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72-398: In modern clothing and fashion design , buttons are commonly made of plastic but also may be made of metal, wood, or seashell . Buttons can also be used on containers such as wallets and bags. Buttons may be sewn onto garments and similar items exclusively for purposes of ornamentation . In the applied arts and craft , a button can be an example of folk art , studio craft , or even

144-510: A hygienic barrier, keeping infectious and toxic materials away from the body. It can protect feet from injury and discomfort or facilitate navigation in varied environments. Clothing also provides protection from ultraviolet radiation . It may be used to prevent glare or increase visual acuity in harsh environments, such as brimmed hats. Clothing is used for protection against injury in specific tasks and occupations, sports, and warfare. Fashioned with pockets, belts , or loops, clothing may provide

216-412: A sparring weapon , so the equipment aspect rises above the glove aspect). More specialized forms of protective equipment, such as face shields are classified as protective accessories. At the far extreme, self-enclosing diving suits or space suits are form-fitting body covers, and amount to a form of dress, without being clothing per se, while containing enough high technology to amount to more of

288-582: A diverse array of animal and plant fibers, such as wool, linen, cotton, silk, hemp, and ramie. Although modern consumers may take the production of clothing for granted, making fabric by hand is a tedious and labor-intensive process involving fiber making, spinning, and weaving. The textile industry was the first to be mechanized – with the powered loom  – during the Industrial Revolution . Different cultures have evolved various ways of creating clothes out of cloth. One approach involves draping

360-767: A greatest likelihood of speciation lying at about 107,000 years ago. Kittler, Kayser and Stoneking suggest that the invention of clothing may have coincided with the northward migration of modern Homo sapiens away from the warm climate of Africa, which is thought to have begun between 100,000 and 50,000 years ago. A second group of researchers, also relying on the genetic clock, estimate that clothing originated between 30,000 and 114,000 years ago. Dating with direct archeological evidence produces dates consistent with those of lice. In September 2021, scientists reported evidence of clothes being made 120,000 years ago based on findings in deposits in Morocco . The development of clothing

432-491: A large and growing market. In the Western dress code, jeans are worn by both men and women. There are several unique styles of jeans found that include: high rise jeans, mid rise jeans, low rise jeans, bootcut jeans, straight jeans, cropped jeans, skinny jeans, cuffed jeans, boyfriend jeans, and capri jeans. The licensing of designer names was pioneered by designers such as Pierre Cardin , Yves Saint Laurent , and Guy Laroche in

504-610: A means of communicating their wealth and social standing, as well as an indication of their knowledge and understanding of current fashion trends to the general public. As a result, clothing played a significant role in making the social hierarchy perceptible to all members of society. In some societies, clothing may be used to indicate rank or status . In ancient Rome , for example, only senators could wear garments dyed with Tyrian purple . In traditional Hawaiian society, only high-ranking chiefs could wear feather cloaks and palaoa, or carved whale teeth. In China, before establishment of

576-425: A means to carry things while freeing the hands. Clothing has significant social factors as well. Wearing clothes is a variable social norm . It may connote modesty . Being deprived of clothing in front of others may be embarrassing . In many parts of the world, not wearing clothes in public so that genitals , breast , or buttocks are visible could be considered indecent exposure . Pubic area or genital coverage

648-787: A miniature work of art . In archaeology , a button can be a significant artifact . Buttons and button-like objects used as ornaments or seals rather than fasteners have been discovered in the Indus Valley civilization during its Kot Diji phase (c. 2800–2600 BC). Buttons as apparel have been found at sites of the Catacomb culture , Russia (2500-1950 BC), at the Tomb of the Eagles , Scotland (2200-1800 BC), and at Bronze Age sites in China (c. 2000–1500 BC) and Ancient Rome . Buttons made from seashell were used by

720-697: A needle at least 50,000 years old from Denisova Cave in Siberia made by Denisovans . Dyed flax fibers that date back to 34,000 BC and could have been used in clothing have been found in a prehistoric cave in Georgia . Several distinct human cultures, including those residing in the Arctic Circle, have historically crafted their garments exclusively from treated and adorned animal furs and skins. In contrast, numerous other societies have complemented or substituted leather and skins with textiles woven, knitted, or twined from

792-938: A protective function. For instance, corrective eyeglasses , Arctic goggles , and sunglasses would not be considered an accessory because of their protective functions. Clothing protects against many things that might injure or irritate the naked human body, including rain, snow, wind, and other weather, as well as from the sun. Garments that are too sheer, thin, small, or tight offer less protection. Appropriate clothes can also reduce risk during activities such as work or sport. Some clothing protects from specific hazards, such as insects, toxic chemicals, weather, weapons , and contact with abrasive substances. Humans have devised clothing solutions to environmental or other hazards: such as space suits , armor , diving suits , swimsuits , bee-keeper gear , motorcycle leathers , high-visibility clothing , and other pieces of protective clothing . The distinction between clothing and protective equipment

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864-503: A range of effects. One limitation on the uses of Galalith was that in thin sheets it could be slightly softened at 100°C and cut with forms, but when made into items above a certain size it tended to splinter or warp. No other plastic at the time could compete on price, however, and with ivory , horn and bone products becoming far more expensive, it found a natural home in the fashion industry. Usual industrial methods of fabrication followed these guidelines: sufficiently dried casein powder

936-567: A sign of mourning. The Quran says about husbands and wives, regarding clothing: "...They are clothing/covering (Libaas) for you; and you for them" (chapter 2:187). Christian clergy members wear religious vestments during liturgical services and may wear specific non-liturgical clothing at other times. Clothing appears in numerous contexts in the Bible. The most prominent passages are: the story of Adam and Eve who made coverings for themselves out of fig leaves , Joseph 's coat of many colors , and

1008-488: A special case of occupational clothing. Sometimes it is worn only during the performance of religious ceremonies. However, it may be worn every day as a marker for special religious status. Sikhs wear a turban as it is a part of their religion. In some religions such as Hinduism , Sikhism , Buddhism , and Jainism the cleanliness of religious dresses is of paramount importance and considered to indicate purity. Jewish ritual requires rending (tearing) of one's upper garment as

1080-550: A superior plastic to acid-precipitated casein. Galalith could produce gemstone imitations that looked strikingly real. In 1926, Gabrielle "Coco" Chanel published a picture of a short, simple black dress in Vogue . It was calf-length, straight, and decorated only by a few diagonal lines. Vogue called it "Chanel's Ford " , as like the Model T , the little black dress was simple and accessible for women of all social classes. To accessorize

1152-563: A tool than a garment. This line will continue to blur as wearable technology embeds assistive devices directly into the fabric itself; the enabling innovations are ultra low power consumption and flexible electronic substrates . Clothing also hybridizes into a personal transportation system ( ice skates , roller skates , cargo pants , other outdoor survival gear , one-man band ) or concealment system ( stage magicians , hidden linings or pockets in tradecraft , integrated holsters for concealed carry , merchandise -laden trench coats on

1224-519: A used T-shirt with a Tongan wrapped skirt, or tupenu . For practical, comfort or safety reasons, most sports and physical activities are practised wearing special clothing. Common sportswear garments include shorts , T-shirts , tennis shirts , leotards , tracksuits , and trainers . Specialized garments include wet suits (for swimming, diving , or surfing ), salopettes (for skiing ), and leotards (for gymnastics). Also, spandex materials often are used as base layers to soak up sweat. Spandex

1296-435: A wide variety of materials, ranging from leather and furs to woven fabrics, to elaborate and exotic natural and synthetic fabrics . Not all body coverings are regarded as clothing. Articles carried rather than worn normally are considered accessories rather than clothing (such as Handbags ), items worn on a single part of the body and easily removed ( scarves ), worn purely for adornment (jewelry), or items that do not serve

1368-900: A wide variety of situations), but a wider range of clothing styles is available for women. Typically, men are allowed to bare their chests in a greater variety of public places. It is generally common for a woman to wear clothing perceived as masculine, while the opposite is seen as unusual. Contemporary men may sometimes choose to wear men's skirts such as togas or kilts in particular cultures, especially on ceremonial occasions. In previous times, such garments often were worn as normal daily clothing by men. In some cultures, sumptuary laws regulate what men and women are required to wear. Islam requires women to wear certain forms of attire, usually hijab . What items required varies in different Muslim societies; however, women are usually required to cover more of their bodies than men. Articles of clothing Muslim women wear under these laws or traditions range from

1440-475: Is any item worn on the body . Typically, clothing is made of fabrics or textiles , but over time it has included garments made from animal skin and other thin sheets of materials and natural products found in the environment, put together. The wearing of clothing is mostly restricted to human beings and is a feature of all human societies. The amount and type of clothing worn depends on gender, body type, social factors, and geographic considerations. Garments cover

1512-430: Is considered appropriate. The differences are in styles, colors, fabrics, and types. In contemporary Western societies, skirts , dresses , and high-heeled shoes are usually seen as women's clothing, while neckties usually are seen as men's clothing. Trousers were once seen as exclusively men's clothing, but nowadays are worn by both genders. Men's clothes are often more practical (that is, they can function well under

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1584-630: Is deeply connected to human evolution, with early garments likely consisting of animal skins and natural fibers adapted for protection and social signaling. According to anthropologists and archaeologists, the earliest clothing likely consisted of fur , leather, leaves, or grass that was draped, wrapped, or tied around the body. Knowledge of such clothing remains inferential, as clothing materials deteriorate quickly compared with stone, bone, shell, and metal artifacts. Archeologists have identified very early sewing needles of bone and ivory from about 30,000 BC, found near Kostenki , Russia in 1988, and in 2016

1656-485: Is not always clear-cut since clothes designed to be fashionable often have protective value, and clothes designed for function often have corporate fashion in their design. The choice of clothes also has social implications. They cover parts of the body that social norms require to be covered, act as a form of adornment, and serve other social purposes. Someone who lacks the means to procure appropriate clothing due to poverty or affordability, or lack of inclination, sometimes

1728-429: Is preferable for active sports that require form fitting garments, such as volleyball, wrestling, track and field, dance, gymnastics, and swimming. Paris set the 1900–1940 fashion trends for Europe and North America. In the 1920s the goal was all about getting loose. Women wore dresses all day, every day. Day dresses had a drop waist, which was a sash or belt around the low waist or hip and a skirt that hung anywhere from

1800-450: Is related to various perceptions, physiological, social, and psychological needs, and after food, it is clothing that satisfies these comfort needs. Clothing provides aesthetic, tactile, thermal, moisture, and pressure comfort. The most obvious function of clothing is to protect the wearer from the elements. It serves to prevent wind damage and provides protection from sunburn . In the cold, it offers thermal insulation . Shelter can reduce

1872-438: Is said to be worn, ragged, or shabby. Clothing performs a range of social and cultural functions, such as individual, occupational, gender differentiation, and social status. In many societies, norms about clothing reflect standards of modesty , religion, gender , and social status . Clothing may also function as adornment and an expression of personal taste or style. Serious books on clothing and its functions appear from

1944-479: Is subject to decay, and the erosion of physical integrity may be seen as a loss of cultural information. Costume collections often focus on important pieces of clothing considered unique or otherwise significant, limiting the opportunities scholars have to study everyday clothing. Clothing has long served as a marker of social status, gender, and cultural identity, reflecting broader societal structures and values. In most cultures, gender differentiation of clothing

2016-507: Is the most frequently encountered minimum found cross-culturally and regardless of climate, implying social convention as the basis of customs. Clothing also may be used to communicate social status, wealth, group identity, and individualism. Some forms of personal protective equipment amount to clothing, such as coveralls , chaps or a doctor's white coat , with similar requirements for maintenance and cleaning as other textiles ( boxing gloves function both as protective equipment and as

2088-640: The Ancient Greek words gala ( γάλα , "milk") and lithos ( λῐ́θος , "stone"). It is odourless , hard, resists humidity to a certain degree, is antistatic , also an electrical insulator and virtually nonflammable . It was produced under a plethora of other commercial names such as aladdinite (in the US), Casolith (in the Netherlands ) and lactoloid (in Japan ). In 1893, French chemist Auguste Trillat discovered

2160-572: The Clean Clothes Campaign (CCC) and the Institute for Global Labour and Human Rights as well as textile and clothing trade unions have sought to improve these conditions by sponsoring awareness-raising events, which draw the attention of both the media and the general public to the plight of the workers. Outsourcing production to low wage countries such as Bangladesh , China, India, Indonesia , Pakistan , and Sri Lanka became possible when

2232-551: The Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology —have attempted to constrain the most recent date of the introduction of clothing with an indirect method relying on lice . The rationale for this method of dating stems from the fact that the human body louse cannot live outside of clothing, dying after only a few hours without shelter. This strongly implies that the date of the body louse's speciation from its parent, Pediculus humanus , can have taken place no earlier than

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2304-592: The Multi Fibre Agreement (MFA) was abolished. The MFA, which placed quotas on textiles imports, was deemed a protectionist measure. Although many countries recognize treaties such as the International Labour Organization , which attempt to set standards for worker safety and rights, many countries have made exceptions to certain parts of the treaties or failed to thoroughly enforce them. India for example has not ratified sections 87 and 92 of

2376-880: The Smithsonian Institution . Hammond Turner & Sons, a button-making company in Birmingham , hosts an online museum with an image gallery and historical button-related articles, including an 1852 article on button-making by Charles Dickens . In the US, large button collections are on public display at the Waterbury Button Museum of Waterbury, Connecticut , the Keep Homestead Museum of Monson, Massachusetts , which also hosts an extensive button archive, and in Gurnee, Illinois, at The Button Room. Classic clothing has

2448-1002: The applied visual arts , with buttonmakers using techniques from jewellery making , ceramics , sculpture , painting , printmaking , metalworking , weaving and others. The following are just a few of the construction and decoration techniques that have been used in button-making: The size of the button depends on its use. Shirt buttons are generally small, and spaced close together, whereas coat buttons are larger and spaced further apart. Buttons are commonly measured in lignes (also called lines and abbreviated L ), with 40 lines equal to 1 inch. For example, some standard sizes of buttons are 16 lignes (10.16 mm, standard buttons of men's shirts ) and 32 lignes (20.32 mm, typical button on suit jackets ). Some museums and art galleries hold culturally, historically, politically, and/or artistically significant buttons in their collections. The Victoria and Albert Museum has many buttons, particularly in its jewellery collection , as does

2520-468: The black market — where the purpose of the clothing often carries over into disguise ). A mode of dress fit to purpose, whether stylistic or functional, is known as an outfit or ensemble. Estimates of when humans began wearing clothes vary from 40,000 to as many as 3 million years ago, but recent studies suggest humans were wearing clothing at least 100,000 years ago. Recent studies by Ralf Kittler, Manfred Kayser and Mark Stoneking— anthropologists at

2592-455: The head-scarf to the burqa . Some contemporary clothing styles designed to be worn by either gender, such as T-shirts, have started out as menswear, but some articles, such as the fedora , originally were a style for women. During the early modern period , individuals utilized their attire as a significant method of conveying and asserting their social status. Individuals employed the utilization of high-quality fabrics and trendy designs as

2664-447: The republic , only the emperor could wear yellow. History provides many examples of elaborate sumptuary laws that regulated what people could wear. In societies without such laws, which includes most modern societies, social status is signaled by the purchase of rare or luxury items that are limited by cost to those with wealth or status. In addition, peer pressure influences clothing choice. Some religious clothing might be considered

2736-480: The 1960s and has been a common practice within the fashion industry from about the 1970s. Among the more popular include Marc Jacobs and Gucci , named for Marc Jacobs Guccio Gucci respectively. By the early years of the twenty-first century, western clothing styles had, to some extent, become international styles. This process began hundreds of years earlier, during the periods of European colonialism . The process of cultural dissemination has been perpetuated over

2808-637: The Charente region, produced "isogalithe" using an unorthodox process where the casein was used as a moist fresh coagulated mass, not in the usual dried powder form preceding the pressing. This new plastic was presented at Paris Universal Exhibition in 1900. In France, Galalith was distributed by the Compagnie Française de Galalithe located near Paris in Levallois-Perret . As a result, the Jura area became

2880-662: The Indus Valley Civilization for ornamental purposes by 2000 BC. Some buttons were carved into geometric shapes and were pierced so that they could be attached to clothing with thread. Ian McNeil (1990) holds that "the button was originally used more as an ornament than as a fastening, the earliest known being found at Mohenjo-daro in the Indus Valley . It is made of a curved shell and is about 5000 years old." Egypt's Eighteenth Dynasty left behind ornate wig covers, fabricated through sewing buttons formed of precious metals onto strips of backing material. Leatherwork from

2952-519: The Roman Empire incorporates some of the first buttonholes, with the legionary's loculus closed through the insertion of a metallic buckle, or button into a leather slit. A similar mechanism would later feature in early medieval footwear. Buttons appeared as a means to close cuffs in the Byzantine Empire and to fasten the necks of Egyptian tunics by no later than the 5th century. Since at least

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3024-482: The US government made an extensive survey of the international button market, which listed buttons made of vegetable ivory , metal , glass , galalith , silk , linen , cotton-covered crochet , lead , snap fasteners , enamel , rubber , buckhorn , wood , horn , bone , leather , paper , pressed cardboard , mother-of-pearl , celluloid , porcelain , composition , tin , zinc , xylonite , stone , cloth-covered wooden forms, and papier-mâché . Vegetable ivory

3096-639: The ankle on up to the knee, never above. Day wear had sleeves (long to mid-bicep) and a skirt that was straight, pleated, hank hemmed, or tiered. Jewelry was not conspicuous. Hair was often bobbed, giving a boyish look. In the early twenty-first century a diverse range of styles exists in fashion, varying by geography, exposure to modern media, economic conditions, and ranging from expensive haute couture , to traditional garb, to thrift store grunge . Fashion shows are events for designers to show off new and often extravagant designs. Although mechanization transformed most aspects of human clothing industry , by

3168-675: The badge or pin-back style of construction, which replaced the shanks with long pins, probably for use on lapels and ties, began to appear. One common practice that survived until recent times on campaign buttons and badges was to include the image of George Washington with that of the candidate in question. Some of the most famous campaign buttons are those made for Abraham Lincoln . Memorial buttons commemorating Lincoln's inaugurations and other life events, including his birth and death , were also made, and are also considered highly collectible. Clothing Clothing (also known as clothes , garments , dress , apparel , or attire )

3240-433: The body, footwear covers the feet, gloves cover the hands, while hats and headgear cover the head, and underwear covers the private parts . Clothing serves many purposes: it can serve as protection from the elements, rough surfaces, sharp stones, rash-causing plants, and insect bites, by providing a barrier between the skin and the environment. Clothing can insulate against cold or hot conditions, and it can provide

3312-426: The button on the left side for women and on the right side for men. The reasons for this are unclear, but the choice for men's clothing is usually attributed to the need to draw weapons from the left to right; the weapon would then not catch on opening of the clothing. For women's clothing the common reason given is that in times when upper-class women's clothing was quite elaborate, servants were needed for dressing, and

3384-797: The centuries, spreading Western culture and styles, most recently as Western media corporations have penetrated markets throughout the world. Fast fashion clothing has also become a global phenomenon. These garments are less expensive, mass-produced Western clothing. Also, donated used clothing from Western countries is delivered to people in poor countries by charity organizations. People may wear ethnic or national dress on special occasions or in certain roles or occupations. For example, most Korean men and women have adopted Western-style dress for daily wear, but still wear traditional hanboks on special occasions, such as weddings and cultural holidays. Also, items of Western dress may be worn or accessorized in distinctive, non-Western ways. A Tongan man may combine

3456-579: The cloth. Many people wore, and still wear, garments consisting of rectangles of cloth wrapped to fit – for example, the dhoti for men and the sari for women in the Indian subcontinent , the Scottish kilt , and the Javanese sarong . The clothes may be tied up (dhoti and sari) or implement pins or belts to hold the garments in place (kilt and sarong). The cloth remains uncut, and people of various sizes can wear

3528-522: The clothing of Judah and Tamar , Mordecai and Esther . Furthermore, the priests officiating in the Temple in Jerusalem had very specific garments, the lack of which made one liable to death. [REDACTED] = Day (before 6 p.m.) [REDACTED] = Evening (after 6 p.m.)     = Bow tie colour [REDACTED] = Ladies [REDACTED] = Gentlemen The Western dress code has changed over

3600-527: The clothing; perhaps cutting triangular pieces from one corner of the cloth, and adding them elsewhere as gussets . Traditional European patterns for shirts and chemises take this approach. These remnants can also be reused to make patchwork pockets, hats, vests , and skirts . Modern European fashion treats cloth much less conservatively, typically cutting in such a way as to leave various odd-shaped cloth remnants. Industrial sewing operations sell these as waste; domestic sewers may turn them into quilts . In

3672-513: The earliest human adoption of clothing. This date, at which the body louse ( P. humanus corporis ) diverged from both its parent species and its sibling subspecies, the head louse ( P. humanus capitis ), can be determined by the number of mutations each has developed during the intervening time. Such mutations occur at a known rate and the date of last-common-ancestor for two species can therefore be estimated from their frequency. These studies have produced dates from 40,000 to 170,000 years ago, with

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3744-666: The field of Environmental Physiology had advanced and expanded significantly, but the science of clothing in relation to environmental physiology had changed little. There has since been considerable research, and the knowledge base has grown significantly, but the main concepts remain unchanged, and indeed, Newburgh's book continues to be cited by contemporary authors, including those attempting to develop thermoregulatory models of clothing development. Clothing reveals much about human history. According to Professor Kiki Smith of Smith College, garments preserved in collections are resources for study similar to books and paintings. Scholars around

3816-595: The first to use the material. Galalith was marketed in boards, pipes and rods. In 1913, thirty million litres (eight million US gallons) of milk were used to produce Galalith in Germany alone. In 1914, Syrolit Ltd gained the license for manufacture in the United Kingdom . Renaming itself Erinoid Ltd., it started manufacture in the former Lightpill wool mill in Dudbridge , Stroud, Gloucestershire . Casein from rennet produces

3888-462: The functional need for clothing. For example, coats , hats, gloves, and other outer layers are normally removed when entering a warm place. Similarly, clothing has seasonal and regional aspects so that thinner materials and fewer layers of clothing generally are worn in warmer regions and seasons than in colder ones. Boots, hats, jackets, ponchos, and coats designed to protect from rain and snow are specialized clothing items. Clothing has been made from

3960-405: The garment. Another approach involves measuring, cutting, and sewing the cloth by hand or with a sewing machine . Clothing can be cut from a sewing pattern and adjusted by a tailor to the wearer's measurements. An adjustable sewing mannequin or dress form is used to create form-fitting clothing. If the fabric is expensive, the tailor tries to use every bit of the cloth rectangle in constructing

4032-538: The history of the material composition of buttons reflects the timeline of materials technology . Buttons can be individually crafted by artisans , craftspeople or artists from raw materials or found objects (for example fossils ), or a combination of both. Alternatively, they can be the product of low-tech cottage industry or be mass-produced in high-tech factories . Buttons made by artists are art objects , known to button collectors as "studio buttons" (or simply "studios", from studio craft ). In 1918,

4104-1131: The left placement of the buttons was more convenient for right-handed maids. Some Jews reverse this , following statements in the Torah that favor dressing first on the right side, or from the Kabbalah, in which the right side denotes goodness. The mainly American tradition of politically significant clothing buttons appears to have begun with the first presidential inauguration of George Washington in 1789. Known to collectors as "Washington Inaugurals", they were made of copper , brass or Sheffield plate , in large sizes for coats and smaller sizes for breeches. Made in twenty-two patterns and hand-stamped, they are now extremely valuable cultural artifacts . Between about 1840 and 1916, clothing buttons were used in American political campaigns , and still exist in collections today. Initially, these buttons were predominantly made of brass (though horn and rubber buttons with stamped or moulded designs also exist) and had loop shanks. Around 1860

4176-511: The little black dress, Chanel revamped her designs, thus facilitating the breakthrough and mass popularity of costume jewelry . Galalith was used for striking Art Deco jewelry designs by artists such as Jakob Bengel and Auguste Bonaz, as well as for hair combs and accessories. By the 1930s, Galalith was also used for knitting needles, pens, umbrella handles, white piano keys (replacing natural ivory), and electrical goods, with world production at that time reaching 10,000 tons. Although Galalith

4248-766: The means to insolubilize (i.e., to make a substance incapable of being dissolved in a liquid, especially water) and harden considerably casein by immersion in formaldehyde , also preventing it from decompositing via micro-organisms and water like older 19th century "moldable casein" formulations preceding his discovery which had an extremely limited lifespan and low reliability overall due to lack of formaldehyde and using instead various stabilizing and preserving agents such as borax, various alkali salts and even lead based chemicals which revealed to be highly innefective. The same year Trilliat produced viable samples for Huilliard company in their facilities in Suresnes, France, and later published

4320-625: The mid-twentieth century, garment workers have continued to labor under challenging conditions that demand repetitive manual labor. Often, mass-produced clothing is made in what are considered by some to be sweatshops , typified by long work hours, lack of benefits, and lack of worker representation. While most examples of such conditions are found in developing countries , clothes made in industrialized nations may also be manufactured under similar conditions. Coalitions of NGOs, designers (including Katharine Hamnett, American Apparel , Veja , Quiksilver , eVocal, and Edun), and campaign groups such as

4392-451: The nineteenth century as European colonial powers interacted with new environments such as tropical ones in Asia. Some scientific research into the multiple functions of clothing in the first half of the twentieth century, with publications such as J.C. Flügel 's Psychology of Clothes in 1930, and Newburgh's seminal Physiology of Heat Regulation and The Science of Clothing in 1949. By 1968,

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4464-418: The past 500+ years. The mechanization of the textile industry made many varieties of cloth widely available at affordable prices. Styles have changed, and the availability of synthetic fabrics has changed the definition of what is "stylish". In the latter half of the twentieth century, blue jeans became very popular, and are now worn to events that normally demand formal attire. Activewear has also become

4536-480: The product. Parts were then dried carefully to avoid checking, warping and cracking. La Compagnie Française d'Exploitation des Procédés Pilatus in France used a peculiar process for their version called "primalithe" (swiss patent by Pilatus ) where casein powder was premixed with all the necessary additives and formaldehyde under vacuum, pressed to shape and later molded. Another french company, Etablissements Garaud in

4608-499: The research leading to it (albuminoid materials reacted with formaldehyde, from 1888 to 1921), but said company disregarded these achievements and refused to produce the novel material. In 1897, Wilhelm Krische, a printer from Hanover , was commissioned to develop white, non-flammable, erasable chalkboards . He had difficulty in making the casein adhere to the supporting cardboard, and asked German chemist (Friedrich) Adolph Spitteler (1846–1940) for help. The resultant horn-like plastic

4680-654: The seventeenth century, when box-like metal buttons were constructed especially for the purpose, buttons have been one of the items in which drug smugglers have attempted to hide and transport illegal substances. At least one modern smuggler has tried to use this method. Also making use of the storage possibilities of metal buttons, during the World Wars , British and U.S. military locket buttons were made, containing miniature working compasses . Because buttons have been manufactured from almost every possible material, both natural and synthetic , and combinations of both,

4752-401: The thousands of years that humans have been making clothing, they have created an astonishing array of styles, many of which have been reconstructed from surviving garments, photographs, paintings, mosaics , etc., as well as from written descriptions. Costume history can inspire current fashion designers, as well as costumiers for plays, films, television, and historical reenactment . Comfort

4824-459: The treaty. The production of textiles has functioned as a consistent industry for developing nations, providing work and wages, whether construed as exploitative or not, to millions of people. Galalith Galalith ( Erinoid in the United Kingdom) is a synthetic plastic material manufactured by the interaction of casein and formaldehyde . The commercial name is derived from

4896-468: The world have studied a wide range of clothing topics, including the history of specific items of clothing, clothing styles in different cultural groups, and the business of clothing and fashion. The textile curator Linda Baumgarten writes that "clothing provides a remarkable picture of the daily lives, beliefs, expectations, and hopes of those who lived in the past. Clothing presents a number of challenges to historians. Clothing made of textiles or skins

4968-508: Was historically cheap, the fact it could not be moulded and its inherent flaws, being one of the first man-made plastics, led to its demise by commercial end users. Production slowed as the restrictions of World War II led to a need for milk as a food, and due to new oil-derived wartime plastic developments. Production continued in Brazil until the 1960s. In the UK production continued until 1980 as part of

5040-489: Was mixed with coloring agents and various additives, but without formaldehyde. It was heated, agglomerated and pressed into thick elongated bars which were later extruded again under the action of heat. Said sticks were later aligned side by side in heated flat presses to form blocks that would be later be cut in sheets but bars or tubes were also produced. These shaped parts were then immersed in vats of formaldehyde for relatively long periods so as to ensure proper penetration of

5112-499: Was said to be the most popular for suits and shirts, and papier-mâché far and away the commonest sort of shoe button. Nowadays, hard plastic, seashell, metals, and wood are the most common materials used in button-making; the others tending to be used only in premium or antique apparel, or found in collections . Over 60% of the world's button supply comes from Qiaotou, Yongjia County , China . Historically, fashions in buttons have also reflected trends in applied aesthetics and

5184-477: Was unsuitable for the original purpose, but other applications were soon found. The name lactoform was originally proposed by the French, but the term galalith was kept. Galalith could not be moulded once set, so it had to be produced in sheets, but it had the advantage that it was inexpensive to produce. It could be cut, drilled, embossed and dyed without difficulty, and its structure could be manipulated to create

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