation, in what was called the " Fishhook " area on the Vietnamese/Cambodian border north of Tây Ninh and west of Lộc Ninh . During

9408-538: The process of bringing Vietnam into ASEAN in 1995. He left the position of General Secretary on 28 June 1991 and then became the late Secretary of the Central Executive Committee until his retirement on 29 December 1997. Nguyễn Văn Linh was born in Hưng Yên on 1 July 1915. His original name was Nguyễn Văn Cúc, he would later adopt Nguyễn Văn Linh as his nom de guerre . At age 14, Linh became involved in

9520-438: The river and banning the market", completely eliminating the power and abuse of a few corrupt state-owned or state-owned traders at that time. Resolutely set an example against bureaucratic behavior, distancing from the people, and giving up special privileges. He abandoned the regime of high-ranking leaders flying domestically and going on business trips by Lada car without air conditioning (standard for Deputy Minister level); From

9632-546: The same except that ơ [əː] is of normal length while â [ə] is short – the same applies to the vowels long a [aː] and short ă [a] . The centering diphthongs are formed with only the three high vowels (i, ư, u). They are generally spelled as ia, ưa, ua when they end a word and are spelled iê, ươ, uô, respectively, when they are followed by a consonant. In addition to single vowels (or monophthongs ) and centering diphthongs, Vietnamese has closing diphthongs and triphthongs . The closing diphthongs and triphthongs consist of

9744-465: The same time, according to the following pattern: ^3 In Middle Vietnamese , the outcome of these sounds was written with a hooked b (ꞗ), representing a /β/ that was still distinct from v (then pronounced /w/ ). See below. ^4 It is unclear what this sound was. According to Ferlus 1992, in the Archaic Vietnamese period (c. 10th century AD, when Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary

9856-534: The split from Muong around the end of the first millennium AD, the following stages of Vietnamese are commonly identified: After expelling the Chinese at the beginning of the 10th century, the Ngô dynasty adopted Classical Chinese as the formal medium of government, scholarship and literature. With the dominance of Chinese came wholesale importation of Chinese vocabulary. The resulting Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary makes up about

9968-614: The structure of the Directorate and its subordinate regions, Military Regions 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 10, known collectively as the B-2 Front. In the process, he created COSVN. In October 1963, COSVN organized the Military Affairs Party Committee (MAPC) and the Regional Military Headquarters. COSVN's first secretary, Nguyễn Văn Linh , served concurrently as the secretary of the MAPC, while General Trần Văn Trà became commander of

10080-559: The suspected site of COSVN in Cambodia was repeatedly and heavily bombed. In the spring of 1970, an overt ground incursion took place—-first an ARVN attack and then a joint ARVN–American attack that would later be called the Cambodian Campaign . On March 18, the Cambodian National Assembly officially deposed the Cambodian leader Norodom Sihanouk and named Lon Nol as provisional head of state. The North Vietnamese response to

10192-505: The syllable-initial ch /c/ . The other analysis has final ch and nh as predictable allophonic variants of the velar phonemes /k/ and /ŋ/ that occur after the upper front vowels i /i/ and ê /e/ ; although they also occur after a , but in such cases are believed to have resulted from an earlier e /ɛ/ which diphthongized to ai (cf. ach from aic , anh from aing ). (See Vietnamese phonology: Analysis of final ch , nh for further details.) Each Vietnamese syllable

10304-567: The tones, whereby the tones in syllables with voiced initials were pronounced differently from those with voiceless initials. (Approximately speaking, the voiced allotones were pronounced with additional breathy voice or creaky voice and with lowered pitch. The quality difference predominates in today's northern varieties, e.g. in Hanoi , while in the southern varieties the pitch difference predominates, as in Ho Chi Minh City .) Subsequent to this,

10416-650: The underground communist movement against French colonial rule , joining the Ho Chi Minh Communist Youth Union . In 1930 at the age of sixteen, Linh was arrested and incarcerated until 1936 for distributing leaflets directed against the French. After his release, he joined the Communist Party of Vietnam . He was sent to Saigon , in the southern part of the country to help establish party cells, causing him to be detained again from 1941 to 1945. In 1945, Vietnam declared its independence from French rule and

10528-422: The voicing of the main-syllable stop in Proto-Viet–Muong that produced the fricative. For similar reasons, words beginning with /l/ and /ŋ/ occur in both registers. (Thompson 1976 reconstructed voiceless resonants to account for outcomes where resonants occur with a first-register tone, but this is no longer considered necessary, at least by Ferlus.) Old Vietnamese/Ancient Vietnamese was a Vietic language which

10640-418: The words they modify. It also uses noun classifiers . Its vocabulary has had significant influence from Middle Chinese and loanwords from French . Although it is often mistakenly thought as being an monosyllabic language, Vietnamese words typically consist of from one to many as eight individual morphemes or syllables; the majority of Vietnamese vocabulary are disyllabic and trisyllabic words. Vietnamese

10752-452: The world such as in the United States , Germany and France . Vietnamese has a large number of vowels . Below is a vowel diagram of Vietnamese from Hanoi (including centering diphthongs ): Front and central vowels (i, ê, e, ư, â, ơ, ă, a) are unrounded , whereas the back vowels (u, ô, o) are rounded. The vowels â [ə] and ă [a] are pronounced very short, much shorter than the other vowels. Thus, ơ and â are basically pronounced

10864-422: Was elected General Secretary in the immediate aftermath of the 6th National Congress . Renouncing the ideological decisions that he claimed had caused the problems, he allowed private enterprise and market prices and disbanded agricultural collectives. This change in policy was dubbed Doi Moi , a Vietnamese term meaning renovation . In the late of May 1987, on the front page of Nhan Dan newspaper appeared

10976-458: Was a South Vietnamese revolutionary and politician. Nguyễn Văn Linh was the general secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam from 1986 to 1991 and a political leader of the Vietcong during the Vietnam War . During his time in office, Linh was a strong advocate of " Đổi Mới " (renovation), an economic plan whose aim is to turn Vietnam economy to a socialist-oriented market economy . As such, Linh

11088-438: Was believed by US intelligence that COSVN had several subdivisions, each of which dealt with the political, logistical, and military aspects of the struggle in South Vietnam. For tactical reasons US Radio Research units were primarily concerned with the military divisions, which were known as "MAS-COSVN" (Military Affairs Section) and "MIS-COSVN" (Military Intelligence Section). The political and logistical sub-divisions were left to

11200-487: Was borrowed) it was * r̝ , distinct at that time from * r . The following initial clusters occurred, with outcomes indicated: A large number of words were borrowed from Middle Chinese , forming part of the Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary . These caused the original introduction of the retroflex sounds /ʂ/ and /ʈ/ (modern s , tr ) into the language. Proto-Viet–Muong did not have tones. Tones developed later in some of

11312-420: Was captured and started to be escorted to Saigon. During the conflict several American military aircraft were shot down. Later Khanh's body was found by Viet Cong soldiers. She was buried with two other Viet Cong soldiers who died in this conflict. Later, President Richard Nixon authorized border reconnaissance attacks, first in 1969 in the form of the covert bombing campaign known as Operation Menu , wherein

11424-521: Was critical in steering plenary sessions of the Central committee to take more importance in decision process where competing views of economic policies and fundamental political issues were discussed. Stern argued this was possible, in large part due to Linh's open, flexible, innovative and unconventional mode of operation within the Vietnamese bureaucracy which showed Linh's importance in how he managed politics to contribute towards reform. Under Linh, effort

11536-477: Was described as "poking a beehive the size of a basketball". COSVN and CO continued to exist, evolving into the Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam in 1969, and narrowly avoided capture of its entire headquarters by ARVN and Cambodian forces during the escape of the Provisional Revolutionary Government but still maintained its direct activities as serving as

11648-420: Was elected leader of the Central Committee for the South, directing strategy during the war until the country was unified. Nguyễn Văn Linh has held many positions in the Party Central Committee before holding the position of General Secretary. Linh became General Secretary of the Party after the 6th National Congress on 18 December 1986. He is one of the Party leaders who initiated the reform policy, eliminating

11760-696: Was envisaged as being in overall command of the communist effort in the southern half of the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam), which included the efforts of both People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN), the Viet Cong , and the People's Revolutionary Party . Some doubted its existence but in his memoirs the American commander in South Vietnam, General William Westmoreland , spoke of it as something whose existence and importance were not in doubt. According to PAVN Major General and later dissident Trần Độ , COSVN did, in fact exist and

11872-711: Was made to make the party more responsible and accountable for policies and personnel choices which was a strong factor in the success of economic reform. Stern suggested that it was Nguyễn Văn Linh himself who was most important in the biggest part to play in Vietnam's economic reforms. He suggested that Linh's position and foresight was that economic reforms should be done gradually and steadily without causing political instability or creating opportunities for negative elements to create trouble. Linh also allowed flexibility and local initiative for issues of parallel political and economic renovation which sheds light for scholars to compare Linh's style and contributions to other key leaders in

11984-565: Was often touted as the "Vietnamese Gorbachev " after the Soviet leader, who introduced Perestroika . Nguyễn Văn Linh was born in Hưng Yên , a province in the North, but more than half of his life was associated with the South. He was arrested and imprisoned many times by the French colonialists. After 1945, Linh was assigned by the Party Committee to return to Saigon to lead two resistance wars against France and United States . In 1962, Linh

12096-473: Was proposed by Hayes (1992), who proposed to redefine Viet–Muong as referring to a subbranch of Vietic containing only Vietnamese and Mường . The term " Vietic " is used, among others, by Gérard Diffloth , with a slightly different proposal on subclassification, within which the term "Viet–Muong" refers to a lower subgrouping (within an eastern Vietic branch) consisting of Vietnamese dialects, Mường dialects, and Nguồn (of Quảng Bình Province ). Austroasiatic

12208-405: Was quoted as saying that the Cambodian invasion to destroy COSVN and other headquarters complexes bought the Americans and South Vietnamese a year. Members of the COSVN generally agree, but view the long-term political advantage gained as being worth the cost of the evacuation. The "Bamboo Pentagon" was a mythical military headquarters of the Viet Cong , believed by US President Richard Nixon and

12320-479: Was responsible for organising and directing the Viet Cong and served as overall command. It was however hierarchically directed by the Central Office (Trung ương Cục) which directed overall strategy, and was directly controlled by Hanoi. COSVN existed to operate the Viet Cong military and political effort. MACV had imagined COSVN as a physically large, permanent structure due to their ability to carefully coordinate and direct Viet Cong activity entirely. It had become

12432-812: Was separated from Viet–Muong around the 9th century, and evolved into Middle Vietnamese by 16th century. The sources for the reconstruction of Old Vietnamese are Nom texts, such as the 12th-century/1486 Buddhist scripture Phật thuyết Đại báo phụ mẫu ân trọng kinh ("Sūtra explained by the Buddha on the Great Repayment of the Heavy Debt to Parents"), old inscriptions, and a late 13th-century (possibly 1293) Annan Jishi glossary by Chinese diplomat Chen Fu (c. 1259 – 1309). Old Vietnamese used Chinese characters phonetically where each word, monosyllabic in Modern Vietnamese,

12544-548: Was the assistance provided by Soviet ships in the Pacific. Soviet ships in the South China Sea gave vital early warnings to NLF forces in South Vietnam. The Soviet intelligence ships detected American B-52 bombers flying from Okinawa and Guam , and relayed their airspeed and direction to COSVN headquarters. COSVN used this data to determine probable targets, and directed assets along the flight path to move "perpendicularly to

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