108-825: The Bus Contracting Model (BCM), formerly known as the Government Contracting Model , is a contracting model introduced by the Land Transport Authority (LTA) in 2014 for public buses in Singapore , implemented in 2016. The BCM is based on the Transperth model in Perth , Western Australia with quality incentive elements from London Buses . Under the BCM, local and overseas bus operators bid for contracts to operate public bus services on behalf of LTA. The LTA has also adopted
216-412: A Law Commission -sponsored proposal to both unite and codify English and Scots Law, proposed the abolition of consideration. Some commentators have suggested for consideration to be replaced by estoppel as a basis for contracts. A contract is often evidenced in writing or by deed . The general rule is that a person who signs a contractual document will be bound by the terms in that document. This rule
324-434: A severability clause . The test of whether a clause is severable is an objective test—whether a reasonable person would see the contract standing even without the clauses. Typically, non-severable contracts only require the substantial performance of a promise rather than the whole or complete performance of a promise to warrant payment. However, express clauses may be included in a non-severable contract to explicitly require
432-467: A tort action based on reliance. Although verbal contracts are generally binding in most common law jurisdictions, some types of contracts may require formalities such as being in writing or by deed . A contract cannot be formed without assent of the two parties to be bound by its terms. Normally this is by written signature (which may include an electronic signature), but the assent may also be oral or by conduct. Assent may be given by an agent for
540-674: A bid for the Bulim Bus Package in Singapore. It was among the 10 local and foreign bus operators who had submitted a bid for the tender. The bid was ultimately unsuccessful. In 2020, Busways was successful in expanding its bus operations outside of New South Wales, when it was awarded the contract to operate the Outer South bus network in Adelaide . Busways took over the operations from SouthLink in July that year. Since 2005, Busways' services in
648-407: A certain field. In addition, the court may also imply a term; if price is excluded, the court may imply a reasonable price, with the exception of land, and second-hand goods, which are unique. If there are uncertain or incomplete clauses in the contract, and all options in resolving its true meaning have failed, it may be possible to sever and void just those affected clauses if the contract includes
756-475: A contract may also state circumstances in which performance of an obligation may be excused. Not all terms are stated expressly, and terms carry different legal weight depending on how central they are to the objectives of the contract. Contracting is a specific phase within procurement . It includes creating, negotiating, and managing contracts. Obligations created by contracts can generally be transferred, subject to requirements imposed by law. Laws regarding
864-560: A contract use technicalities to satisfy requirements while in fact circumventing them in practice. Typically, this is in the form of "peppercorn" consideration, i.e. consideration that is negligible but still satisfies the requirements of law. The doctrine of consideration has been expressly rejected by the UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts on the grounds that it yields uncertainty and unnecessary litigation, thereby hindering international trade. Similarly,
972-454: A contractual term will become a condition: A term is a condition (rather than an intermediate or innominate term, or a warranty), in any of the following five situations: (1) statute explicitly classifies the term in this way; (2) there is a binding judicial decision supporting this classification of a particular term as a "condition"; (3) a term is described in the contract as a "condition" and upon construction it has that technical meaning; (4)
1080-620: A focus for all services, with trips also serving the employment centres of Eastern Creek , Huntingwood and Macquarie Park . Bus/train connections are provided at a variety of railway stations. Busways also operates services along the North-West T-way between Blacktown and Rouse Hill. In March 2007, the Parramatta - Rouse Hill section of the North-West T-way opened. Bus routes 730 (renumbered T63) and 735 (renumbered 616, now 616X) were transferred from Busways to Hillsbus while bus route 718
1188-505: A general harmonised framework for international contracts, independent of the divergences between national laws, as well as a statement of common contractual principles for arbitrators and judges to apply where national laws are lacking. Notably, the Principles reject the doctrine of consideration, arguing that elimination of the doctrine "bring[s] about greater certainty and reduce litigation" in international trade. The Principles also rejected
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#17328485445211296-411: A mixture of Roman-Dutch law and English common law (e.g. South Africa and neighbouring countries). In common law jurisdictions, the formation of a contract generally requires an offer, acceptance , consideration , and mutual intent to be bound . The concept of contract law as a distinct area of law in common law jurisdictions originated with the now-defunct writ of assumpsit , which was originally
1404-528: A new unified lush green livery and logo for all buses, and now procures and owns the bus fleet for all public bus services in Singapore . First introduced in 2014, the Government of Singapore claimed that the new contracting model allows public bus services to be more responsive to changes in ridership and commuter needs and to encourage competition between bus operators, improving bus services for commuters. With
1512-451: A party. Remedies for breach of contract include damages (monetary compensation for loss) and, for serious breaches only, cancellation. Specific performance and injunction may also be available if damages are insufficient. In order for a legally enforceable contract to be formed, the parties must reach mutual assent (also called a meeting of the minds ). This is typically reached through an offer and an acceptance which does not vary
1620-406: A patient refuses to pay after being examined by a doctor, the patient has breached a contract implied in fact. A contract which is implied in law is sometimes called a quasi-contract . Such contracts are means for courts to remedy situations in which one party would be unjustly enriched were he or she not required to compensate the other. Quantum meruit claims are an example. Where something
1728-565: A period of seven years. In July 2021, Busways was announced as the new operator for Sydney Bus Region 7 in the North Shore , Northern and Western regions of Sydney. Busways commenced operating Region 7 on 9 January 2022 as part of an eight-year contract, taking over from State Transit . The Central Coast has services provided under the Outer Metropolitan Bus System Contract Region 6 . This contract with
1836-471: A pharmaceutical manufacturer, advertised a smoke ball that would, if sniffed "three times daily for two weeks", prevent users from catching the flu . If it failed to do so, the company promised to pay the user £ 100, adding that they had "deposited £1,000 in the Alliance Bank to show [their] sincerity in the matter". When the company was sued for the money, they argued the advert should not have been taken as
1944-422: A pre-existing legal relationship , contract law provides for the creation and enforcement of duties and obligations through a prior agreement between parties. The emergence of quasi-contracts , quasi-torts , and quasi-delicts renders the boundary between tort and contract law somewhat uncertain. Contracts are widely used in commercial law , and for the most part form the legal foundation for transactions across
2052-521: A purported acceptance that varies the terms of an offer is not an acceptance but a counteroffer and hence a rejection of the original offer. The principle of offer and acceptance has been codified under the Indian Contract Act, 1872 . In determining if a meeting of the minds has occurred, the intention of contracting parties is interpreted objectively from the perspective of a reasonable person . The "objective" approach towards contractual intent
2160-438: A reasonable construction of the contract. In New South Wales, even if there is uncertainty or incompleteness in a contract, the contract may still be binding on the parties if there is a sufficiently certain and complete clause requiring the parties to undergo arbitration, negotiation or mediation. Courts may also look to external standards, which are either mentioned explicitly in the contract or implied by common practice in
2268-430: A serious, legally binding offer but a puff . The Court of Appeal held that it would appear to a reasonable man that Carbolic had made a serious offer and determined that the reward was a contractual promise. As decided in the case of Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain v Boots Cash Cashiers , an offer that is made in response to an invitation to treat, without any negotiation or explicit modification of terms,
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#17328485445212376-544: A service from Forster to Sydney. Busways operate coach services from Newcastle to Taree under contract to NSW TrainLink . Having traditionally purchased Leyland buses, in November 1978 the first of 30 Volvo B58s were delivered. Since then, Busways have purchased buses from MAN , Mercedes-Benz , Scania and Volvo . In the 1970s the Rowe fleet livery was white with a red stripe, with an orange stripe added in 1988. Since 2010,
2484-532: A specific person or persons, and obligations in tort which are based on the wrongful infliction of harm to certain protected interests, primarily imposed by the law, and typically owed to a wider class of persons. Research in business and management has also paid attention to the influence of contracts on relationship development and performance. Private international law is rooted in the principle that every jurisdiction has its own distinct contract law shaped by differences in public policy, judicial tradition, and
2592-594: A tender for a bus package are paid a fixed fee to operate the services. Under the bus industry model, the LTA claims that the commuters will benefit with lesser waiting time for buses. All bus services will run at intervals of not more than 15 minutes, and feeders will run at even shorter intervals at 6 to 8 minutes. The LTA initially tendered out three packages. These contracts are for five years, with two years extension if performance criteria are met. The remaining nine packages were reorganised into 11 packages, and are being run by
2700-450: A term is a condition is determined in part by the parties' intent. In a less technical sense, however, a condition is a generic term and a warranty is a promise. In specific circumstances these terms are used differently. For example, in English insurance law, violation of a "condition precedent" by an insured is a complete defence against the payment of claims. In general insurance law,
2808-479: A tort-based action (such as the tort of deceit ) if the misrepresentation is negligent or fraudulent. In U.S. law, the distinction between the two is somewhat unclear. Warranties are generally viewed as primarily contract-based legal action, while negligent or fraudulent misrepresentations are tort-based, but there is a confusing mix of case law in the United States. In modern English law, sellers often avoid using
2916-499: A two-year contract extension to continue operating the bus package until September 2023. In September 2022, this was further extended until September 2026. In June 2016, the LTA called for tenders to operate 24 existing bus services originating from Yishun Bus Interchange , Yio Chu Kang Bus Interchange and Ang Mo Kio Bus Interchange , with 3 new bus services (71, 668 and 851e under SBS Transit as well as 652 and 807 initially under SMRT Buses) to be introduced. The 29 routes are based at
3024-481: A warranty is a promise that must be complied with. In product transactions, warranties promise that the product will continue to function for a certain period of time. In the United Kingdom, the courts determine whether a term is a condition or warranty, regardless of how or whether the term was classified in the contract. Statute may also declare a term or nature of term to be a condition or warranty. For example,
3132-541: Is able to accommodate about 550 buses. In September 2020, the LTA awarded the contract for the second term of this package to Tower Transit Singapore. Operations under the second term commenced on 29 May 2021, which also involves the transfer of services 653, 657 and 944 from SMRT Buses to Tower Transit Singapore. With the development of Tengah New Town, Route 944 was extended to Tengah Interchange and renumbered 992. Two new routes originating from Tengah itself, namely Routes 870 and 871, were also introduced. In April 2015,
3240-433: Is advertised in a newspaper or on a poster, the advertisement will not normally constitute an offer but will instead be an invitation to treat , an indication that one or both parties are prepared to negotiate a deal. An exception arises if the advertisement makes a unilateral promise, such as the offer of a reward, as in the case of Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball Co , decided in nineteenth-century England . The company,
3348-426: Is concluded, modified or terminated by the mere agreement of the parties, without any further requirement". Assignments are typically subject to statutory restrictions, particularly with regard to the consent of the other party to the contract. Contract theory is a large body of legal theory that addresses normative and conceptual questions in contract law. One of the most important questions asked in contract theory
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3456-531: Is exercised and governed either under common law jurisdictions, civil law jurisdictions, or mixed-law jurisdictions that combine elements of both common and civil law. Common law jurisdictions typically require contracts to include consideration in order to be valid, whereas civil and most mixed-law jurisdictions solely require a meeting of the minds between the parties. Within the overarching category of civil law jurisdictions, there are several distinct varieties of contract law with their own distinct criteria:
3564-411: Is presumed to incorporate the terms of the invitation to treat. In contract law, consideration refers to something of value which is given in exchange for the fulfilment of a promise. In Dunlop v. Selfridge , Lord Dunedin described consideration "the price for which the promise of the other is bought". Consideration can take multiple forms and includes both benefits to the promisor and detriments to
3672-531: Is referred to as the rule in L'Estrange v Graucob or the "signature rule". This rule was approved by the High Court of Australia in Toll(FGCT) Pty Ltd v Alphapharm Pty Ltd . The rule typically binds a signatory to a contract regardless of whether they have actually read it, provided the document is contractual in nature. However, defences such as duress or unconscionability may enable the signer to avoid
3780-729: Is restricted on public policy grounds. Consequently, the validity and enforceability of a contract depends not only on whether a jurisdiction is a common, civil, or mixed law jurisdiction but also on the jurisdiction's particular policies regarding capacity. For instance, very small children may not be held to bargains they have made, on the assumption that they lack the maturity to understand what they are doing; errant employees or directors may be prevented from contracting for their company, because they have acted ultra vires (beyond their power). Another example might be people who are mentally incapacitated, either by disability or drunkenness. Specifics vary between jurisdictions, for example article 39 of
3888-792: Is the largest privately owned bus operator in Australia. The origins of Busways can be traced to 1942 when Dick Rowe commenced a hire car service from Rooty Hill to Plumpton . In 1946 Rowe purchased his first bus and further expansion saw a depot established in Plumpton in 1958. In 1958, in partnership with Fred Bowman, Rowe purchased Parramatta-Villawood Bus Service followed by Campbelltown Transit on 13 May 1967 in partnership with Roger Graham and Jim Newport. In 1970, Rowe had taken full ownership of Campbelltown Transit and in January 1978 sold out of Parramatta-Villawood. In 1984, Riverstone Bus Service
3996-510: Is why contracts are enforced. One prominent answer to this question focuses on the economic benefits of enforcing bargains. Another approach, associated with Charles Fried in his book Contract as Promise , maintains that the general purpose of contract law is to enforce promises . Other approaches to contract theory are found in the writings of legal realists and critical legal studies theorists, which have propounded Marxist and feminist interpretations of contract. Attempts at understanding
4104-568: The Blacktown area have formed part of Sydney Bus Region 1 , held in partnership with Westbus and Hawkesbury Valley Buses . Operating from a depot in Glendenning , scheduled route and school services cover an area encompassed by Seven Hills and Castle Hill in the east; Rouse Hill and Riverstone in the north; Shalvey and St Marys in the west; Minchinbury and Prospect to the south. The regional centres of Blacktown and Mount Druitt are
4212-733: The Egyptian Civil Code , modelled after the Napoleonic Code but containing provisions designed to fit Arab and Islamic society. The Egyptian Civil Code was subsequently used as a model for the majority of Arab states. In the 20th century, the growth of export trade led to countries adopting international conventions, such as the Hague-Visby Rules and the UN Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods , bringing
4320-603: The European Union being an economic community with a range of trade rules, there continues to be no overarching "EU Law of Contract". In 2021, Mainland China adopted the Civil Code of the People's Republic of China , which codifies its contract law in book three. While generally classified as a civil law jurisdiction, contract law in mainland China has been influenced by a number of sources, including traditional Chinese views toward
4428-668: The German tradition is characterised by the unique doctrine of abstraction , systems based on the Napoleonic Code are characterised by their systematic distinction between different types of contracts, and Roman-Dutch law is largely based on the writings of renaissance-era Dutch jurists and case law applying general principles of Roman law prior to the Netherlands' adoption of the Napoleonic Code. The UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts , published in 2016, aim to provide
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4536-636: The Law of Property Act 1925 ). Nonetheless, a valid contract may generally be made orally or even by conduct. An oral contract may also be called a parol contract or a verbal contract, with "verbal" meaning "spoken" rather than "in words", an established usage in British English with regards to contracts and agreements, and common although somewhat deprecated as "loose" in American English . An unwritten, unspoken contract, also known as "a contract implied by
4644-658: The Meiji Restoration , Japan adopted a series of legal codes modelled primarily on German law, adopting its commercial code in 1899. The Japanese adaptation of German civil law was spread to the Korean Peninsula and China as a result of Japanese occupation and influence, and continues to form the basis of the legal system in South Korea and the Republic of China. In 1949, Abd El-Razzak El-Sanhuri and Edouard Lambert drafted
4752-518: The NSW Government covers a broad area that stretches from Patonga and Wagstaffe in the south through to Swansea and Morisset in the north; and Dooralong and Mangrove Mountain in the west to Terrigal and MacMasters Beach in the east. With depots at Kincumber and Woongarrah , the key centres served by Busways routes include Gosford, Tuggerah , Wyong, Lake Haven , Erina Fair and Woy Woy . Occasional trips also serve Charlestown in
4860-606: The Philippine Civil Code provides a comprehensive overview of the most typical circumstances resulting in lost or diminished juridical capacity: age, mental disability, the state of being a deaf-mute , penalty, absence, insolvency, and trusteeship . Busways Busways is an Australian bus company operating services in Sydney , and in the Central Coast , Mid North Coast regions of New South Wales and Adelaide . It
4968-666: The Sale of Goods Act 1979 s15A provides that terms as to title, description, quality and sample are generally conditions . The United Kingdom has also developed the concept of an "intermediate term" (also called innominate terms), first established in Hong Kong Fir Shipping Co Ltd v Kawasaki Kisen Kaisha Ltd [1962]. Traditionally, while warranties are contractual promises which are enforced through legal action, regardless of materiality, intent, or reliance, representations are traditionally precontractual statements that allow for
5076-518: The Sydney Metro opening, all Busways T-way services were renumbered from "T7x" to "73x", and the former Hawkesbury Valley Buses services (661-664) were renumbered to "67x" or "74x". Some services were also rerouted to stop at Tallawong station . Between 2022 and 2023, the contract for region 1 was put out to tender and was subsequently retained by Busways. The new contract commenced in December 2023 for
5184-491: The United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods does not require consideration for a contract to be valid, thereby excluding the doctrine with regard to contracts covered by the convention even in common law jurisdictions where it would otherwise apply. The continued existence of the doctrine in common law jurisdictions is controversial. Scots lawyer Harvey McGregor 's " Contract Code ",
5292-559: The Bus Service Operating Licenses (BSOL) of SBS Transit and SMRT Buses expiring on 31 August 2016, the Land Transport Authority (LTA) decided to revamp the country's bus operations into a competitive tendering process. Under the contracting model, bus operators bid for the right to operate services while with the LTA as central planner, setting service levels and service standards. The LTA retains ownership of bus, depot and fleet management system assets. Operators that win
5400-733: The Campbelltown to Wollongong service of Farmborough Coaches was acquired. In November 1992 Busways took over operation of the routes of Leslies, Arndell Park following its collapse before purchasing them in May 1993. In September 2003, Busways purchased the Great Lakes and Mid North Coast services of King Brothers from its administrator. In January 2008 the school services of Yarramalong Bus Lines , Wyong were purchased followed by those of Kulnura Bus Lines in July 2009. Between 2014 and 2015, Busways attempted to venture overseas by submitting
5508-594: The Canadian province of Quebec are mixed law jurisdictions which primarily adhere to French legal tradition with regard to contract law and other principles of private law. Over the course of the nineteenth and twentieth century, the majority of jurisdictions in the Middle East and East Asia adopted civil law legal frameworks based on the Napoleonic, German, or Swiss model. The Napoleonic Code shapes contract law across much of
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#17328485445215616-703: The LTA awarded incumbent operator SBS Transit the package. In 2022, SBS Transit received a two-year contract extension to continue operating the bus package until March 2025. They subsequently retained control of said package for the second term, edging out four other bidders, including Bravo Transport of Hong Kong. In April 2017, the LTA called for tenders to operate 17 bus services originating from Bukit Merah Bus Interchange , HarbourFront Bus Interchange , Buona Vista Bus Terminal, Marina Centre Bus Terminal, Kampong Bahru Bus Terminal , Queen Street Bus Terminal and Shenton Way Bus Terminal. The 17 bus routes (including cross border services 160 and 170/170X) will be supported by
5724-503: The LTA called for tenders to operate the Loyang Bus Package comprising 24 existing bus services originating from Changi Airport Bus Terminal , Changi Village Bus Terminal, Pasir Ris Bus Interchange and Punggol Temporary Bus Interchange . Later on, services 381 and 12e were introduced. On 1 April 2018, service 68 was added into this package. On 9 September 2019, service 43e was added into this package. On 27 December 2020, service 384
5832-584: The Lonsdale and Seaford depots. From 2005 Busways' services in the Macarthur Region formed Sydney Bus Region 15 . Operating from depots at Campbelltown and Smeaton Grange , route and school services operated as far east as Kentlyn and Wedderburn ; south to Appin and Wollongong ; west to The Oaks and Warragamba ; and north to Catherine Field and Raby . Regional and district centres such as Campbelltown, Macarthur Square , Narellan and Camden were
5940-587: The Middle East, while contract law in Japan, South Korea, and the Republic of China is rooted in the German pandectist tradition. In 1926, Turkey replaced its Ottoman-era mixture of Islamic and secular laws with a secular civil code modelled after that of Switzerland , with its contract and commercial law modelled after the Swiss Code of Obligations , which was in turn influenced by German and French legal traditions. Following
6048-558: The Muslim world during the Middle Ages. Since the nineteenth century, two distinct traditions of contract law emerged. Jurisdictions that were previously British colonies generally adopted English common law . Other jurisdictions largely adopted the civil law tradition, either inheriting a civil law legal system at independence or adopting civil and commercial codes based on German or French law. While jurisdictions such as Japan, South Korea, and
6156-770: The Republic of China modelled their contract law after the German pandectist tradition, the Arab world largely modelled its legal framework after the Napoleonic Code . While the Netherlands adopted a legal system based on the Napoleonic Code in the early 19th century, Dutch colonies retained the precedent-based Roman-Dutch law . British colonies in Southern Africa adopted Roman-Dutch principles in areas of private law via reception statutes adopting South African law, retaining Roman-Dutch law for most matters of private law while applying English common law principles in most matters of public law . Saint Lucia , Mauritius , Seychelles , and
6264-407: The United States requires a written contract for tangible product sales in excess of $ 500, and for real estate contracts to be written. If the contract is not required by law to be written, an oral contract is generally valid and legally binding. The United Kingdom has since replaced the original Statute of Frauds, but written contracts are still required for various circumstances such as land (through
6372-483: The abstraction principle on the grounds that it and similar doctrines are "not easily compatible with modern business perceptions and practice". Contract law can be contrasted with tort law (also referred to in some jurisdictions as the law of delicts), the other major area of the law of obligations. While tort law generally deals with private duties and obligations that exist by operation of law, and provide remedies for civil wrongs committed between individuals not in
6480-454: The acts of the parties", which can be legally implied either from the facts or as required in law . Implied-in-fact contracts are real contracts under which parties receive the "benefit of the bargain". However, contracts implied in law are also known as quasi-contracts, and the remedy is quantum meruit , the fair market value of goods or services rendered. In commercial agreements it is presumed that parties intend to be legally bound unless
6588-484: The basis of public policy . For example, in the English case Balfour v. Balfour a husband agreed to give his wife £30 a month while he was away from home, but the court refused to enforce the agreement when the husband stopped paying. In contrast, in Merritt v Merritt the court enforced an agreement between an estranged couple because the circumstances suggested their agreement was intended to have legal consequences. If
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#17328485445216696-656: The basis of trade since the dawn of commerce and sedentism during the Neolithic Revolution . A notable early modern development in contract law was the emergence of the hawala system in the Indian subcontinent and the Arab world , under which a series of contractual relationships formed the basis of an informal value transfer system spanning the Silk Road . In the Indian subcontinent,
6804-499: The buyer explicitly expressed the importance of this requirement. The relative knowledge of the parties may also be a factor, as in English case of Bissett v Wilkinson , where the court did not find misrepresentation when a seller said that farmland being sold would carry 2000 sheep if worked by one team; the buyer was considered sufficiently knowledgeable to accept or reject the seller's opinion. According to Andrew Tettenborn et al , there are five differing circumstances under which
6912-409: The categorisation of contracts into bilateral and unilateral ones. For example, the High Court of Australia stated that the term unilateral contract is "unscientific and misleading". In certain circumstances, an implied contract may be created. A contract is implied in fact if the circumstances imply that parties have reached an agreement even though they have not done so expressly. For example, if
7020-570: The court or other forum in which disputes will be resolved, respectively. Failing express agreement on such matters in the contract itself, countries have rules to determine the law governing the contract and the jurisdiction for disputes. For example, European Union Member States apply Article 4 of the Rome I Regulation to decide the law governing the contract, and the Brussels I Regulation to decide jurisdiction. Contracts have existed since antiquity, forming
7128-438: The crew were already contracted to sail the ship. The pre-existing duty rule also extends to general legal duties; for example, a promise to refrain from committing a tort or crime is not sufficient. Some jurisdictions have modified the English principle or adopted new ones. For example, in the Indian Contract Act, 1872 , past consideration constitutes valid consideration, and that consideration may be from any person even if not
7236-503: The event of a breach of contract , the injured party may seek judicial remedies such as damages or equitable remedies such as specific performance or rescission . A binding agreement between actors in international law is known as a treaty . Contract law, the field of the law of obligations concerned with contracts, is based on the principle that agreements must be honoured . Like other areas of private law , contract law varies between jurisdictions. In general, contract law
7344-608: The existing operators for periods of two to 10 years - this marked the completion of transition to the BCM. LTA will tender out these packages after these negotiated contracts expire. In October 2014, the LTA called for tenders to operate the Bulim Bus Package comprising 26 existing bus services originating from Bukit Batok , Jurong East and Clementi bus interchanges. Since then, services 653, 657 and 944 were added into this package under SMRT Buses on 13 April 2017, 24 April 2017 and 27 August 2017 respectively. In 2020, Service 651
7452-431: The extent of their enforceability as part of a contract. English common law distinguishes between important conditions and warranties , with a breach of a condition by one party allowing the other to repudiate and be discharged while a warranty allows for remedies and damages but not complete discharge. In modern United States law the distinction is less clear but warranties may be enforced more strictly. Whether or not
7560-543: The focus of all routes. Busways operated the free Macarthur CBD shuttle which was terminated in August 2014. In June 2014 operation of the Sydney Bus Region 15 passed to Busabout . Rowe's Bus Service previously operated coach services with a fleet of six Dennings until the coach licences were sold to Westbus in 1986. Macarthur Coaches also operated some coaches that were sold in 1990. Until October 2011 Busways operated
7668-438: The following bus service packages: Contract A contract is an agreement that specifies certain legally enforceable rights and obligations pertaining to two or more parties . A contract typically involves consent to transfer of goods , services , money , or promise to transfer any of those at a future date. The activities and intentions of the parties entering into a contract may be referred to as contracting . In
7776-429: The formation of binding contracts. On the other hand, Islamic law accepted agency as permissible in not only contract law but in the law of obligations generally, an approach that has since become mainstream in common law, mixed law, and most civil law jurisdictions. Analogously, the transfer of debt , which was not accepted under Roman law, became widely practiced in medieval European commerce, owing largely to trade with
7884-508: The freedom of contract in order to prevent businesses from exploiting consumers. In 1993, Harvey McGregor , a British barrister and academic, produced a "Contract Code" under the auspices of the English and Scottish Law Commissions , which was a proposal to both unify and codify the contract laws of England and Scotland. This document was offered as a possible "Contract Code for Europe", but tensions between English and German jurists meant that this proposal has so far come to naught. In spite of
7992-526: The freedom of contract. For example, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 restricted private racial discrimination against African-Americans. The US Constitution contains a Contract Clause , but this has been interpreted as only restricting the retroactive impairment of contracts. In the late twentieth and early twenty-first century, consumer protection legislation, such as Singapore's Consumer Protection (Fair Trading) Act 2003, progressively imposed limits upon
8100-567: The full performance of an obligation. English courts have established that any intention to make the contract a "complete code", so as to exclude any option to resort to a common law or extra-contractual remedy, must be evidenced in "clear express words": otherwise a "presumption that each party to a contract is entitled to all remedies which arise by operation of law" will be honoured by the courts. Common law jurisdictions typically distinguish three different categories of contractual terms, conditions, warranties and intermediate terms, which vary in
8208-403: The guardian of a young girl took out a loan to educate her. After she was married, her husband promised to pay the debt but the loan was determined to be past consideration. In the early English case of Stilk v. Myrick [1809], a captain promised to divide the wages of two deserters among the remaining crew if they agreed to sail home short-handed; however, this promise was found unenforceable as
8316-408: The hawala system gave rise to the hundi , a transferrable contract entitling its holder in due course to obtain money from its issuer or an agent thereof, giving rise to the principle underlying contemporary negotiable instruments . The hawala system also influenced the development of agency in common law and in civil laws . In Roman law, agents could not act on behalf of other individuals in
8424-746: The initial term of the Jurong West bus package. The tender closed on 3 April 2023. On 18 August 2023, it was announced that SBS Transit won the tender for the package and will continue operating the bus services in this package. In November 2019, the LTA called for tenders to operate the Sembawang-Yishun bus package, which was held concurrently with the tender for the second term of Bulim bus package. This involves 24 bus services operating out of Woodlands, Sembawang and Yishun bus interchanges. Service 110 will be handed over to Woodlands Bus Package while 652 will be handed over to Seletar Bus Package. They are based at
8532-599: The majority of English-speaking countries, the rules are derived from English contract law which emerged as a result of precedents established by various courts in England over the centuries. Meanwhile, civil law jurisdictions generally derive their contract law from Roman law , although there are differences between German contract law , legal systems inspired by the Napoleonic Code or the Civil Code of Lower Canada (e.g. Québec and Saint Lucia ), and jurisdictions following Roman-Dutch law (e.g. Indonesia and Suriname ) or
8640-516: The modification of contracts or the assignment of rights under a contract are broadly similar across jurisdictions. In most jurisdictions, a contract may be modified by a subsequent contract or agreement between the parties to modify the terms governing their obligations to each other. This is reflected in Article 3.1.2 of the Principles of International Commercial Contracts , which states that "a contract
8748-475: The new Mandai Bus Depot which is able to accommodate about 550 buses (co-located with the Thomson–East Coast line MRT depot) from September 2021. In September 2020, the LTA awarded the contract for this package to Tower Transit Singapore. Operations commenced in 3 tranches from 5 September 2021, involving the transfer of the services from SMRT Buses to Tower Transit Singapore. In January 2022, route 801
8856-518: The new Seletar Bus Depot which was completed in the 3rd quarter of 2017 and is able to accommodate about 515 buses including 20 lots for electric buses. The tender was closed on 27 October 2016 (with original deadline as 6 October 2016). Busways , Go-Ahead Singapore , a Jiaoyun Group / Travel GSH joint venture, National Express , SBS Transit , Shenzhen Bus Group, SMRT Buses , a Tian Tan Shipping/ Kumho Buslines joint venture, Tower Transit Singapore and Woodlands Transport lodged bids. In April 2017,
8964-519: The new Ulu Pandan Bus Depot which was completed in the first quarter of 2018 and is able to accommodate about 480 buses. Go-Ahead Singapore , a Jiaoyun Group / Travel GSH joint venture, SBS Transit , Shenzhen Bus Group, SMRT Buses and Tower Transit Singapore lodged bids. In February 2018, the LTA awarded incumbent operator SBS Transit the package. Tenders for the second term of the Bukit Merah bus package were called on 23 November 2022, along with
9072-685: The north and Spencer in the west. Between 2021 and 2023, the contract for region 6 was put out to tender and was subsequently retained by Busways. The new contract will commence on 28 July 2024 for a period of seven years. In September 2003, Busways purchased the services of King Brothers on the Mid North Coast from its administrator. Busways provides services throughout Grafton , Kempsey , Wauchope , Laurieton , Coffs Harbour , Port Macquarie , Yamba , Bulahdelah , Heatherbrae , Macksville and Raleigh . In July 2020, Busways took over Adelaide's Outer South network from SouthLink , including
9180-550: The obligation. Further, reasonable notice of a contract's terms must be given to the other party prior to their entry into the contract. Written contracts have typically been preferred in common law legal systems. In 1677 England passed the Statute of Frauds which influenced similar statute of frauds laws in the United States and other countries such as Australia. In general, the Uniform Commercial Code as adopted in
9288-405: The offer's terms, which is known as the " mirror image rule ". An offer is defined as a promise that is dependent on a certain act, promise, or forbearance given in exchange for the initial promise An acceptance is simply the assent of the other contracting party or parties to the terms stipulated in the contract. As an offer states the offeror's willingness to be bound to the terms proposed therein,
9396-450: The offeror. Consideration must be lawful for a contract to be binding. Applicable rules in determining if consideration is lawful exist both in case law and in the codes of some common law jurisdictions. The general principles of valid consideration in the common law tradition are that: The insufficiency of past consideration is related to the pre-existing duty rule . For example, in the early English case of Eastwood v. Kenyon [1840],
9504-554: The offeror. In a reward contract, for example, a person who has lost a dog could promise a reward if the dog is found, through publication or orally. The payment could be additionally conditioned on the dog being returned alive. Those who learn of the reward are not required to search for the dog, but if someone finds the dog and delivers it, the promisor is required to pay. On the other hand, advertisements which promise bargains are generally regarded not as offers for unilateral contracts but merely "invitations to treat". Some have criticised
9612-493: The overarching purpose and nature of contracting as a phenomenon have been made, notably relational contract theory . Additionally, certain academic conceptions of contracts focus on questions of transaction cost and ' efficient breach ' theory. Another important dimension of the theoretical debate in contract is its place within, and relationship to a wider law of obligations . Obligations have traditionally been divided into contracts, which are voluntarily undertaken and owed to
9720-487: The parties expressly state the opposite. For example, in Rose & Frank Co v JR Crompton & Bros Ltd , an agreement between two business parties was not enforced because an "honour clause" in the document stated "this is not a commercial or legal agreement, but is only a statement of the intention of the parties". In contrast, domestic and social agreements such as those between children and parents are typically unenforceable on
9828-493: The parties have explicitly agreed that breach of that term, no matter what the factual consequences, will entitle the innocent party to terminate the contract for breach; or (5) as a matter of general construction of the contract, the clause must be understood as intended to operate as a condition. In all systems of contract law, the capacity of a variety of natural or juristic persons to enter into contracts, enforce contractual obligations, or have contracts enforced against them
9936-400: The practices of local businesses. Consequently, while all systems of contract law serve the same overarching purpose of enabling the creation of legally enforceable obligations, they may contain significant differences. Accordingly, many contracts contain a choice of law clause and a forum selection clause to determine the jurisdiction whose system of contract law will govern the contract and
10044-447: The promisee. The Indian Contract Act also codifies examples of when consideration is invalid, for example when it involves marriage or the provision of a public office. The primary criticism of the doctrine of consideration is that it is purely a formality that merely serves to complicate commerce and create legal uncertainty by opening up otherwise simple contracts to scrutiny as to whether the consideration purportedly tendered satisfies
10152-422: The promisee. Forbearance to act, for example, can constitute valid consideration, but only if a legal right is surrendered in the process. Common law jurisdictions require consideration for a simple contract to be binding, but allow contracts by deed to not require consideration. Similarly, under the Uniform Commercial Code , firm offers in most American jurisdictions are valid without consideration if signed by
10260-465: The requirements of the law. While the purpose of the doctrine was ostensibly to protect parties seeking to void oppressive contracts, this is currently accomplished through the use of a sophisticated variety of defences available to the party seeking to void a contract. In practice, the doctrine of consideration has resulted in a phenomenon similar to that of Ḥiyal in Islamic contracts, whereby parties to
10368-749: The role of law, the PRC's socialist background, the Japanese/German-based law of the Republic of China on Taiwan , and the English-based common law used in Hong Kong. Consequently, contract law in the Chinese mainland functions as a de facto mixed system. The 2021 civil code provides for the regulation of nominate contracts in a manner similar to that of jurisdictions such as Japan, Germany, France, and Québec. The rules governing contracts vary between jurisdictions. In
10476-438: The sale of a home, the buyer promises to pay the seller $ 200,000 in exchange for the seller's promise to deliver title to the property. Bilateral contracts commonly take place in the daily flow of commercial transactions. Less common are unilateral contracts, in which one party makes a promise, but the other side does not promise anything. In these cases, those accepting the offer are not required to communicate their acceptance to
10584-473: The tender for this bus package and will take over the bus services from 2024 onwards. In August 2016, the LTA announced the completion of the transitioning to bus contracting on 1 September 2016. The remaining nine packages covered 230 routes. They were organised in a way such that no change of employees from one operator to another was needed. Each package will last from five to 10 years. As the negotiated contracts expire, they will be put up for tender. These are
10692-547: The term "represents" in order to avoid claims under the Misrepresentation Act 1967 , while in America the use of "warrants and represents" is relatively common. English courts may weigh parties' emphasis in determining whether a non-contractual statement is enforceable as part of the contract. In the English case of Bannerman v White , the court upheld a rejection by a buyer of hops which had been treated with sulphur since
10800-447: The terms of a contract are so uncertain or incomplete as to elude reasonable interpretation, the parties cannot have reached an agreement in the eyes of the law. An agreement to agree does not constitute a contract, and an inability to agree on key issues, which may include such things as price or safety, may cause an entire contract to fail. However, a court will attempt to give effect to commercial contracts where possible, by construing
10908-710: The various legal traditions closer together. In the early 20th century, the United States underwent the " Lochner era ", in which the Supreme Court of the United States struck down economic regulations on the basis of freedom of contract and the Due Process Clause . These decisions were eventually overturned, and the Supreme Court established a deference to legislative statutes and regulations that restrict freedom of contract. The need to prevent discrimination and unfair business practices has placed additional restrictions on
11016-416: The world. Common examples include contracts for the sale of services and goods, construction contracts , contracts of carriage , software licenses , employment contracts , insurance policies , sales or leases of land, among others. A contractual term is a "provision forming part of a contract". Each term gives rise to a contractual obligation, breach of which can give rise to litigation , although
11124-507: Was added into this package. Busways , Go-Ahead Group , Keolis , RATP Dev Transdev Asia , SBS Transit , SMRT Buses , a Tian Tan Shipping/ Kumho Buslines joint venture and Woodlands Transport lodged bids. The contract was awarded in November 2015 to Go-Ahead Singapore . The 29 bus routes are based at the new Loyang Bus Depot which was completed in June 2015 and is able to accommodate about 505 buses. In August 2020, Go-Ahead Singapore received
11232-433: Was also added into this package. Aedge Holdings, Busways , Go-Ahead Group , a Jiaoyun Group / Travel GSH joint venture, Jinan Public Transportation, Keolis , RATP Dev Transdev Asia , SBS Transit , SMRT Buses , Transit Systems and Woodlands Transport lodged bids. In May 2015, the LTA awarded the contract to Transit Systems with the new Bulim Bus Depot handed over to Tower Transit Singapore on 31 July 2015. The depot
11340-399: Was first used in the English case of Smith v Hughes in 1871. Where an offer specifies a particular mode of acceptance, only acceptance communicated via that method will be valid. Contracts may be bilateral or unilateral . A bilateral contract is an agreement in which each of the parties to the contract makes a promise or set of promises to each other. For example, in a contract for
11448-633: Was introduced and added to the package. Route 861 was introduced and added to this package in September 2024. In November 2022, LTA called for tenders for the Jurong West Bus Package, along with the second term of the Bukit Merah package. This involved 26 bus services operated by SBS Transit operating mainly out of Boon Lay and Joo Koon bus interchanges. The tender closed on 3 April 2023. On 18 August 2023, LTA announced that SMRT Buses had won
11556-586: Was purchased and merged with Rowe's Bus Service. In June 1986 Higlett's Motor Coach Services, Camden was purchased and rebranded Macarthur Coaches. In 1988, Campbelltown Transit, Macarthur Coaches and Rowe's Bus Service were all rebranded as Busways. In February 1990 the Seargent's, Charmhaven business on the Central Coast was purchased followed in July 1994 by the neighbouring Peninsula Bus Lines business in Kincumber , Ourimbah and Umina . In June 1991,
11664-672: Was transferred from Hillsbus to Busways. In November 2007, the Blacktown - Parklea of the North-West T-way opened. Existing Busways bus routes were amended and renumbered to become new T-way routes (T70, T71, T74 and T75) and ran mainly along the new section. In October 2013, Busways after winning the tender for Sydney Bus Region 1 , took over the operation of services in the St Marys , Penrith , Windsor and Richmond areas from Hawkesbury Valley Buses and Westbus . In May 2019, as part of
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