134-397: Grading in education is the application of standardized measurements to evaluate different levels of student achievement in a course. Grades can be expressed as letters (usually A to F), as a range (for example, 1 to 6), percentages, or as numbers out of a possible total (often out of 100). The exact system that is used varies worldwide. In some countries, grades are averaged to create
268-531: A grade point average ( GPA ). GPA is calculated by using the number of grade points a student earns in a given period of time. A GPA is often calculated for high school , undergraduate , and graduate students. A cumulative grade point average ( CGPA ), is the average of all the GPAs a student has achieved during their time at the institution. Students are sometimes required to maintain a certain GPA in order to be admitted to
402-413: A set of essential features common to all. Some education theorists, such as Keira Sewell and Stephen Newman, argue that the term "education" is context-dependent. Evaluative or thick conceptions of education assert that it is inherent in the nature of education to lead to some form of improvement. They contrast with thin conceptions, which offer a value-neutral explanation. Some theorists provide
536-562: A bachelor's degree. Master's level education is more specialized than undergraduate education and often involves independent research, normally in the form of a master's thesis. Doctoral level education leads to an advanced research qualification, usually a doctor's degree, such as a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD). It usually involves the submission of a substantial academic work, such as a dissertation . More advanced levels include post-doctoral studies and habilitation . Successful completion of formal education typically leads to certification,
670-497: A balance between delivering knowledge while also taking into account the interests and experiences of the student ( The Child and the Curriculum, Dewey, 1902). Dewey not only re-imagined the way that the learning process should take place but also the role that the teacher should play within that process. He envisioned a divergence from the mastery of a pre-selected set of skills to the cultivation of autonomy and critical-thinking within
804-451: A balance of positive and negative feedback through praise and constructive criticism. Intelligence significantly influences individuals' responses to education. It is a cognitive trait associated with the capacity to learn from experience, comprehend, and apply knowledge and skills to solve problems. Individuals with higher scores in intelligence metrics typically perform better academically and pursue higher levels of education. Intelligence
938-403: A certain academic program or to remain in that program. Grades are also used in decisions to provide a student with financial aid or a scholarship. Grades are seen as an indicator for academic success and ability, and GPA is thought to indicate future job effectiveness and success. In addition, research has shown a correlation between GPA and future Job satisfaction . Studies have also shown that
1072-530: A child". It is pronounced variously, as / ˈ p ɛ d ə ɡ ɒ dʒ i / , / ˈ p ɛ d ə ɡ oʊ dʒ i / , or / ˈ p ɛ d ə ɡ ɒ ɡ i / . The related word pedagogue has had a negative connotation of pedantry , dating from at least the 1650s; a related expression is educational theorist . The term "pedagogy" is also found in the English discourse, but it is more broadly discussed in other European languages, such as French and German . In
1206-885: A child's ethnicity. Historically, gender has played a pivotal role in education as societal norms dictated distinct roles for men and women. Education traditionally favored men, who were tasked with providing for the family, while women were expected to manage households and care for children, often limiting their access to education. Although these disparities have improved in many modern societies, gender differences persist in education . This includes biases and stereotypes related to gender roles in various academic domains, notably in fields such as science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM), which are often portrayed as male-dominated. Such perceptions can deter female students from pursuing these subjects. In various instances, discrimination based on gender and social factors occurs openly as part of official educational policies, such as
1340-429: A comprehensive and well-rounded education, while vocational training focuses more on specific practical skills within a field. The curricula also cover various aspects besides the topic to be discussed, such as the teaching method, the objectives to be reached, and the standards for assessing progress. By determining the curricula, governmental institutions have a strong impact on what knowledge and skills are transmitted to
1474-589: A curriculum. Non-formal education also follows a structured approach but occurs outside the formal schooling system, while informal education entails unstructured learning through daily experiences. Formal and non-formal education are categorized into levels, including early childhood education , primary education , secondary education , and tertiary education . Other classifications focus on teaching methods, such as teacher-centered and student-centered education , and on subjects, such as science education , language education , and physical education . Additionally,
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#17331052843561608-511: A descriptive conception of education by observing how the term is commonly used in ordinary language . Prescriptive conceptions, on the other hand, define what constitutes good education or how education should be practiced. Many thick and prescriptive conceptions view education as an endeavor that strives to achieve specific objectives , which may encompass acquiring knowledge, learning to think rationally , and cultivating character traits such as kindness and honesty. Various scholars emphasize
1742-405: A differentiated strategy in pedagogy and not the traditional approach for teachers to accomplish goals efficiently. American author and educator Carol Ann Tomlinson defined Differentiated Instruction as "teachers' efforts in responding to inconsistencies among students in the classroom." Differentiation refers to methods of teaching. She explained that Differentiated Instruction gives learners
1876-551: A dish together. Some theorists differentiate between the three types based on the learning environment: formal education occurs within schools , non-formal education takes place in settings not regularly frequented, such as museums, and informal education unfolds in the context of everyday routines. Additionally, there are disparities in the source of motivation. Formal education tends to be propelled by extrinsic motivation , driven by external rewards. Conversely, in non-formal and informal education, intrinsic motivation, stemming from
2010-628: A fulfillment of the soul, and by fulfilling the soul the body subsequently benefited. Plato viewed physical education for all as a necessity to a stable society. Aristotle (384–322 BCE) composed a treatise, On Education , which was subsequently lost. However, he renounced Plato's view in subsequent works, advocating for a common education mandated to all citizens by the State. A small minority of people residing within Greek city-states at this time were considered citizens, and thus Aristotle still limited education to
2144-495: A hierarchical structure, with the attainment of earlier levels serving as a prerequisite for higher ones. Short-cycle tertiary education concentrates on practical aspects, providing advanced vocational and professional training tailored to specialized professions. Bachelor's level education, also known as undergraduate education , is typically longer than short-cycle tertiary education. It is commonly offered by universities and culminates in an intermediary academic credential known as
2278-485: A higher GPA leads to a higher income. Students were given assessments as far back as 500 B.C. but no methods existed to formally measure student performance or track mastery of the subject. In the mid 1600’s Harvard University started to require exit exams to evaluate students, but they were not scored with letter grades. The first record of a grading scale for students was at Yale University. Yale University historian George Wilson Pierson writes: "According to tradition
2412-696: A low cost. Conversely, in nations like the United States and Singapore, tertiary education often comes with high tuition fees , leading students to rely on substantial loans to finance their studies. High education costs can pose a significant barrier for students in developing countries , as their families may struggle to cover school fees, purchase uniforms, and buy textbooks. The academic literature explores various types of education, including traditional and alternative approaches. Traditional education encompasses long-standing and conventional schooling methods, characterized by teacher-centered instruction within
2546-552: A minority within Greece. Aristotle advocates physical education should precede intellectual studies. Marcus Fabius Quintilianus (35 – 100 CE) published his pedagogy in Institutio Oratoria (95 CE). He describes education as a gradual affair, and places certain responsibilities on the teacher. He advocates for rhetorical, grammatical, scientific, and philosophical education. Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus (155 – 240 CE)
2680-540: A more inclusive and emotionally supportive environment. This category encompasses various forms, such as charter schools and specialized programs catering to challenging or exceptionally talented students, alongside homeschooling and unschooling . Alternative education incorporates diverse educational philosophies, including Montessori schools , Waldorf education , Round Square schools , Escuela Nueva schools , free schools, and democratic schools . Alternative education encompasses indigenous education , which emphasizes
2814-603: A more individual level, education fosters personal development , encompassing learning new skills, honing talents , nurturing creativity , enhancing self-knowledge , and refining problem-solving and decision-making abilities. Moreover, education contributes positively to health and well-being. Educated individuals are often better informed about health issues and adjust their behavior accordingly, benefit from stronger social support networks and coping strategies , and enjoy higher incomes, granting them access to superior healthcare services . The social significance of education
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#17331052843562948-706: A more sustainable and equitable world. Thus, education not only serves to maintain societal norms but also acts as a catalyst for social development . This extends to evolving economic circumstances, where technological advancements, notably increased automation , impose new demands on the workforce that education can help meet. As circumstances evolve, skills and knowledge taught may become outdated, necessitating curriculum adjustments to include subjects like digital literacy , and promote proficiency in handling new technologies. Moreover, education can embrace innovative forms such as massive open online courses to prepare individuals for emerging challenges and opportunities. On
3082-505: A pedagogue ( pædagog ) is broadly speaking a practitioner of pedagogy, but the term is primarily reserved for individuals who occupy jobs in pre-school education (such as kindergartens and nurseries ). A pedagogue can occupy various kinds of jobs, within this restrictive definition, e.g. in retirement homes , prisons , orphanages , and human resource management . When working with at-risk families or youths they are referred to as social pedagogues ( socialpædagog ). The pedagogue's job
3216-410: A pivotal role in democracies by enhancing civic participation through voting and organizing, while also promoting equal opportunities for all. On an economic level, individuals become productive members of society through education, acquiring the technical and analytical skills necessary for their professions, as well as for producing goods and providing services to others. In early societies, there
3350-438: A pivotal role in equipping a country to adapt to changes and effectively confront new challenges. It raises awareness and contributes to addressing contemporary global issues , including climate change , sustainability , and the widening disparities between the rich and the poor. By instilling in students an understanding of how their lives and actions impact others, education can inspire individuals to strive towards realizing
3484-1379: A pivotal role in policy-making endeavors aimed at mitigating their impact. Socioeconomic status is influenced by factors beyond just income , including financial security , social status , social class , and various attributes related to quality of life . Low socioeconomic status impacts educational success in several ways. It correlates with slower cognitive development in language and memory, as well as higher dropout rates. Families with limited financial means may struggle to meet their children's basic nutritional needs, hindering their development. Additionally, they may lack resources to invest in educational materials such as stimulating toys, books, and computers. Financial constraints may also prevent attendance at prestigious schools, leading to enrollment in institutions located in economically disadvantaged areas. Such schools often face challenges such as teacher shortages and inadequate educational materials and facilities like libraries, resulting in lower teaching standards. Moreover, parents may be unable to afford private lessons for children falling behind academically. In some cases, students from economically disadvantaged backgrounds are compelled to drop out of school to contribute to family income. Limited access to information about higher education and challenges in securing and repaying student loans further exacerbate
3618-511: A prerequisite for advancing to higher levels of education and entering certain professions . Undetected cheating during exams, such as utilizing a cheat sheet , poses a threat to this system by potentially certifying unqualified students. In most countries, primary and secondary education is provided free of charge. However, there are significant global disparities in the cost of tertiary education. Some countries, such as Sweden, Finland, Poland, and Mexico, offer tertiary education for free or at
3752-409: A science and more as an art or a craft . This characterization puts more emphasis on the practical aspect of pedagogy, which may involve various forms of " tacit knowledge that is hard to put into words". This approach is often based on the idea that the most central aspects of teaching are only acquired by practice and cannot be easily codified through scientific inquiry. In this regard, pedagogy
3886-529: A series of national institutes for social educators located in all major cities. The education is a 3.5-year academic course, giving the student the title of a Bachelor in Social Education (Danish: Professionsbachelor som pædagog ). It is also possible to earn a master's degree in pedagogy/educational science from the University of Copenhagen. This BA and MA program has a more theoretical focus compared to
4020-475: A single nation can vary in their grading systems as well. However, several international standards for grading have arisen recently, such as the European Baccalaureate . Education Education is the transmission of knowledge , skills , and character traits and manifests in various forms. Formal education occurs within a structured institutional framework, such as public schools , following
4154-701: A stable society by imparting fundamental skills necessary for interacting with the environment and fulfilling individual needs and aspirations. In contemporary society, these skills encompass speaking, reading, writing, arithmetic , and proficiency in information and communications technology . Additionally, education facilitates socialization by instilling awareness of dominant social and cultural norms , shaping appropriate behavior across diverse contexts. It fosters social cohesion , stability, and peace, fostering productive engagement in daily activities. While socialization occurs throughout life, early childhood education holds particular significance. Moreover, education plays
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4288-540: A structured school environment. Regulations govern various aspects, such as the curriculum and class schedules. Alternative education serves as an umbrella term for schooling methods that diverge from the conventional traditional approach. These variances might encompass differences in the learning environment, curriculum content, or the dynamics of the teacher-student relationship. Characteristics of alternative schooling include voluntary enrollment, relatively modest class and school sizes, and customized instruction, fostering
4422-533: A student has learned in a given period of time, which only partially reflect the actual performance and does not take sufficient account of the individual development of students. Likewise, poor grades over a longer period of time would give students the impression that they would learn very little or nothing, which jeopardizes the innate intrinsic motivation of every child to learn. Children who have already lost their desire to learn and only study for their grades have no reason to continue learning after they have achieved
4556-577: A talent for, since otherwise their grades in other areas would deteriorate. He also believes that "our society will not develop further...if we force all children to conform to the same evaluation standards". Grading may also reflect the bias of the instructor thereby reinforcing systematic bias. As educators have begun to recognize the potential drawbacks, alternative grading methods, including competency-based assessment, specifications grading, and "ungrading" have become more popular. Most nations have their own grading system, and different institutions in
4690-606: A variety of alternatives for acquiring information. Primary principles comprising the structure of Differentiated Instruction include formative and ongoing assessment, group collaboration, recognition of students' diverse levels of knowledge, problem-solving, and choice in reading and writing experiences. Howard Gardner gained prominence in the education sector for his Multiple Intelligences Theory . He named seven of these intelligences in 1983: Linguistic, Logical and Mathematical, Visual and Spatial, Body and Kinesthetic, Musical and Rhythmic, Intrapersonal, and Interpersonal. Critics say
4824-416: A variety of pedagogies, including quiet study, passive or active learning, kinesthetic or physical learning, vocational learning, experiential learning, and others. Learning theories are conceptual frameworks describing how knowledge is absorbed, processed, and retained during learning . Cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences, as well as prior experience, all play a part in how understanding, or
4958-454: A whole, with primary education showing particularly high rates of return. Additionally, besides bolstering economic prosperity, education contributes to technological and scientific advancements, reduces unemployment, and promotes social equity . Moreover, increased education is associated with lower birth rates , partly due to heightened awareness of family planning , expanded opportunities for women, and delayed marriage . Education plays
5092-583: A world view, is acquired or changed and knowledge and skills retained. Distance education or long-distance learning is the education of students who may not always be physically present at a school . Traditionally, this usually involved correspondence courses wherein the student corresponded with the school via post . Today it involves online education. Courses that are conducted (51 percent or more) are either hybrid , blended or 100% distance learning. Massive open online courses (MOOCs), offering large-scale interactive participation and open access through
5226-405: Is learning that takes place through dialogue . It is typically the result of egalitarian dialogue ; in other words, the consequence of a dialogue in which different people provide arguments based on validity claims and not on power claims. Student-centered learning, also known as learner-centered education, broadly encompasses methods of teaching that shift the focus of instruction from
5360-482: Is a purposeful activity aimed at achieving goals like the transmission of knowledge , skills, and character traits. However, extensive debate surrounds its precise nature beyond these general features. One approach views education as a process occurring during events such as schooling, teaching, and learning. Another perspective perceives education not as a process but as the mental states and dispositions of educated individuals resulting from this process. Furthermore,
5494-590: Is advocating for education policies, such as the treaty Convention on the Rights of the Child , which declares education as a fundamental human right for all children and young people. The Education for All initiative aimed to provide basic education to all children, adolescents, and adults by 2015, later succeeded by the Sustainable Development Goals initiative, particularly goal 4 . Related policies include
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5628-596: Is akin to secondary education in complexity but places greater emphasis on vocational training to ready students for the workforce. In some countries, tertiary education is synonymous with higher education , while in others, tertiary education encompasses a broader spectrum. Tertiary education builds upon the foundation laid in secondary education but delves deeper into specific fields or subjects. Its culmination results in an academic degree . Tertiary education comprises four levels: short-cycle tertiary, bachelor's , master's , and doctoral education. These levels often form
5762-806: Is awarded honorarily by some US universities to distinguished teachers (in the US and UK, earned degrees within the instructive field are classified as an Ed.D., Doctor of Education , or a Ph.D., Doctor of Philosophy ). The term is also used to denote an emphasis in education as a specialty in a field (for instance, a Doctor of Music degree in piano pedagogy ). The education of pedagogues, and their role in society, varies greatly from culture to culture. Important pedagogues in Belgium are Jan Masschelein and Maarten Simons (Catholic University of Leuven). According to these scholars, schools nowadays are often dismissed as outdated or ineffective. Deschoolers even argue that schools rest on
5896-596: Is compulsory in numerous countries across Central and East Asia, Europe, and the Americas. In some nations, it represents the final phase of compulsory education. However, mandatory lower secondary education is less common in Arab states, sub-Saharan Africa, and South and West Asia. Upper secondary education typically commences around the age of 15, aiming to equip students with the necessary skills and knowledge for employment or tertiary education. Completion of lower secondary education
6030-455: Is concerned with "observing and refining one's skill as a teacher". A more inclusive definition combines these two characterizations and sees pedagogy both as the practice of teaching and the discourse and study of teaching methods. Some theorists give an even wider definition by including considerations such as "the development of health and bodily fitness, social and moral welfare, ethics and aesthetics ". Due to this variety of meanings, it
6164-543: Is criticized that students often do not learn for their future life or out of interest in the material, but only for the grades and the associated status, which promotes bulimic learning . German philosopher and publicist Richard David Precht criticizes the system of school grades in his book Anna, die Schule und der liebe Gott: Der Verrat des Bildungssystems an unseren Kindern . He believes that numbers from 1 to 6 (the school grading system used in Germany) do not do justice to
6298-460: Is focused on the knowledge, skills and competences to be acquired by students (learning outcomes) through the learning process, rather than on completing a specific stage or on time spent in school." (European Commission, 2012, p.7) This is, according to Masschelein and Simons a plea for learning outcomes and demonstrates a vision of education in which the institution is no longer the point of departure. The main ambition in this discourse of education
6432-403: Is funded and controlled by the government and available to the general public. It typically does not require tuition fees and is therefore a form of free education . In contrast, private education is funded and managed by private institutions. Private schools often have a more selective admission process and offer paid education by charging tuition fees. A more detailed classification focuses on
6566-410: Is influenced by, the social, political, and psychological development of learners. Pedagogy, taken as an academic discipline, is the study of how knowledge and skills are imparted in an educational context, and it considers the interactions that take place during learning. Both the theory and practice of pedagogy vary greatly as they reflect different social, political, and cultural contexts. Pedagogy
6700-407: Is interested in the forms and methods used to convey this understanding. Pedagogy is closely related to didactics but there are some differences. Usually, didactics is seen as the more limited term that refers mainly to the teacher's role and activities, i.e how their behavior is most beneficial to the process of education. This is one central aspect of pedagogy besides other aspects that consider
6834-424: Is necessary to maintain social stability. By facilitating individuals' integration into society, education fosters economic growth and diminishes poverty . It enables workers to enhance their skills, thereby improving the quality of goods and services produced, which ultimately fosters prosperity and enhances competitiveness. Public education is widely regarded as a long-term investment that benefits society as
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#17331052843566968-417: Is normally a prerequisite. The curriculum encompasses a broader range of subjects, often affording students the opportunity to select from various options. Attainment of a formal qualification, such as a high school diploma , is frequently linked to successful completion of upper secondary education. Education beyond the secondary level may fall under the category of post-secondary non-tertiary education, which
7102-677: Is often closely associated with the concept of IQ , a standardized numerical measure assessing intelligence based on mathematical-logical and verbal abilities. However, it has been argued that intelligence encompasses various types beyond IQ. Psychologist Howard Gardner posited distinct forms of intelligence in domains such as mathematics , logic , spatial cognition , language, and music. Additional types of intelligence influence interpersonal and intrapersonal interactions. These intelligences are largely autonomous, meaning that an individual may excel in one type while performing less well in another. According to proponents of learning style theory,
7236-535: Is often described as the act of teaching. The pedagogy adopted by teachers shapes their actions, judgments, and teaching strategies by taking into consideration theories of learning , understandings of students and their needs, and the backgrounds and interests of individual students. Its aims may range from furthering liberal education (the general development of human potential) to the narrower specifics of vocational education (the imparting and acquisition of specific skills). Instructive strategies are governed by
7370-432: Is often specifically understood in relation to school education. But in a wider sense, it includes all forms of education, both inside and outside schools. In this wide sense, it is concerned with the process of teaching taking place between two parties: teachers and learners. The teacher's goal is to bring about certain experiences in the learner to foster their understanding of the subject matter to be taught. Pedagogy
7504-483: Is political. Decisions regarding the curriculum , disciplinary practices, student testing , textbook selection, the language used by the teacher, and more can empower or disempower students. It asserts that educational practices favor some students over others and some practices harm all students. It also asserts that educational practices often favor some voices and perspectives while marginalizing or ignoring others. The academic degree Ped. D., Doctor of Pedagogy,
7638-415: Is seen as a process of shared experience, involving the discovery of a common world and the collaborative solving of problems . There are several classifications of education. One classification depends on the institutional framework, distinguishing between formal, non-formal, and informal education. Another classification involves different levels of education based on factors such as the student's age and
7772-458: Is sometimes suggested that pedagogy is a "catch-all term" associated with various issues of teaching and learning. In this sense, it lacks a precise definition. According to Patricia Murphy, a detailed reflection on the meaning of the term "pedagogy" is important nonetheless since different theorists often use it in very different ways. In some cases, non-trivial assumptions about the nature of learning are even included in its definition. Pedagogy
7906-602: Is the methodology of education . As a methodology, it investigates the ways and practices that can be used to realize the aims of education . The main aim is often identified with the transmission of knowledge . Other aims include fostering skills and character traits . They include helping the student develop their intellectual and social abilities as well as psychomotor and affective learning, which are about developing practical skills and adequate emotional dispositions, respectively. However, not everyone agrees with this characterization of pedagogy and some see it less as
8040-550: Is the book "Looking after school: a critical analysis of personalisation in Education". It takes a critical look at the main discourse of today's education. Education is seen through a socio-economic lens: education is aimed at mobilising talents and competencies (p23). This is seen in multiple texts from governing bodies, in Belgium and Europe. One of the most significant examples is quoted on page 23: "Education and training can only contribute to growth and job-creation if learning
8174-404: Is the efficient and effective realisation of learning outcomes for all. Things like the place and time of learning, didactic and pedagogic support are means to an end: the acquisition of preplanned learning outcomes. And these outcomes are a direct input for the knowledge economy. Masschelein and Simons' main critique here is that the main concern is not the educational institution (anymore). Rather,
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#17331052843568308-399: Is to overcome the challenges posed by these impairments, providing affected students with access to an appropriate educational structure. In the broadest sense, special education also encompasses education for intellectually gifted children , who require adjusted curricula to reach their fullest potential. Classifications based on the teaching method include teacher-centered education, where
8442-817: Is underscored by the annual International Day of Education on January 24, established by the United Nations , which designated 1970 as the International Education Year. Organized institutions play a pivotal role in multiple facets of education. Entities such as schools, universities, teacher training institutions, and ministries of education comprise the education sector. They interact not only with one another but also with various stakeholders, including parents, local communities, religious groups, non-governmental organizations , healthcare professionals, law enforcement agencies, media platforms, and political leaders. Numerous individuals are directly engaged in
8576-456: Is usually distinguished from a teacher 's by primarily focusing on teaching children life-preparing knowledge such as social or non-curriculum skills, and cultural norms . There is also a very big focus on the care and well-being of the child. Many pedagogical institutions also practice social inclusion . The pedagogue's work also consists of supporting the child in their mental and social development. In Denmark all pedagogues are educated at
8710-413: Is usually overseen and regulated by the government and often mandated up to a certain age. Non-formal and informal education occur outside the formal schooling system, with non-formal education serving as a middle ground. Like formal education, non-formal education is organized, systematic, and pursued with a clear purpose, as seen in activities such as tutoring , fitness classes, and participation in
8844-573: The Big Five personality traits , are associated with academic success. Other mental factors include self-efficacy , self-esteem , and metacognitive abilities. Sociological factors center not on the psychological attributes of learners but on their environment and societal position. These factors encompass socioeconomic status , ethnicity , cultural background , and gender , drawing significant interest from researchers due to their association with inequality and discrimination . Consequently, they play
8978-667: The Convention against Discrimination in Education and the Futures of Education initiative. Some influential organizations are non-governmental rather than intergovernmental. For instance, the International Association of Universities promotes collaboration and knowledge exchange among colleges and universities worldwide, while the International Baccalaureate offers international diploma programs. Institutions like
9112-871: The Erasmus Programme facilitate student exchanges between countries, while initiatives such as the Fulbright Program provide similar services for teachers. Educational success, also referred to as student and academic achievement, pertains to the extent to which educational objectives are met, such as the acquisition of knowledge and skills by students. For practical purposes, it is often primarily measured in terms of official exam scores, but numerous additional indicators exist, including attendance rates, graduation rates, dropout rates, student attitudes, and post-school indicators such as later income and incarceration rates. Several factors influence educational achievement, such as psychological factors related to
9246-609: The Renaissance , the Reformation , and the Age of Enlightenment . Socrates (470 – 399 BCE) employed the Socratic method while engaging with a student or peer. This style does not impart knowledge, but rather tries to strengthen the logic of the student by revealing the conclusions of the statement of the student as erroneous or supported. The instructor in this learning environment recognizes
9380-652: The World Wide Web or other network technologies, are recent developments in distance education. A number of other terms (distributed learning, e-learning, online learning, etc.) are used roughly synonymously with distance education. Adapting the teaching resource should suit appropriate teaching and learning environments , national and local cultural norms, and make it accessible to different types of learners. Key adaptations in teaching resource include: Classroom constraints Cultural familiarity Local relevance Inclusivity for diverse students Dialogic learning
9514-536: The sciences , music , and art . Another objective is to facilitate personal development. Presently, primary education is compulsory in nearly all nations, with over 90% of primary-school-age children worldwide attending such schools. Secondary education succeeds primary education and typically spans the ages of 12 to 18 years. It is normally divided into lower secondary education (such as middle school or junior high school) and upper secondary education (like high school , senior high school, or college , depending on
9648-500: The scouting movement. Informal education, on the other hand, occurs in an unsystematic manner through daily experiences and exposure to the environment. Unlike formal and non-formal education, there is typically no designated authority figure responsible for teaching. Informal education unfolds in various settings and situations throughout one's life, often spontaneously, such as children learning their first language from their parents or individuals mastering cooking skills by preparing
9782-530: The severe restrictions imposed on female education by the Taliban in Afghanistan , and the school segregation of migrants and locals in urban China under the hukou system. Pedagogically Pedagogy ( / ˈ p ɛ d ə ɡ ɒ dʒ i , - ɡ oʊ dʒ i , - ɡ ɒ ɡ i / ), most commonly understood as the approach to teaching , is the theory and practice of learning , and how this process influences, and
9916-534: The teacher to the student . In original usage, student-centered learning aims to develop learner autonomy and independence by putting responsibility for the learning path in the hands of students. Student-centered instruction focuses on skills and practices that enable lifelong learning and independent problem-solving. Critical pedagogy applies critical theory to pedagogy and asserts that educational practices are contested and shaped by history, that schools are not politically neutral spaces, and that teaching
10050-469: The Curriculum (1902), Democracy and Education (1916), Schools of To-morrow (1915) with Evelyn Dewey , and Experience and Education (1938). In his eyes, the purpose of education should not revolve around the acquisition of a pre-determined set of skills, but rather the realization of one's full potential and the ability to use those skills for the greater good ( My Pedagogic Creed , Dewey, 1897). Dewey advocated for an educational structure that strikes
10184-512: The Western world, pedagogy is associated with the Greek tradition of philosophical dialogue, particularly the Socratic method of inquiry. A more general account of its development holds that it emerged from the active concept of humanity as distinct from a fatalistic one and that history and human destiny are results of human actions. This idea germinated in ancient Greece and was further developed during
10318-417: The age of the learner are childhood education, adolescent education, adult education, and elderly education. Categories based on the biological sex of students include single-sex education and mixed-sex education . Special education is tailored to meet the unique needs of students with disabilities , addressing various impairments on intellectual , social, communicative, and physical levels. Its goal
10452-557: The attainment of skilled judgement rather than knowledge of rules. Other relevant practices in the Confucian teaching tradition include the Rite and its notion of body-knowledge as well as Confucian understanding of the self, one that has a broader conceptualization than the Western individual self. A hidden curriculum refers to extra educational activities or side effect of an education, "[lessons] which are learned but not openly intended" such as
10586-434: The authors mean with that, is the following: school is a particular time-space-matter arrangement. This thus includes concretes architectures, technologies, practices and figures. This arrangement "deals in a specific way with the new generation, allows for a particular relation to the world, and for a particular experience of potentiality and of commonality (of making things public)". Masschelein and Simons' most famous work
10720-415: The best possible grade. In addition, poor grades represent destructive feedback for students, since they do not provide any constructive assistance, but only absolute key figures. It is also criticized that the way of thinking, which can often be traced back to the grading system, that bad grades lead to poor future prospects, leads to perplexity, pressure, stress and depression among parents and children. It
10854-497: The body. He only recommends the Bible as reading material, with limited exposure, and cautions against musical instruments. He advocates against letting girls interact with society, and of having "affections for one of her companions than for others." He does recommend teaching the alphabet by ivory blocks instead of memorization so "She will thus learn by playing." He is an advocate of positive reinforcement , stating "Do not chide her for
10988-482: The complex relationship between the mode of examination (oral or written) and the varying philosophies of education these modes imply to both the teacher and the student. The A-D/F system was first adopted by Mount Holyoke College in 1897. However, this system did not become widespread until the 1940s, and was still only used by 67% of primary and secondary schools in the United States in 1971. It has been criticized that grades are only short-term snapshots of how much
11122-474: The complexity of the content. Further categories focus on the topic, teaching method, medium used, and funding. The most common division is between formal , non-formal , and informal education . Formal education occurs within a structured institutional framework, typically with a chronological and hierarchical order. The modern schooling system organizes classes based on the student's age and progress, ranging from primary school to university. Formal education
11256-762: The content to be learned by participating in classroom activities like discussions, resulting in a deeper understanding of the subject. Motivation can also help students overcome difficulties and setbacks. An important distinction lies between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsically motivated students are driven by an interest in the subject and the learning experience itself. Extrinsically motivated students seek external rewards such as good grades and recognition from peers. Intrinsic motivation tends to be more beneficial, leading to increased creativity, engagement, and long-term commitment. Educational psychologists aim to discover methods to increase motivation, such as encouraging healthy competition among students while maintaining
11390-556: The country). Lower secondary education usually requires the completion of primary school as its entry prerequisite. It aims to expand and deepen learning outcomes, with a greater focus on subject-specific curricula , and teachers often specialize in one or a few specific subjects. One of its goals is to acquaint students with fundamental theoretical concepts across various subjects, laying a strong foundation for lifelong learning . In certain instances, it may also incorporate rudimentary forms of vocational training . Lower secondary education
11524-547: The development of students' personalities. Evidence-based education employs scientific studies to determine the most effective educational methods. Its aim is to optimize the effectiveness of educational practices and policies by ensuring they are grounded in the best available empirical evidence . This encompasses evidence-based teaching, evidence-based learning, and school effectiveness research. Autodidacticism , or self-education, occurs independently of teachers and institutions. Primarily observed in adult education, it offers
11658-509: The difficulty she may have in learning. On the contrary, encourage her by commendation..." Jean Charlier de Gerson (13 December 1363 – 12 July 1429), the Chancellor of the University of Paris , wrote in De parvulis ad Christum trahendis "Little children are more easily managed by caresses than fear," supporting a more gentle approach than his Christian predecessors. He also states "Above all else, let
11792-421: The early stages of education when the child's mind is not yet fully developed. This is particularly relevant in cases where young children must learn certain things without comprehending the underlying reasons, such as specific safety rules and hygiene practices. Education can be characterized from both the teacher's and the student's perspectives. Teacher-centered definitions emphasize the perspective and role of
11926-428: The education sector, such as students, teachers, school principals, as well as school nurses and curriculum developers. Various aspects of formal education are regulated by the policies of governmental institutions. These policies determine at what age children need to attend school and at what times classes are held, as well as issues pertaining to the school environment, such as infrastructure. Regulations also cover
12060-451: The emergence of ancient civilizations , the invention of writing led to an expansion of knowledge, prompting a transition from informal to formal education. Initially, formal education was largely accessible to elites and religious groups. The advent of the printing press in the 15th century facilitated widespread access to books, thus increasing general literacy . In the 18th and 19th centuries, public education gained significance, paving
12194-433: The enjoyment of the learning process, typically prevails. While the differentiation among the three types is generally clear, certain forms of education may not neatly fit into a single category. In primitive cultures, education predominantly occurred informally, with little distinction between educational activities and other daily endeavors. Instead, the entire environment served as a classroom, and adults commonly assumed
12328-464: The exact qualifications and requirements that teachers need to fulfill. An important aspect of education policy concerns the curriculum used for teaching at schools, colleges, and universities. A curriculum is a plan of instruction or a program of learning that guides students to achieve their educational goals. The topics are usually selected based on their importance and depend on the type of school. The goals of public school curricula are usually to offer
12462-443: The false premise that schools are necessary for learning but that people learn faster or better outside the classroom. Others critique the fact that some teachers stand before a classroom with only six weeks of teacher education. Against this background, Masschelein and Simons propose to look at school from a different point of view. Their educational morphology approaches the school as a particular scholastic 'form of gathering'. What
12596-400: The first grades issued at Yale (and possibly the first in the country) were given out in the year 1785, when President Ezra Stiles , after examining 58 Seniors, recorded in his diary that there were 'Twenty Optimi , sixteen second Optimi , twelve Inferiores ( Boni ), ten Pejores .'" By 1837, Yale had converted these adjectives into numbers on a 4-point scale, and some historians say this is
12730-469: The focus lies on the learning processes and mainly on the learning outcomes of the individual learner. In Brazil, a pedagogue is a multidisciplinary educator. Undergraduate education in Pedagogy qualifies students to become school administrators or coordinators at all educational levels, and also to become multidisciplinary teachers, such as pre-school, elementary and special teachers. In Scandinavia,
12864-486: The freedom to choose what and when to study, making it a potentially more fulfilling learning experience. However, the lack of structure and guidance may lead to aimless learning, while the absence of external feedback could result in autodidacts developing misconceptions and inaccurately assessing their learning progress. Autodidacticism is closely associated with lifelong education , which entails continuous learning throughout one's life. Categories of education based on
12998-457: The importance of critical thinking in distinguishing education from indoctrination . They argue that indoctrination focuses solely on instilling beliefs in students, regardless of their rationality; whereas education also encourages the rational ability to critically examine and question those beliefs. However, it is not universally accepted that these two phenomena can be clearly distinguished, as some forms of indoctrination may be necessary in
13132-502: The individual student, and sociological factors associated with the student's social environment. Additional factors encompass access to educational technology , teacher quality, and parental involvement. Many of these factors overlap and mutually influence each other. On a psychological level, relevant factors include motivation , intelligence , and personality. Motivation is the internal force propelling people to engage in learning. Motivated students are more likely to interact with
13266-481: The learner's perspective as well. In this wider sense, pedagogy focuses on "any conscious activity by one person designed to enhance learning in another". The word pedagogy is a derivative of the Greek παιδαγωγία ( paidagōgia ), from παιδαγωγός ( paidagōgos ), itself a synthesis of ἄγω ( ágō ), "I lead", and παῖς ( país , genitive παιδός , paidos ) "boy, child": hence, "attendance on boys, to lead
13400-654: The learners' need to think for themselves to facilitate their ability to think about problems and issues. It was first described by Plato in the Socratic Dialogues . Plato (428/427 or 424/423 – 348/347 BCE) describes a system of education in The Republic (375 BCE) in which individual and family rights are sacrificed to the State. He describes three castes: one to learn a trade; one to learn literary and aesthetic ideas; and one to be trained in literary, aesthetic, scientific, and philosophical ideas. Plato saw education as
13534-583: The more vocational Bachelor in Social Education. In Hungary, the word pedagogue ( pedagógus ) is synonymous with the teacher ( tanár ); therefore, teachers of both primary and secondary schools may be referred to as pedagogues, a word that appears also in the name of their lobbyist organizations and labor unions (e.g. Labor Union of Pedagogues, Democratic Labor Union of Pedagogues ). However, undergraduate education in Pedagogy does not qualify students to become teachers in primary or secondary schools but makes them able to apply to be educational assistants. As of 2013,
13668-428: The nature of education, its objectives, impacts, and methods for enhancement. Education studies encompasses various subfields, including philosophy , psychology , sociology , and economics of education . Additionally, it explores topics such as comparative education , pedagogy , and the history of education . In prehistory , education primarily occurred informally through oral communication and imitation . With
13802-474: The origin of the standard modern American GPA scale. Bob Marlin argues that the concept of grading students' work quantitatively was developed by a tutor named William Farish and first implemented by the University of Cambridge in 1792. That assertion has been questioned by Christopher Stray, who finds the evidence for Farish as the inventor of the numerical mark to be unpersuasive. Stray's article also explains
13936-403: The period from birth until the commencement of primary school . It is designed to facilitate holistic child development, addressing physical, mental, and social aspects. Early childhood education is pivotal in fostering socialization and personality development , while also imparting fundamental skills in communication, learning, and problem-solving. Its overarching goal is to prepare children for
14070-404: The personalities of the children. In his opinion, grades are neither meaningful nor differentiated and therefore not helpful. For example, the questions whether a student has become more motivated, is more interested in a topic, has learned to deal better with failure and whether he has developed new ideas cannot be answered with grades. Instead, Precht suggests a differentiated written assessment of
14204-735: The preferred method of acquiring knowledge and skills is another factor. They hold that students with an auditory learning style find it easy to comprehend spoken lectures and discussions, whereas visual learners benefit from information presented visually, such as in diagrams and videos. To facilitate efficient learning, it may be advantageous to incorporate a wide variety of learning modalities. Learning styles have been criticized for ambiguous empirical evidence of student benefits and unreliability of student learning style assessment by teachers. The learner's personality may also influence educational achievement. For instance, characteristics such as conscientiousness and openness to experience , identified in
14338-563: The preservation and transmission of knowledge and skills rooted in indigenous heritage. This approach often employs traditional methods such as oral narration and storytelling. Other forms of alternative schooling include gurukul schools in India, madrasa schools in the Middle East, and yeshivas in Jewish tradition. Some distinctions revolve around the recipients of education. Categories based on
14472-402: The pupil's background knowledge and experience, situation and environment, as well as learning goals set by the student and teacher. One example would be the Socratic method . The meaning of the term "pedagogy" is often contested and a great variety of definitions has been suggested. The most common approach is to define it as the study or science of teaching methods . In this sense, it
14606-463: The role of educators. However, informal education often proves insufficient for imparting large quantities of knowledge. To address this limitation, formal educational settings and trained instructors are typically necessary. This necessity contributed to the increasing significance of formal education throughout history. Over time, formal education led to a shift towards more abstract learning experiences and topics, distancing itself from daily life. There
14740-745: The situation. Low socioeconomic status is also associated with poorer physical and mental health , contributing to a cycle of social inequality that persists across generations. Ethnic background correlates with cultural distinctions and language barriers, which can pose challenges for students in adapting to the school environment and comprehending classes. Moreover, explicit and implicit biases and discrimination against ethnic minorities further compound these difficulties. Such biases can impact students' self-esteem, motivation, and access to educational opportunities. For instance, teachers may harbor stereotypical perceptions, albeit not overtly racist , leading to differential grading of comparable performances based on
14874-513: The six-year training period was re-installed in place of the undergraduate and postgraduate division which characterized the previous practice. An article from Kathmandu Post published on 3 June 2018 described the usual first day of school in an academic calendar. Teachers meet their students with distinct traits. The diversity of attributions among children or teens exceeds similarities. Educators have to teach students with different cultural, social, and religious backgrounds. This situation entails
15008-510: The skills necessary to become productive members of society. In doing so, it stimulates economic growth and raises awareness of local and global problems . Organized institutions play a significant role in education. For instance, governments establish education policies to determine the timing of school classes, the curriculum, and attendance requirements. International organizations , such as UNESCO , have been influential in promoting primary education for all children . Many factors influence
15142-546: The social institutions responsible for education, such as family, school, civil society, state, and church. Compulsory education refers to education that individuals are legally mandated to receive, primarily affecting children who must attend school up to a certain age. This stands in contrast to voluntary education, which individuals pursue based on personal choice rather than legal obligation. Education serves various roles in society , spanning social, economic, and personal domains. Socially, education establishes and maintains
15276-538: The student's age, the duration of learning, and the complexity of the content covered. Additional criteria include entry requirements, teacher qualifications, and the intended outcome of successful completion. The levels are grouped into early childhood education (level 0), primary education (level 1), secondary education (levels 2–3), post-secondary non-tertiary education (level 4), and tertiary education (levels 5–8). Early childhood education, also referred to as preschool education or nursery education, encompasses
15410-593: The student, ensuring the process is beneficial, and conducting it in a morally appropriate manner. While such precise definitions often characterize the most typical forms of education effectively, they face criticism because less common types of education may occasionally fall outside their parameters. Dealing with counterexamples not covered by precise definitions can be challenging, which is why some theorists prefer offering less exact definitions based on family resemblance instead. This approach suggests that all forms of education are similar to each other but need not share
15544-602: The students' learning and development path. In his opinion, the grading system comes from a psychologically and pedagogically uninformed era and does not belong in the 21st century. German educational innovator Margret Rasfeld criticizes the system of grades as unhelpful and, in her opinion, the resulting competitive thinking in schools and says: "School is there to organize success and not to document failure." German neuroscientist Gerald Hüther criticizes grades for being responsible for ensuring that students cannot specialize in any topic that they are enthusiastic about and have
15678-663: The students. Examples of governmental institutions include the Ministry of Education in India, the Department of Basic Education in South Africa, and the Secretariat of Public Education in Mexico. International organizations also play a pivotal role in education. For example, UNESCO is an intergovernmental organization that promotes education through various means. One of its activities
15812-727: The subject encompass science education , language education , art education , religious education , physical education , and sex education . Special mediums such as radio or websites are utilized in distance education , including e-learning (use of computers), m-learning (use of mobile devices), and online education. Often, these take the form of open education , wherein courses and materials are accessible with minimal barriers, contrasting with traditional classroom or onsite education. However, not all forms of online education are open; for instance, some universities offer full online degree programs that are not part of open education initiatives. State education, also known as public education ,
15946-425: The success of education. Psychological factors include motivation , intelligence , and personality . Social factors, such as socioeconomic status , ethnicity , and gender , are often associated with discrimination . Other factors encompass access to educational technology , teacher quality, and parental involvement. The primary academic field examining education is known as education studies . It delves into
16080-439: The teacher and student alike. Confucius (551–479 BCE) stated that authority has the responsibility to provide oral and written instruction to the people under the rule, and "should do them good in every possible way." One of the deepest teachings of Confucius may have been the superiority of personal exemplification over explicit rules of behavior. His moral teachings emphasized self-cultivation, emulation of moral exemplars, and
16214-401: The teacher in transmitting knowledge and skills in a morally appropriate manner. On the other hand, student-centered definitions analyze education based on the student's involvement in the learning process, suggesting that this process transforms and enriches their subsequent experiences. It's also possible to consider definitions that incorporate both perspectives. In this approach, education
16348-520: The teacher make an effort to be a father to his pupils." He is considered a precursor of Fenelon . John Amos Comenius (28 March 1592 – 15 November 1670) is considered the father of modern education. Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (January 12, 1746 – February 17, 1827), founder of several educational institutions both in German- and French-speaking regions of Switzerland and wrote many works explaining his revolutionary modern principles of education. His motto
16482-480: The teacher plays a central role in imparting information to students, and student-centered education , where students take on a more active and responsible role in shaping classroom activities. In conscious education, learning and teaching occur with a clear purpose in mind. Unconscious education unfolds spontaneously without conscious planning or guidance. This may occur, in part, through the influence of teachers' and adults' personalities , which can indirectly impact
16616-517: The teaching process, Herbart suggested five steps as crucial components. Specifically, these five steps include: preparation, presentation, association, generalization, and application. Herbart suggests that pedagogy relates to having assumptions as an educator and a specific set of abilities with a deliberate end goal in mind. The pedagogy of John Dewey (20 October 1859 – 1 June 1952) is presented in several works, including My Pedagogic Creed (1897), The School and Society (1900), The Child and
16750-565: The term "education" can denote the mental states and qualities of educated individuals and the academic field studying educational phenomena. The precise definition of education is disputed, and there are disagreements about the aims of education and the extent to which education differs from indoctrination by fostering critical thinking . These disagreements impact how to identify, measure, and enhance various forms of education. Essentially, education socializes children into society by instilling cultural values and norms , equipping them with
16884-573: The term may also refer to the academic field that studies the methods, processes, and social institutions involved in teaching and learning. Having a clear understanding of the term is crucial when attempting to identify educational phenomena, measure educational success, and improve educational practices. Some theorists provide precise definitions by identifying specific features exclusive to all forms of education. Education theorist R. S. Peters , for instance, outlines three essential features of education, including imparting knowledge and understanding to
17018-415: The theory is based only on Gardner's intuition instead of empirical data. Another criticism is that the intelligence is too identical for types of personalities. The theory of Howard Gardner came from cognitive research and states these intelligences help people to " know the world, understand themselves, and other people ." Said differences dispute an educational system that presumes students can " understand
17152-494: The transition to primary education. While preschool education is typically optional, in certain countries such as Brazil, it is mandatory starting from the age of four. Primary (or elementary) education usually begins between the ages of five and seven and spans four to seven years. It has no additional entry requirements and aims to impart fundamental skills in reading, writing, and mathematics. Additionally, it provides essential knowledge in subjects such as history , geography ,
17286-534: The transmission of norms, values, and beliefs conveyed in the classroom and the social environment. Learning space or learning setting refers to a physical setting for a learning environment , a place in which teaching and learning occur. The term is commonly used as a more definitive alternative to " classroom ", but it may also refer to an indoor or outdoor location, either actual or virtual. Learning spaces are highly diverse in use, learning styles , configuration, location, and educational institution. They support
17420-500: The way for the global movement to provide primary education to all, free of charge , and compulsory up to a certain age. Presently, over 90% of primary-school-age children worldwide attend primary school. The term "education" originates from the Latin words educare , meaning "to bring up," and educere , meaning "to bring forth." The definition of education has been explored by theorists from various fields. Many agree that education
17554-459: Was "Learning by head, hand and heart". The educational philosophy and pedagogy of Johann Friedrich Herbart (4 May 1776 – 14 August 1841) highlighted the correlation between personal development and the resulting benefits to society. In other words, Herbart proposed that humans become fulfilled once they establish themselves as productive citizens. Herbartianism refers to the movement underpinned by Herbart's theoretical perspectives. Referring to
17688-419: Was a Christian scholar who rejected all pagan education, insisting this was "a road to the false and arrogant wisdom of ancient philosophers". Saint Jerome (347 – 30 September 420 CE), or Saint Hieronymus, was a Christian scholar who detailed his pedagogy of girls in numerous letters throughout his life. He did not believe the body in need of training, and thus advocated for fasting and mortification to subdue
17822-659: Was a greater emphasis on understanding general principles and concepts rather than simply observing and imitating specific behaviors. Types of education are often categorized into different levels or stages. One influential framework is the International Standard Classification of Education , maintained by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). This classification encompasses both formal and non-formal education and distinguishes levels based on factors such as
17956-632: Was minimal specialization , with children typically learning a broad range of skills essential for community functioning. However, modern societies are increasingly complex, with many professions requiring specialized training alongside general education. Consequently, only a relatively small number of individuals master certain professions. Additionally, skills and tendencies acquired for societal functioning may sometimes conflict, with their value dependent on context. For instance, fostering curiosity and questioning established teachings promotes critical thinking and innovation, while at times, obedience to authority
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