Leontius of Jerusalem ( Greek : Λεόντιος , ca.485 - ca.543, though debated) was a Byzantine Christian theologian, monk and proponent of the Council of Chalcedon .
101-573: Virtually all of Egypt and much of Palestine and Syria had rejected Chalcedon (451). By the 530s this reached a breaking point with the risk of schism - as eventually happened, with Oriental Orthodoxy being descended of those who rejected the council. Leontius involved himself in trying to convince anti-Chalcedonians of the validity of Chalcedonian Christology . He is known only from two of his works: Several scholars have questioned Leontius' use of sources. In P. T. R. Gray's (Professor of Religious Studies York University ) Leontius of Jerusalem: Against
202-809: A distinct theology and dogma , include the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Oriental Orthodox communion, the Eastern Catholic Churches and the Assyrian Church of the East. In most Eastern churches, parish priests administer the sacrament of chrismation to infants after baptism , and priests are allowed to marry before ordination. The Eastern Catholic Churches recognize the authority of the Pope of Rome , but some of them who have originally been part of
303-469: A high number of graduate (68%) and post-graduate (28%) degrees per capita. Scholars and intellectuals agree Christians have made significant contributions to Arab and Islamic civilization since the introduction of Islam , and they have had a significant impact contributing the culture of the Middle East and North Africa and other areas. Byzantine science played an important and crucial role in
404-462: A later date than Leontius of Byzantium. Krausmüller has suggested that the original arguments of Loofs were correct in dating the Contra Monophysitas either between the years 568 and 680, or between 580 and 640. Based on more current scholarship and his own conclusions, Krausmüller has concluded that Leontius of Jerusalem does not belong to the reign of Justinian, as formerly supposed, but to
505-560: A later date, as he must have written the Contra Nestorianos in 614 at the earliest. Dell'Osso, judging these arguments favorably, echoes Krausmüller's conclusions that Leontius of Jerusalem was a theologian of the seventh century, and based on certain similarities between the writings of this later Leontius and those of Maximus the Confessor (c. 580–662), assigns them to the same time period. Leontius' influence on Justinian I has been
606-522: A magisterial leader like the Catholic Church , nor does the communion have a leader who can convene ecumenical synods like the Eastern Orthodox Church. Meanwhile its ecumenical dialogues and internal church relations are led by the Standing Conference of Oriental Orthodox Churches, which acts as the permanent representative council of its member churches. The schism between Oriental Orthodoxy and
707-672: A much discussed topic among scholars. In his work entitled: Leontius of Jerusalem's "Against the Monophysites" As A Possible Source For Justinian's "Letter to the Alexandrian Monks" , J. MacDonald states that "One aspect of Leontius of Jerusalem's importance is his possible influence upon the Christology of the Emperor Justinian." This idea stems from the similarities between the writings of the two, especially between Leontius' Against
808-593: A possible repudiation of the Trinity or a concession to Nestorianism . The break in communion between the imperial Roman and Oriental Orthodox Churches did not occur suddenly, but rather gradually over two to three centuries following the Council of Chalcedon. Eventually the two communions developed separate institutions, and the Oriental Orthodox did not participate in any of the later ecumenical councils. The Oriental Orthodox Churches maintain ancient apostolic succession and
909-528: A top-down hierarchy (see primus inter pares ). The Eastern Orthodox reject the Filioque clause as contrast to Catholics. The Catholic Church was once in communion with the Eastern Orthodox Church, but the two split after the East–West Schism and are no longer in communion. It is estimated that there are approximately 240 million Eastern Orthodox Christians in the world. Today, many adherents shun
1010-447: Is a list of the six autocephalous Oriental Orthodox churches forming the main body of Oriental Orthodox Christianity. Based on the definitions, the list is in the alphabetical order, with some of their constituent autonomous churches and exarchates listed as well. There are a number of churches considered non-canonical, but whose members and clergy may or may not be in communion with the greater Oriental Orthodox communion. Examples include
1111-558: Is a prevailing religion in Ethiopia (43.1%), while Protestants account for 19.4% and Islam – 34.1%. It is most widespread in two regions in Ethiopia : Amhara (82%) and Tigray (96%), as well as the capital city of Addis Ababa (75%). It is also one of two major religions in Eritrea (40%). It is a minority in Egypt (<20%), Syria (2–3% out of the 10% of total Christians), Lebanon (10% of
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#17328455755011212-665: Is also underway between Oriental Orthodoxy and the Catholic Church and others. In 2017, the mutual recognition of baptism was restored between the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria and the Catholic Church. Also baptism is mutually recognized between the Armenian Apostolic Church and the Catholic Church. The Oriental Orthodox Churches are generally considered to be more conservative with regard to social issues . All Oriental Orthodox Churches are members of
1313-755: Is not a utopia. At a meeting in Balamand , Lebanon , in June 1993, the Joint International Commission for the Theological Dialogue between the Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church declared that these initiatives that "led to the union of certain communities with the See of Rome and brought with them, as a consequence, the breaking of communion with their Mother Churches of the East … took place not without
1414-702: Is offering prayer before a holy God. In this Christian tradition, it is customary for women to wear a Christian headcovering when praying. Some Oriental Orthodox Churches such as the Coptic Orthodox , Ethiopian Orthodox , and Eritrean Orthodox , also place a heavier emphasis on Old Testament teachings than one might find in other Christian denominations, and its followers adhere to certain practices: following dietary rules that are similar to Jewish Kashrut , require that their male members undergo circumcision , and observes ritual purification . The Oriental Orthodox Churches also maintain differing compilations of
1515-418: Is therefore Richard who is responsible for establishing the identity of Leontius as an author in his own right. The attribution of various works to one or the other Leontius has been widely accepted. Richard identified Leontius of Jerusalem as the author of Contra Monophysitas and Contra Nestorianos . To Leontius of Byzantium, on the other hand, he assigned the three books Contra Nestorianos et Eutychianos ,
1616-432: Is thus made up of fourteen or sixteen autocephalous bodies. Smaller churches are autonomous and each have a mother church that is autocephalous. All Eastern Orthodox are united in doctrinal agreement with each other, though a few are not in communion at present, for non-doctrinal reasons. This is in contrast to the Catholic Church and its various churches. Members of the latter are all in communion with each other, parts of
1717-599: The Balkans and the Caucasus ( Georgia , Abkhazia , Ossetia etc.), with a growing presence in the Western world . Eastern Orthodox Christians accept the decisions of the first seven ecumenical councils . Eastern Orthodox Christianity identifies itself as the original Christian church (see early centers of Christianity ) founded by Christ and the Apostles, and traces its lineage back to
1818-849: The Catholicosate of Cilicia in the Levant and of diaspora; the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church , and the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church . The Malabar Independent Syrian Church —based in India—and the British Orthodox Church in the UK are independent Oriental Orthodox churches, having formerly been part of one of the mainstream Oriental Orthodox churches. Oriental Orthodox Christians consider themselves to be
1919-616: The Catholicosate of the Great House of Cilicia . The division between the two sees intensified during the Soviet period. The Holy See of Etchmiadzin was seen as a captive communist puppet by some Western bishops and clergy. Sympathizers of this established congregations independent of Etchmiadzin, declaring loyalty instead to the see based in Antelias in Lebanon . The division was formalized in 1956 when
2020-537: The Eastern Mediterranean region or locations further east, south or north. The term does not describe a single communion or religious denomination . Eastern Christianity is a category distinguished from Western Christianity , which is composed of those Christian traditions and churches that originally developed further west. Major Eastern Christian bodies include the Eastern Orthodox Church and
2121-719: The Encyclopedia of Religion , Oriental Orthodoxy is the Christian tradition "most important in terms of the number of faithful living in the Middle East", which, along with other Eastern Christian communions , represent an autochthonous Christian presence whose origins date further back than the birth and spread of Islam in the Middle East. As of 2011 , it was the dominant religion in Armenia (94%) and ethnically Armenian unrecognized Nagorno-Karabakh Republic (95%). Oriental Orthodoxy
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#17328455755012222-824: The Four Marks of the Church listed in the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed (381 AD): "One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic" ( Greek : μία, ἁγία, καθολικὴ καὶ ἀποστολικὴ ἐκκλησία ). Eastern churches (excepting the non-liturgical dissenting bodies) utilize several liturgical rites : the Alexandrian Rite , the Armenian Rite , the Byzantine Rite , the East Syriac Rite (also known as Persian or Assyrian Rite), and
2323-740: The Hellenistic East and the Latin West , and the political divide of 395 AD between the Western and Eastern Roman Empires . Since the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century, the term "Eastern Christianity" may be used in contrast with " Western Christianity ", which contains not only the Latin Church but also forms of Protestantism and Independent Catholicism . Some Eastern churches have more in common historically and theologically with Western Christianity than with one another. Because
2424-642: The Holy See at the Vatican whilst being rooted in the theological and liturgical traditions of Eastern Christianity. Most of these churches were originally part of the Orthodox East, but have since been reconciled to the Latin Church. Many of these churches were originally part of one of the above families and so are closely related to them by way of ethos and liturgical practice . As in the other Eastern churches, married men may become priests, and parish priests administer
2525-757: The Malabar Independent Syrian Church , the Celtic Orthodox Church , the Orthodox Church of the Gauls , the British Orthodox Church , and the Tigrayan Orthodox Tewahedo Church . These organizations have passed in and out of official recognition, but members rarely face excommunication when recognition is ended. The primates of these churches are typically referred to as episcopi vagantes or vagantes in short. According to
2626-843: The Middle Ages and coincided with Western Europe's re-emergence from the collapse of the Western Roman Empire . The Ukrainian Lutheran Church developed within Galicia around 1926, with its rites being based on the Liturgy of Saint John Chrysostom , rather than on the Western Formula Missae . The Eastern Orthodox Church is a Christian body whose adherents are largely based in Western Asia (particularly Syria , Lebanon , Jordan , Israel , and Palestine ) and Turkey , Eastern Europe ,
2727-610: The Montenegrin Orthodox Church ; both are domiciles of the Serbian Orthodox Church . There are also some Reformed Churches which share characteristics of Eastern Christianity, to varying extents. Starting in the 1920s, parallel hierarchies formed in opposition to local Orthodox churches over ecumenism and other matters. These jurisdictions sometimes refer to themselves as being "True Orthodox". In Russia, underground churches formed and maintained solidarity with
2828-724: The Muslim conquest of the Levant in the 7th century, the term Eastern Church increasingly came to be used for the Greek Church centered in Constantinople , in contrast with the ( Western ) Latin Church , centered on Rome , which uses the Latin liturgical rites . The terms "Eastern" and "Western" in this regard originated with geographical divisions in Christianity mirroring the cultural divide between
2929-705: The Nicene Christian tradition. Oriental Orthodoxy is one of the oldest branches in Christianity . As some of the oldest religious institutions in the world, the Oriental Orthodox Churches have played a prominent role in the history and culture of Armenia , Egypt , Eritrea , Ethiopia , Sudan , Western Asia and the Malabar region of India . As autocephalous churches, their bishops are equal by virtue of episcopal ordination . Their doctrines recognize
3030-613: The Nicene Creed . The primary theological difference between the two communions is the differing Christology. Oriental Orthodoxy rejects the Chalcedonian Definition , and instead adopts the miaphysite formula, believing that the human and divine natures of Christ are united in one Incarnate Nature. Historically, the early prelates of the Oriental Orthodox Churches thought that the Chalcedonian Definition implied
3131-672: The Oriental Orthodox Churches , along with those groups descended from the historic Church of the East (also called the Assyrian Church ), as well as the Eastern Catholic Churches (which are in communion with Rome while maintaining Eastern liturgies ), and the Eastern Protestant churches . Most Eastern churches do not normally refer to themselves as "Eastern", with the exception of the Assyrian Church of
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3232-670: The Orthodox Church of Ukraine and the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church could in the future unite into a united church around the Kyiv throne. In 2019, the primate of the UGCC, Major Archbishop of Kyiv-Galicia Sviatoslav , stated that every effort should be made to restore the original unity of the Kyivan Church in its Orthodox and Catholic branches, saying that the restoration of Eucharistic communion between Rome and Constantinople
3333-422: The Ukrainian Lutheran Church and Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church have under a million members. The Assyrian Church of the East and the Ancient Church of the East, descendant churches of the Assyria-based Church of the East, have a combined membership of approximately 400,000. Historically, Eastern Christianity was centered in the Middle East and surrounding areas, where Christianity originated. However, after
3434-576: The West Syriac Rite (also called the Antiochian Rite). Eastern Christians do not all share the same religious traditions, but many do share cultural traditions. Christianity divided itself in the East during its early centuries both within and outside of the Roman Empire in disputes about Christology and fundamental theology, as well as through national divisions (Roman, Persian, etc.). It would be many centuries later that Western Christianity fully split from these traditions as its own communion. Major branches or families of Eastern Christianity, each holding
3535-460: The World Council of Churches . To the hierarchs who would lead the Oriental Orthodox, the description of Christ as "one person in two natures" was tantamount to accepting Nestorianism, which expressed itself in a terminology incompatible with their understanding of Christology. Nestorianism was understood as seeing Christ in two separate natures, human and divine, each with different actions and experiences; in contrast Cyril of Alexandria advocated
3636-433: The canonical hours seven times a day while facing in the eastward direction towards Jerusalem, in anticipation of the Second Coming of Jesus ; this Christian practice has its roots in Psalm 119:164 , in which the prophet David prays to God seven times a day. Before praying, they wash their hands and face in order to be clean before and to present their best to God; shoes are removed in order to acknowledge that one
3737-423: The dogmatic definitions of the Council of Chalcedon (451). Hence, these churches are also called the Old Oriental churches . They comprise the Coptic Orthodox Church , the Malankara Orthodox Church (India), the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church , the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church , the Syriac Orthodox Church and the Armenian Apostolic Church . Oriental Orthodoxy developed in reaction to Chalcedon on
3838-474: The early Church through the process of apostolic succession and unchanged theology and practice. Characteristics of the Eastern Orthodox Church include the Byzantine Rite (shared with some Eastern Catholic Churches) and an emphasis on the continuation of Holy Tradition , which it holds to be apostolic in nature. The Eastern Orthodox Church is organized into self-governing jurisdictions along geographical, national, ethnic or linguistic lines. Eastern Orthodoxy
3939-413: The historic episcopacy . The various churches are governed by holy synods , with a primus inter pares bishop serving as primate . The primates hold titles such as patriarch , catholicos , and pope . The Alexandrian Patriarchate , the Antiochian Patriarchate along with Patriarchate of Rome , was one of the most prominent sees of the early Christian Church . Oriental Orthodoxy does not have
4040-465: The imperial Roman church before the Council of Chalcedon in 451 AD, and with the Church of the East until the Synod of Beth Lapat in AD 484, separating primarily over differences in Christology. The majority of Oriental Orthodox Christians live in Egypt , Ethiopia , Eritrea , India , Syria , Turkey and Armenia , with smaller Syriac communities in Western Asia decreasing due to persecution . There are also many in other parts of
4141-406: The mystery of confirmation to newborn infants immediately after baptism, via the rite of chrismation; the infants are then administered Holy Communion . The Syro-Malabar Church, which is part of the Saint Thomas Christian community in India, follows East Syriac traditions and liturgy. Other Saint Thomas Christians of India, who were originally of the same East Syriac tradition, passed instead to
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4242-455: The one, holy, catholic, and apostolic Church founded by Jesus Christ in his Great Commission , and its bishops as the successors of Christ's apostles . Three rites are practiced by the churches: the western-influenced Armenian Rite , the West Syriac Rite of the Syriac Church and the Malankara Syrian Church of India, and the Alexandrian Rite of the Copts , Ethiopians and Eritreans . Oriental Orthodox Churches shared communion with
4343-484: The transmission of classical knowledge to the Islamic world . Christians, especially Nestorians, contributed to the Arab Islamic Civilization during the Umayyads and the Abbasids by translating works of Greek philosophers to Syriac and afterwards to Arabic . They also excelled in philosophy, science (such as Hunayn ibn Ishaq , Qusta ibn Luqa , Masawaiyh , Patriarch Eutychius , Jabril ibn Bukhtishu etc.) and theology (such as Tatian , Bar Daisan , Babai
4444-436: The 14th century, when the church was nearly destroyed by the collapse of the Mongol Empire and the conquests of Timur . By the 16th century it was largely confined to Iraq, northeast Syria, southeast Turkey, northwest Iran and the Malabar Coast of India ( Kerala ). The split of the 15th century, which saw the emergence of separate Assyrian and Chaldean Churches, left only the former as an independent sect. Additional splits into
4545-445: The 20th century further affected the history of the Assyrian Church of the East. The Saint Thomas Syrian Christians are an ancient body of Syrian Christians in Kerala, Malabar coast of India who trace their origins to the evangelical activity of Thomas the Apostle in the 1st century. Many Assyrian and Jewish communities like the Knanaya and the Cochin Jews assimilated into the Saint Thomas Syrian Christian community. By
4646-448: The 40% of Christians in Lebanon or 200,000 Armenians and members of the Church of the East) and Kerala , India (7% out of the 20% of total Christians in Kerala). In terms of total number of members, the Ethiopian Church is the largest of all Oriental Orthodox churches, and is second among all Orthodox churches among Eastern and Oriental Churches (exceeded in number only by the Russian Orthodox Church ). Also of particular importance are
4747-400: The 5th century the Saint Thomas Syrian Christians were part of the Church of the East ( Nestorian Church ). Until the middle of the 17th century and the arrival of the Portuguese , the Thomas Christians were all one in faith and rite. Thereafter, divisions arose among them, and consequently they are today of several different rites. The East Syriac Chaldean Rite (Edessan Rite) Churches among
4848-430: The Antelias (Cilician) See broke away from the Etchmiadzin See. In 1992, following the abdication of Abune Merkorios and election of Abune Paulos , some Ethiopian Orthodox bishops in the United States maintained that the new election was invalid, and declared their independence from the Addis Ababa administration forming separate synod. On 27 July 2018, representatives from both synods reached an agreement. According to
4949-402: The Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople in Turkey and the Armenian Apostolic Church of Iran . These Oriental Orthodox churches represent the largest Christian minority in both of these predominantly Muslim countries, Turkey and Iran . The Oriental Orthodox Churches are distinguished by their recognition of only the first three ecumenical councils during the period of the state church of
5050-485: The Assyrian Church of the East. The followers of these two churches are almost exclusively ethnic Assyrians. In India, the local Church of the East community, known as the Saint Thomas Christians, experienced its own rifts as a result of Portuguese influence. The Assyrian Church of the East emerged from the historical Church of the East, which was centered in Mesopotamia/Assyria, then part of the Persian Empire , and spread widely throughout Asia. The modern Assyrian Church of
5151-433: The Christological doctrine that Christ was two distinct persons, one divine (the Logos ) and one human (Jesus), who happened to inhabit the same body. Twenty years after Ephesus, the Council of Chalcedon reaffirmed the view that Jesus Christ was a single person, but at the same time declared that this one person existed "in two complete natures", one human and one divine. At times, Chalcedonian Christians have referred to
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#17328455755015252-533: The Church of the East was affiliated with the doctrine of Nestorianism , and thus rejected the Council of Ephesus , which declared Nestorianism heretical in 431. The Christology of the Oriental Orthodox Churches in fact developed as a reaction against Nestorian Christology, which emphasizes the distinctness of the human and divine natures of Christ. Eastern Christianity Eastern Christianity comprises Christian traditions and church families that originally developed during classical and late antiquity in
5353-405: The Council of Chalcedon. However, despite the progress made in ecumenical dialogue, many Oriental Orthodox authorities like Pope Shenouda III remained skeptical about the Chalcedonian churches, continuing to view their Christology as Nestorian . The Oriental Orthodox Churches are a communion of six autocephalous (that is, administratively completely independent) regional churches. Below
5454-400: The Council of Ephesus in 431, leading to the Nestorian Schism in which churches supporting Nestorius split from the rest of Christianity. Many followers relocated to Persia and became affiliated with the local Christian community there. This community adopted an increasingly Nestorian theology and was thereafter often known as the Nestorian Church. As such, the Church of the East accepts only
5555-431: The East and its offshoot, the Ancient Church of the East . The Eastern Orthodox are the largest body within Eastern Christianity with a worldwide population of 220 million, followed by the Oriental Orthodox at 60 million. The Eastern Catholic Churches consist of about 16–18 million and are a small minority within the Catholic Church. Eastern Protestant Christian churches do not form a single communion; churches like
5656-450: The East is sometimes incorrectly described as an Oriental Orthodox church, though its origins lie in disputes that predated the Council of Chalcedon and it follows a different Christology from Oriental Orthodoxy. The historical Church of the East was the church of Greater Iran and declared itself separate from the state church of the Roman Empire in 424–27, years before the Ecumenical Councils of Ephesus and Chalcedon. Theologically,
5757-415: The East declared independence from the churches of the Roman Empire at its general council in 424, which was before the Council of Ephesus in 431, and so had nothing to do with the theology declared at that council. Oriental Orthodoxy separated after the Council of Chalcedon in 451 but did not immediately form separate patriarchates until 518 (in the case of the Syriac Patriarchate of Antioch) and 536 (in
5858-423: The East emerged in the 16th century following a split with the Chaldean Church, which later entered into communion with Rome as an Eastern Catholic Church. The Church of the East was associated with the doctrine of Nestorianism, advanced by Nestorius, Patriarch of Constantinople from 428 to 431, which emphasized the disunion between the human and divine natures of Jesus . Nestorius and his doctrine were condemned at
5959-404: The East". Today, Oriental Orthodox Churches are in full communion with each other, but not with the Eastern Orthodox Church or any other churches. Like Catholics or Eastern Orthodox, the Oriental Orthodox Churches includes several self-governing churches. Slow dialogue towards restoring communion between the Eastern and Oriental Orthodox groups was renewed in the mid-20th century, and dialogue
6060-404: The Great , Nestorius , Toma bar Yacoub , etc.) and the personal physicians of the Abbasid Caliphs were often Assyrian Christians such as the long serving Bukhtishus . Many scholars of the House of Wisdom were of Christian background. A hospital and medical training center existed at Gundeshapur . The city of Gundeshapur was founded in AD 271 by the Sassanid king Shapur I . It was one of
6161-415: The Indian Orthodox Church, is an autocephalous church. It is headed by the Catholicos of the East and Malankara Metropolitan . The Jacobite Syrian Christian Church is an autonomous maphrianate of the Syriac Orthodox Church in India. The Malabar Independent Syrian Church also follows the Oriental Orthodox tradition, but is not in communion with other Oriental Orthodox churches. The Assyrian Church of
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#17328455755016262-400: The Maronite Church, it resembles the liturgical rite of the Eastern Orthodox Church . In addition to these four mainstream branches, there are a number of much smaller groups which originated from disputes with the dominant tradition of their original areas. Most of these are either part of the more traditional Old Believer movement, which arose from a schism within Russian Orthodoxy, or
6363-505: The Mediterranean, India, and China. Originally the only Christian church recognized by Zoroastrian -led Sassanid Persia (through its alliance with the Lakhmids, the regional rivals to the Byzantines and its Ghassanid vassal), the Church of the East declared itself independent of other churches in 424 and over the next century became affiliated with Nestorianism, a Christological doctrine advanced by Nestorius , Patriarch of Constantinople from 428 to 431, which had been declared heretical in
6464-589: The Monophysites Justinian's Letter to the Alexandrian Monks . This implies that Justinian based his writings on Leontius'. He goes on to assert that "Through his edicts, theological writings and sponsorship of the Fifth Ecumenical council in Constantinople in 533, Justinian played a crucial role in the victory of neo-Chalcedonian theology". Oriental Orthodox Churches The Oriental Orthodox Churches are Eastern Christian churches adhering to Miaphysite Christology , with approximately 50 million members worldwide. The Oriental Orthodox Churches adhere to
6565-439: The Monophysites: Testimonies of the Saints, he states, "he is not at all scholarly–he is downright sloppy, in fact–when it comes to the texts he himself wishes to cite. Something more, then, is at work here than scholarly capabilities." Similarly, in a work entitled Forgery, Gray (based on unpublished research of M. Richard ), writes: "Of the one hundred and fourteen texts in his dyophysite florilegium, twenty-six are forgeries in
6666-418: The Oriental Orthodox as being monophysites —that is to say, accusing them of following the teachings of Eutyches ( c. 380 – c. 456 ), who argued that Jesus Christ was not human at all, but only divine. Monophysitism was condemned as heretical alongside Nestorianism, and to accuse a church of being monophysite is to accuse it of falling into the opposite extreme from Nestorianism. However,
6767-417: The Oriental Orthodox themselves reject this description as inaccurate, having officially condemned the teachings of both Nestorius and Eutyches. They define themselves as miaphysite instead, holding that Christ has one nature, but this nature is both human and divine. Oriental Orthodox Christians, such as Copts, Syrians and Indians, use a breviary such as the Agpeya and Shehimo , respectively, to pray
6868-481: The Orthodox Church or Oriental Orthodox churches closely follow the traditions of Orthodoxy or Oriental Orthodoxy, including the tradition of allowing married men to become priests. The Eastern churches' differences from Western Christianity have to do with theology , as well as liturgy , culture, language, and politics. For the non-Catholic Eastern churches, a definitive date for the commencement of schism cannot usually be given (see East–West Schism ). The Church of
6969-403: The Paul VI and Athenagoras I meeting in Jerusalem there have been other significant meetings between Popes and Ecumenical Patriarchs of Constantinople. One of the most recent meetings was between Benedict XVI and Bartholomew I, who jointly signed the Common Declaration . It states that "We give thanks to the Author of all that is good, who allows us once again, in prayer and in dialogue, to express
7070-403: The Roman Empire : the First Council of Nicaea in 325, the First Council of Constantinople in 381 and the Council of Ephesus in 431. Oriental Orthodoxy shares much theology and many ecclesiastical traditions with the Eastern Orthodox Church ; these include a similar doctrine of salvation and a tradition of collegiality between bishops, as well as reverence of the Theotokos and use of
7171-402: The Roman Empire. Thereafter it was often known in the West, possibly inaccurately, as the Nestorian Church. Surviving a period of persecution within Persia, the Church of the East flourished under the Abbasid Caliphate and branched out, establishing dioceses throughout Asia. After another period of expansion under the Mongol Empire , the church went into decline starting in the 14th century, and
7272-547: The Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia until the late 1970s. There are now traditionalist Orthodox in every area, though in Asia and Egypt their presence is negligible. Eastern Protestant Christianity comprises a collection of heterogeneous Protestant denominations which are mostly the result of Protestant Churches adopting Reformation variants of Orthodox Christian liturgy and worship. Some others are
7373-952: The Saint Thomas Syrian Christians are the Syro Malabar Church and the Chaldean Syrian Church . The West Syriac Antiochian Rite Churches among the Saint Thomas Syrian Christians are the Malankara Jacobite Syrian Church , the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church , the Mar Thoma Syrian Church , the Syro Malankara Church and the Thozhiyur Church . The twenty-three Eastern Catholic Churches are in communion with
7474-719: The West Syriac tradition and now form part of Oriental Orthodoxy (some from the Oriental Orthodox in India united with the Catholic Church in 1930 and became the Syro-Malankara Catholic Church ). The Maronite Church claims never to have been separated from Rome, and has no counterpart Orthodox Church out of communion with the Pope. It is therefore inaccurate to refer to it as a "Uniate" Church. The Italo-Albanian Catholic Church has also never been out of communion with Rome, but, unlike
7575-542: The adherents of Chalcedonian Christianity was based on differences in Christology. The First Council of Nicaea , in 325, declared that Jesus Christ is God , that is to say, " consubstantial " with the Father. Later, the third ecumenical council, the Council of Ephesus , declared that Jesus Christ, though divine as well as human, is only one being, or person ( hypostasis ). Thus, the Council of Ephesus explicitly rejected Nestorianism ,
7676-520: The authorities of the Holy See and the Oriental Orthodox, reconciling declarations emerged in the common statement of Syriac Patriarch Mar Ignatius Zakka I Iwas and the Roman Pope John Paul II in 1984: The confusions and schisms that occurred between their Churches in the later centuries, they realize today, in no way affect or touch the substance of their faith, since these arose only because of differences in terminology and culture and in
7777-567: The biblical canon including the Peshitta , Coptic and Orthodox Tewahedo canons, and the Armenian canon . There are numerous ongoing internal disputes within the Oriental Orthodox Churches. These disputes result in lesser or greater degrees of impaired communion. The least divisive of these disputes is within the Armenian Apostolic Church , between the Catholicosate of Etchmiadzin and
7878-640: The case of the Coptic Patriarchate of Alexandria). Since the time of the historian Edward Gibbon , the split between the Church of Rome and the Orthodox Church has been conveniently dated to 1054, though the reality is more complex. This split is sometimes referred to as the Great Schism , but is now more usually called the East–West Schism . This final schism reflected a larger cultural and political division which had developed in Europe and Southwest Asia during
7979-447: The closing of the academy by Emperor Justinian. They were engaged in medical sciences and initiated the first translation projects of medical texts. The arrival of these medical practitioners from Edessa marks the beginning of the hospital and medical center at Gundeshapur. It included a medical school and hospital (bimaristan), a pharmacology laboratory, a translation house, a library and an observatory. Indian doctors also contributed to
8080-515: The eastern limit of the Byzantine Empire and in Egypt , Syria and Mesopotamia . In those locations, there are also Eastern Orthodox patriarchs , but the rivalry between the two has largely vanished in the centuries since the schism. Historically, the Church of the East was the widest reaching branch of Eastern Christianity, at its height spreading from its heartland in Persian -ruled Assyria to
8181-534: The first two ecumenical councils of the undivided Church—the First Council of Nicaea and the First Council of Constantinople—as defining its faith tradition, and rapidly took a different course from other Eastern Christians. The Church of the East spread widely through Persia and into Asia, being introduced to India by the 6th century and to the Mongols and China in the 7th century. It experienced periodic expansion until
8282-528: The formula "One Nature of God the Incarnate Logos" (or as others translate, "One Incarnate Nature of the Word" ). The Oriental Orthodox Churches were therefore often called "monophysite", although they reject this label, as it is associated with Eutychian monophysitism ; they prefer the term "miaphysite". In the years following Chalcedon the patriarchs of Constantinople intermittently remained in communion with
8383-633: The interference of extra-ecclesial interests"; and that what has been called " uniatism " "can no longer be accepted either as a method to be followed nor as a model of the unity our Churches are seeking" (section 12). At the same time, the Commission stated: There has been a significant Christian migration in the 20th century from the Near East. Fifteen hundred years ago Christians were the majority population in today's Turkey, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Palestine and Egypt. In 1914 Christians constituted 25% of
8484-480: The joy we feel as brothers and to renew our commitment to move towards full communion ". In 2013 Patriarch Bartholomew I attended the installation ceremony of the new Catholic Pope, Francis , which was the first time any Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople had ever attended such an installation. In 2019, Primate of the OCU Metropolitan of Kyiv and All Ukraine Epiphanius stated that "theoretically"
8585-438: The largest church in the East is the body currently known as the Eastern Orthodox Church , the term "Orthodox" is often used in a similar fashion to "Eastern", to refer to specific historical Christian communions. However, strictly speaking, most Christian denominations, whether Eastern or Western, regard themselves as " orthodox " (meaning "following correct beliefs") as well as " catholic " (meaning "universal"), and as sharing in
8686-631: The major cities in Khuzestan province of the Persian empire in what is today Iran. A large percentage of the population was Syriacs, most of whom were Christians. Under the rule of Khusraw I , refuge was granted to Greek Nestorian Christian philosophers including the scholars of the Persian School of Edessa ( Urfa ), also called the academy of Athens , a Christian theological and medical university. These scholars made their way to Gundeshapur in 529 following
8787-558: The more radical Spiritual Christianity movement. The latter includes a number of diverse " low-church " groups, from the Bible-centered Molokans to the anarchic Doukhobors to the self-mutilating Skoptsy . None of these groups are in communion with the mainstream churches listed above. There are also national dissidents, where ethnic groups want their own nation-church, such as the Macedonian Orthodox Church and
8888-478: The name of "Leontius" was Friedrich Loofs in 1887, arguing for a single author of the corpus leontianum . That hypothesis influenced scholarship until the publication of Marcel Richard's 1944 article Léonce de Jérusalem et Léonce de Byzance, which aimed to distinguish two figures among the works which had formerly been attributed to a single person. Since the publication of that article, Richard's conclusions have been accepted by all scholars writing about Leontius. It
8989-490: The non-Chalcedonian patriarchs of Alexandria and Antioch (see Henotikon ), while Rome remained out of communion with the latter and in unstable communion with Constantinople. It was not until 518 that the new Byzantine Emperor, Justin I (who accepted Chalcedon), demanded that the church in the Roman Empire accept the council's decisions. Ecumenical dialogue increased in the 20th century, and from several meetings between
9090-960: The population of the Ottoman Empire. At the beginning of the 21st century Christians constituted 6–7% of the region's population: less than 1% in Turkey, 3% in Iraq, 12% in Syria, 39% in Lebanon, 6% in Jordan, 2.5% in Israel/Palestine and 15–20% in Egypt. As of 2011 Eastern Orthodox Christians are among the wealthiest Christians in the United States. They also tend to be better educated than most other religious groups in America, having
9191-464: The region of Galicia and its rites are based on the Liturgy of Saint John Chrysostom . The church suffered persecution under the Communist régime , which implemented a policy of state atheism . Ecumenical dialogue since the 1964 meeting between Pope Paul VI and Orthodox Patriarch Athenagoras I has awoken the nearly 1,000-year hopes for Christian unity. Since the lifting of excommunications during
9292-569: The result of reformations of Orthodox Christian beliefs and practices, inspired by the teachings of Western Protestant missionaries. Denominations of this category include the Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church , Ukrainian Lutheran Church , St. Thomas Evangelical Church of India , Evangelical Orthodox Church , etc. Byzantine Rite Lutheranism arose in the Ukrainian Lutheran Church around 1926. It sprung up in
9393-532: The school at Gundeshapur, most notably the medical researcher Mankah. Later after Islamic invasion, the writings of Mankah and of the Indian doctor Sustura were translated into Arabic at Baghdad . Daud al-Antaki was one of the last generation of influential Arab Christian writers. Arab Christians and Arabic-speaking Christians, especially Maronites , played important roles in the Nahda , and because Arab Christians formed
9494-456: The strict sense or else misattributions, and a further ten are suspect. All five texts attributed to Justin Martyr, and eight of the eleven attributed to John Chrysostom are forgeries!". Historically, there has been a problem of misidentification between Leontius of Byzantium and Leontius of Jerusalem. The first scholar to identify and challenge the ambiguity of the writings that come down to us under
9595-493: The term "Eastern" as denying the church's universal character. They refer to Eastern Orthodoxy simply as the Orthodox Church . Oriental Orthodoxy refers to the churches of Eastern Christian tradition that keep the faith of the first three ecumenical councils of the undivided Christian Church : the First Council of Nicaea (AD 325), the First Council of Constantinople (381) and the Council of Ephesus (431), while rejecting
9696-638: The terms of the agreement, Abune Merkorios was reinstated as patriarch alongside Abune Mathias (successor of Abune Paulos), who would continue to be responsible for administrative duties, and the two synods were merged into one synod, with any excommunications between them lifted. Indians who follow the Oriental Orthodox faith belong to the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church and the Jacobite Syrian Christian Church . The two churches were united before 1912 and after 1958, but again separated in 1975. The Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church, also known as
9797-596: The treatise against Severus of Antioch known as Epilysis , the Triginta capita contra Severum , and some other more minor works. The dating of Leontius of Jerusalem's works have recently been questioned by scholars. Richard considered the two Leontii to be contemporaries living during the time of Justinian , and for decades the common opinion of scholars shared this conclusion. Certain more recent scholars, particularly Dirk Krausmüller and Carlo Dell'Osso, have broken this consensus and sided towards assigning Leontius of Jerusalem
9898-623: The validity of only the first three ecumenical councils . The Oriental Orthodox communion is composed of six autocephalous national churches: the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria ; the Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch and its constituent autonomous Malankara Jacobite Syrian Church ; the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church ; the Armenian Apostolic Church comprising the autocephalous Catholicosate of Etchmiadzin in Armenia and
9999-410: The various formulae adopted by different theological schools to express the same matter. Accordingly, we find today no real basis for the sad divisions and schisms that subsequently arose between us concerning the doctrine of Incarnation. In words and life we confess the true doctrine concerning Christ our Lord, notwithstanding the differences in interpretation of such a doctrine which arose at the time of
10100-740: The world, formed through diaspora , conversions , and missionary activity. The name "Oriental Orthodox Churches" was formally adopted at the Conference of Addis Ababa in 1965. At the time there were five participating churches, the Eritrean Church not yet being autocephalous. Other names by which the churches have been known include Old Oriental , Ancient Oriental , Lesser Eastern , Anti-Chalcedonian , Non-Chalcedonian , Pre-Chalcedonian , Miaphysite or Monophysite . The Catholic Church has referred to these churches as "the Ancient Churches of
10201-506: Was eventually largely confined to its founding Assyrian adherent's heartland in the Assyrian homeland , although another remnant survived on the Malabar Coast of India. In the 16th century, dynastic struggles sent the church into schism, resulting in the formation of two rival churches: The Chaldean Catholic Church , which entered into communion with Rome as an Eastern Catholic Church, and
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