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68-513: The bunad movement has its root in 19th-century national romanticism , which included an interest for traditional folk costumes not only in Norway , but also in neighbouring countries such as Denmark and notably Germany . However, in Norway, national romanticist ideas had a more lasting impact, as seen in the use of folk-inspired costumes. The bunad movement has been carried forward by enthusiasts all over

136-488: A god or gods (see the divine right of kings and the Mandate of Heaven ). Among the key themes of Romanticism , and its most enduring legacy, the cultural assertions of romantic nationalism have also been central in post-Enlightenment art and political philosophy. From its earliest stirrings, with their focus on the development of national languages and folklore , and the spiritual value of local customs and traditions, to

204-515: A bunad. Bunads were also conspicuous among those present at the Blessing of the Reign of King Harald and Queen Sonja, demonstrating that the bunad is now considered acceptable as an alternative form of formal wear even on the most solemn public occasions. There is ongoing debate about the official status of various outfits, and what allowed variations are. Due to ongoing discussions on the status of bunads, it

272-554: A cultural backwater by the absentee government in Copenhagen , the only uniquely Norwegian culture was found among the farmers and peasants in rural districts in Norway; Norway had in 1814 gained a partial independence in a personal union with the Kingdom of Sweden . For Norwegians, having reasserted their political aspirations in 1814, the question of a distinct Norwegian identity became important. As urban culture gained prominence also in

340-676: A given time and save Germany) and the legend of the Lorelei (by Brentano and Heine ) among others. The Nazi movement later appropriated the nationalistic elements of Romanticism, with Nazi chief ideologue Alfred Rosenberg writing: "The reaction in the form of German Romanticism was therefore as welcome as rain after a long drought. But in our own era of universal internationalism , it becomes necessary to follow this racially linked Romanticism to its core, and to free it from certain nervous convulsions which still adhere to it." Joseph Goebbels told theatre directors on 8 May 1933, just two days before

408-409: A more creative, lenient approach. Traditionally it is correct for women to wear proper bunad shoes and purses, and to avoid wearing sunglasses, earrings, and heavy makeup when dressed in a bunad. Bunads are nowadays often viewed as a status symbol, ranging in the price of $ 2,000−10,000, depending on the desired design, material, embroidery, gold, silver and accessories. The price also depends on whether

476-549: A national institution dealing with documentation and research of folk costumes as a cultural expression. Since 2008, the institution's management has operated in cooperation with the Valdres Folkemuseum ( Valdresmusea ) with which it shares facilities in Fagernes . The institute has established an archive of costume registrations, photo, cut patterns and sketches, and writings of traditional material from various districts. From

544-675: Is common, but by no means mandatory, to wear bunad at various celebrations such as: folk dances, weddings, baptisms, confirmations, Christmas, graduations and especially the May 17 National Day celebrations. In recent years, its use has reached far outside folk dancing, folk music, and particular holidays. Accepted as proper gala attire, it is increasingly common to see people, and especially women, dressed in bunad. The former Norwegian foreign minister, Thorvald Stoltenberg , made history by presenting his accreditation as ambassador to Margrethe II of Denmark dressed in

612-701: Is neither flesh nor fish. Shut down all the theatres, And chase their comedians pack, Who parody the olden days. O, Emperor, do come back! Romanticism played an essential role in the national awakening of many Central European peoples lacking their own national states, not least in Poland, which had recently failed to restore its independence when Russia's army crushed the Polish Uprising under Nicholas I . Revival and reinterpretation of ancient myths, customs and traditions by Romantic poets and painters helped to distinguish their indigenous cultures from those of

680-608: Is not possible to state accurately the number of different types of bunads in Norway, but most estimates place the number at around 200. In 1947 an official institution, the National Committee for Bunad-related Questions ( Landsnemnda for Bunadspørsmål ) was organized to act in an advisory capacity on all questions dealing with bunads in Norway. That function is presently assigned to the Norwegian Institute for Costume and Folk Costume ( Norsk institutt for bunad og folkedrakt ),

748-539: Is the claimed inalienable right of a culturally and racially defined people to a geographical terrain, a "heartland" (a vivid expression) or homeland . Richard Wagner notoriously argued that those who were ethnically different could not comprehend the artistic and cultural meaning inherent in national culture. Identifying "Jewishness" even in musical style, he specifically attacked the Jews as being unwilling to assimilate into German culture, and thus unable to truly comprehend

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816-652: The Fin de siècle (which was also reflected to a degree in the contemporary art movements of symbolism , the Decadent movement , and Art Nouveau ), the racialist völkisch movement which grew out of romantic nationalism in Germany in the late 19th century. The rising nationalistic and imperialistic tensions between the European nations throughout the Fin de siècle period eventually erupted in

884-727: The Iliad and Odyssey took on new urgency during the Greek War of Independence . Amongst the world's Jewish community, the early Zionists considered the Bible a more suitable national epic than the Talmud . Many other "national epics", epic poetry considered to reflect the national spirit, were produced or revived under the influence of Romantic nationalism: particularly in the Russian Empire , national minorities seeking to assert their own identities in

952-633: The Black Plague , Norway became dependent on Denmark and Copenhagen was made capital of both countries in a personal union. Subsequently, there was a brain drain of talented people from Norway to Denmark, who studied in Copenhagen and became intellectuals and cultural icons in Denmark, most famously Ludvig Holberg . After more than 400 years as a dependent lesser part in the Denmark-Norway union treated as

1020-689: The First World War . After Germany had lost the war and undergone the tumultuous German Revolution , the völkisch movement drastically radicalized itself in Weimar Germany under the harsh terms of the Treaty of Versailles , and Adolf Hitler would go on to say that "the basic ideas of National-Socialism are völkisch , just as the völkisch ideas are National-Socialist". [REDACTED] Category Norwegian romantic nationalism Norwegian romantic nationalism ( Norwegian : Nasjonalromantikken )

1088-574: The Kingdom of Bavaria held apart from a united Germany, and Czech and Serb nationalism continued to trouble Imperial politics. The flowering of arts which drew inspiration from national epics and song continued unabated. The Zionist movement revived Hebrew, and began immigration to Eretz Yisrael , and Welsh and Irish tongues also experienced a poetic revival. At the same time, linguistic and cultural nationality, colored with pre-genetic concepts of race, bolstered two rhetorical claims used to this day: claims of primacy and claims of superiority. Primacy

1156-698: The Nazi book burnings in Berlin, that: "German art of the next decade will be heroic, it will be like steel, it will be Romantic, non-sentimental, factual; it will be national with great pathos, and at once obligatory and binding, or it will be nothing." Of this phenomenon, the Soviet literary scholar Naum Berkovsky wrote: German fascism extracted Romanticism from the naphthalene of the past, established its ideological kinship with it, included it in its canon of forerunners, and after some cleansing on racial grounds, absorbed it into

1224-666: The Neapolitan voice. The work of the Brothers Grimm influenced other collectors, both inspiring them to collect tales and leading them to similarly believe that the fairy tales of a country were particularly representative of it, to the neglect of cross-cultural influence. Among those influenced were the Russian Alexander Afanasyev , the Norwegians Peter Christen Asbjørnsen and Jørgen Moe , and

1292-508: The Revolutions of 1848 swept across Europe and threatened the old order. Numerous movements developed around various cultural groups, who began to develop a sense of national identity. While initially, all of these revolutions failed, and reactionary forces would re-establish political control, the revolutions marked the start of the steady progress towards the end of the Concert of Europe under

1360-526: The anti-Napoleonic struggle of 1813–15 were all instrumental in shaping the character of German nationalism for the next one-and-a-half century in a racialized ethnic rather than civic nationalist direction. Romanticism also played a role in the popularization of the Kyffhäuser myth , about the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa sleeping atop the Kyffhäuser mountain and being expected to rise in

1428-686: The great powers of Europe dominated continental politics of the first half of the 19th century. Following the Congress of Vienna , and subsequent Concert of Europe system, several major empires took control of European politics. Among these were the Russian Empire , the restored French monarchy , the German Confederation , under the dominance of Prussia , the Austrian Empire , and the Ottoman Empire . The conservative forces held sway until

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1496-560: The history of German literature from a fascist point of view, considers the most valuable for fascism that stage in the development of German Romanticism when it freed itself from the influences of the French Revolution and thanks to Adam Müller, Görres , Arnim and Schelling began to create truly German national literature on the basis of German medieval art , religion and patriotism. This made scholars and critics like Fritz Strich , Thomas Mann and Victor Klemperer , who before

1564-685: The wave of rebellions , inspired by new senses of localized identities, which swept the American colonies of Spain, one after the other, from the May Revolution of Argentina in 1810. Following the ultimate collapse of the First French Empire with the fall of Napoleon, conservative elements took control in Europe, led by the Austrian noble Klemens von Metternich , ideals of the balance of power between

1632-426: The 20th century, relying (often very loosely) on local and historical material. The interest for bunads dates back to Norwegian romantic nationalism and gained increasing interest with the folk-dance movement at the beginning of the 20th century. While the contemporary bunad tradition has most of its roots in folk costumes from the 18th and 19th centuries, records documenting the use of folk costumes go as far back as

1700-515: The Australian Joseph Jacobs . The concept of a " national epic ", an extensively mythologized legendary work of poetry of defining importance to a certain nation, is another product of Romantic nationalism. The "discovery" of Beowulf in a single manuscript, first transcribed in 1818, came under the impetus of Romantic nationalism, after the manuscript had lain as an ignored curiosity in scholars' collections for two centuries. Beowulf

1768-601: The Middle Ages. Setesdal in Southern Norway, for example, had a folk costume tradition dating back to the 14th century that remained relatively untouched until the middle of the 20th century. Norwegians from Setesdal still wear this time-honored traditional costume as a bunad today. Such long-standing folk costume traditions can be found all over Norway, but not all regions have retained these traditions as well as areas like Setesdal. In Trøndelag in central Norway, for example,

1836-538: The Polish Nation and Polish Pilgrimage Mickiewicz detailed his vision of Poland as a Messias and a Christ of Nations, that would save mankind. Dziady is known for various interpretation. The most known ones are the moral aspect of part II, individualist and romantic message of part IV, as well as deeply patriotic, messianistic and Christian vision in part III of the poem. Zdzisław Kępiński, however, focuses his interpretation on Slavic pagan and occult elements found in

1904-629: The Slavic parts of Europe especially, "national romanticism" provided a series of answers to the 19th-century search for styles that would be culturally meaningful and evocative, yet not merely historicist. When a church was built over the spot in St Petersburg where Tsar Alexander II of Russia had been assassinated, the " Church of the Savior on Blood ", the natural style to use was one that best evoked traditional Russian features ( illustration, left ). In Finland,

1972-453: The bunad, including colors, fabric, embroidery, jewellery, cut, and allowable headwear. The designs are typically elaborate, with embroidery , scarves, shawls and hand-made silver or gold jewelry known as sølje . There are bunads both for men and women, although women's bunads are more diverse and popular. However, according to daily manager Turid Liss Agersborg at Husfliden Oslo, they now produce and sell more men's bunads than women's for

2040-451: The costume for native practitioners of the customs as the headdress often indicated an individual's social or marital status. There is a continuing debate about the extent to which bunads must conform to the standards, or whether it is acceptable to vary or improvise based on general themes. Some groups (sometimes derisively referred to as the bunad police ) argue that bunads must be sewn and worn according to strict standards; others advocate

2108-471: The country and new bunad variations are frequently created and proposed for approval. Designers such as Lise Skjåk Bræk have developed entire lines of costumes based on the bunad tradition. In the field of folk costumes it is common to differentiate between bunad and folk costume , the latter being the local dress in previous times with all its variations and use. Modern interpretations of these costumes have often modified or done away with completely parts of

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2176-413: The customer buys from a well-established company like Husfliden, from local sewers or decides to sew or do part of the embroidery themselves. It usually takes up to a year to finish making the bunad, and it has become a tradition for parents to give their children a bunad as a confirmation gift, which they will wear on their confirmation day. In Norway in the postwar era, especially in more recent times, it

2244-454: The dominance of a few multi-national empires and led to the establishment of the modern nation state in Europe; a process that would not be complete for over a century and a half. Central and Eastern Europe 's political situation was partly shaped by the two World Wars , while many national identities in these two regions formed modern nation states when the collapse of the Soviet Union and

2312-474: The dominant nations and crystallise the mythography of Romantic nationalism. Patriotism, nationalism, revolution and armed struggle for independence also became popular themes in the arts of this period. Arguably, the most distinguished Romantic poet of this part of Europe was Adam Mickiewicz , who developed an idea that Poland was the Messiah of Nations , predestined to suffer just as Jesus had suffered to save all

2380-413: The drama. In his book Mickiewicz hermetyczny he writes about hermetic , theosophic and alchemical philosophy on the book as well as Masonic symbols. After the 1870s "national romanticism", as it is more usually called, became a familiar movement in the arts. Romantic musical nationalism is exemplified by the work of Bedřich Smetana , especially the symphonic poem " Vltava ". In Scandinavia and

2448-566: The face of Russification produced new national poetry – either out of whole cloth, or from cobbling together folk poetry, or by resurrecting older narrative poetry. Examples include the Estonian Kalevipoeg , Finnish Kalevala , Polish Pan Tadeusz , Latvian Lāčplēsis , Armenian Sasuntzi Davit by Hovhannes Tumanyan , Georgian The Knight in the Panther's Skin and Greater Iran , Shahnameh . The Romantic movement

2516-423: The figure of the sleeping princess was authentically German. They also altered the language used, changing each "Fee" (fairy) to an enchantress or wise woman, every "prince" to a "king's son", every "princess" to a "king's daughter". Discussing these views in their third editions, they particularly singled out Giambattista Basile 's Pentamerone as the first national collection of fairy tales, and as capturing

2584-509: The first time in history. The male customers are often characterized as urban and modern, and range between the ages of 20 and 40 years old. National romanticism Romantic nationalism (also national romanticism , organic nationalism , identity nationalism ) is the form of nationalism in which the state claims its political legitimacy as an organic consequence of the unity of those it governs. This includes such factors as language, race , ethnicity, culture, religion, and customs of

2652-673: The influence of romantic nationalism, among economic and political forces, both Germany and Italy found political unity, and movements to create nations similarly based upon ethnic groups. It would flower in the Balkans (see for example, the Carinthian Plebiscite , 1920), along the Baltic Sea, and in the interior of Central Europe, where in the eventual outcome, the Habsburgs succumbed to the surge of Romantic nationalism. In Norway , romanticism

2720-472: The influence on visual arts , classical music and literature , represented by e.g.: In the waning days of the national romantic movement, efforts were renewed to collect rural buildings, handcrafts and arts. Arthur Hazelius , the founder of Nordiska Museet in Stockholm gathered (and arguably rescued) large collections and sent them to Sweden. The last king of union between Sweden and Norway, Oscar II ,

2788-433: The instrumentalization of that expression in political consciousness-raising". Historically in Europe, the watershed year for romantic nationalism was 1848, when a revolutionary wave spread across the continent; numerous nationalistic revolutions occurred in various fragmented regions (such as Italy) or multinational states (such as the Austrian Empire ). While initially the revolutions fell to reactionary forces and

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2856-641: The late 19th century until quite recently the image which was most commonly used to represent the Norwegian traditional rural dress in general was that of the Hardanger woman's bunad, but in more recent times this image is being increasingly superseded by that of the East Telemark woman's bunad. As the bunad most often is based upon older designs from specific areas, the particular bunad will get its name from that area. Most people with roots from an area will choose (if not

2924-519: The movements that would redraw the map of Europe and lead to calls for self-determination of nationalities, nationalism was one of the key issues in Romanticism, determining its roles, expressions and meanings. Romantic nationalism, resulting from this interaction between cultural production and political thought, became "the celebration of the nation (defined in its language, history and cultural character) as an inspiring ideal for artistic expression; and

2992-537: The multinational states Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia led to numerous new states forming during the last decade of the 20th century. Romantic nationalism inspired the collection of folklore by such people as the Brothers Grimm . The view that fairy tales, unless contaminated from outside literary sources, were preserved in the same form over thousands of years, was not exclusive to Romantic Nationalists, but it fit in well with their views that such tales expressed

3060-409: The museum Maihaugen at Lillehammer . Hulda Garborg started the collecting of traditional folk costumes (bunad) and dances . This effort is still underway, but became more systematic as other cultural movements took the center stage in Norway in the late 19th and early 20th century. Romantic nationalism has had an enormous impact on the Norwegian national identity. The Askeladden character from

3128-656: The mysteries of its music and language. Sometimes "national epics" such as the Nibelunglied have had a galvanizing effect on social politics. In the first two decades of the 20th century, Romantic Nationalism as an idea was to have crucial influence on political events. Following the Panic of 1873 that gave rise to a new wave of antisemitism and racism in the German Empire politically ruled by an authoritarian, militaristic conservatism under Otto von Bismarck and in parallel with

3196-421: The nation in its primal sense of those who were born within its culture. It can be applied to ethnic nationalism as well as civic nationalism . Romantic nationalism arose in reaction to dynastic or imperial hegemony , which assessed the legitimacy of the state from the top down, emanating from a monarch or other authority, which justified its existence. Such downward-radiating power might ultimately derive from

3264-530: The old methods of punishment, If you judge the guillotine unpleasant: The sword for the nobleman , and the cord For the townsman and vulgar peasant. But, do switch things around, now and then: Peasants and townsmen should die by the sword, And noblemen should hang on a rope. We’re all the creatures of the Lord ! Bring back the laws of Charles the Fifth , With the hanging courts restoration, And divide

3332-494: The old order was quickly re-established, the many revolutions would mark the first step towards liberalisation and the formation of modern nation states across much of Europe. In the Balkans, Romantic views of a connection with classical Greece, which inspired Philhellenism infused the Greek War of Independence (1821–30), in which the Romantic poet Lord Byron died of high fever. Rossini 's opera William Tell (1829) marked

3400-725: The onset of the Romantic opera , using the central national myth unifying Switzerland; and in Brussels, a riot (August 1830) after an opera that set a doomed romance against a background of foreign oppression ( Auber 's La Muette de Portici ) sparked the Belgian Revolution of 1830–31, the first successful revolution in the model of Romantic nationalism. Verdi 's opera choruses of an oppressed people inspired two generations of patriots in Italy, especially with "Va pensiero" ( Nabucco , 1842). Under

3468-486: The pamphlet Norsk Klædebunad in 1903, the focus moved from the creation of a single national costume to the development of several regional bunads. Although bunads are based on traditions in various areas, these designs are embellished by additions such as embroidery. The overarching sense of bunad design is to preserve the way people dressed for festive occasions in one particular era. This has led local and national councils to impose official constraints on various details in

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3536-451: The people, as before, Into guild, estate and corporation. Restore the old Holy Roman Empire , As it was, whole and immense. Bring back all its musty junk, And all its foolish nonsense. The Middle Ages I’ll endure, If you bring back the genuine item; Just rescue us from this bastard state, And from its farcical system, From that mongrel chivalry, Such a nauseating dish Of Gothic fancies and modern deceit, That

3604-464: The people. The Polish self-image as a " Christ among nations " or the martyr of Europe can be traced back to its history of Christendom and suffering under invasions. During the periods of foreign occupation, the Catholic Church served as bastion of Poland's national identity and language, and the major promoter of Polish culture . The partitions came to be seen in Poland as a Polish sacrifice for

3672-421: The primordial nature of a people. The Brothers Grimm were criticized because their first edition was insufficiently German, and they followed the advice. They rejected many tales they collected because of their similarity to tales by Charles Perrault , which they thought proved they were not truly German tales; Sleeping Beauty survived in their collection because the tale of Brynhildr convinced them that

3740-714: The reassembly of the national epic, the Kalevala , inspired paintings and murals in the National Romantic style that substituted there for the international Art Nouveau styles. The foremost proponent in Finland was Akseli Gallen-Kallela ( illustration, below right ). By the turn of the century, ethnic self-determination had become an assumption held as being progressive and liberal. There were romantic nationalist movements for separation in Finland , Estonia , Latvia and Lithuania ,

3808-624: The rise in Russian national spirit in the wake of the Napoleonic wars and Suvorov 's campaigns in Central Europe. The unseen and unheard Song of Roland had become a dim memory, until the antiquary Francisque Michel transcribed a worn copy in the Bodleian Library and put it into print in 1837; it was timely: French interest in the national epic revived among the Romantic generation. In Greece,

3876-450: The rural districts, the rich cultural heritage of the Norwegian countryside came under threat. As a result, a number of individuals set out to collect the artifacts of the distinctly Norwegian culture, hoping thereby to preserve and promote a sense of Norwegian identity. The best-known such collectors in the 1840s and 1850s were: These achievements had an enduring impact on Norwegian culture and identity, an impact that can be witnessed in

3944-558: The same) bunads from their own area or their (grand)parents birthplace. People in general will expect that your bunad represents an area that you have a strong connection to. However, there is no specific rule that states your choice, and you are free to pick whatever kind you like. In the meantime, local bunad-sellers might have some difficulties with getting the right bunad if it is not from their area. The various bunads have been designed through different means. Some of them are based on old local customs; other models are constructions made in

4012-557: The security for Western civilization . Adam Mickiewicz wrote the patriotic drama Dziady (directed against the Russians), where he depicts Poland as the Christ of Nations. He also wrote "Verily I say unto you, it is not for you to learn civilization from foreigners, but it is you who are to teach them civilization ... You are among the foreigners like the Apostles among the idolaters". In Books of

4080-450: The system of its ideology and thereby gave this trend, which in its time was not apolitical, a purely political and topical meaning ... Schelling , Adam Müller and others thanks to the fascists again became our contemporaries, though in the specific sense in which every corpse taken out of its century-old coffin for any need becomes a "contemporary". In his book The Tasks of National Socialist Literary Criticism , Walther Linden, who revised

4148-495: The traditional costumes fell by the wayside in favor of modernized versions, but are now starting be revived in the local populations and used as conventional bunad again. The names of these traditional bunads are based on their geographic origin, and traditionally, people choose their bunad based on their own or their ancestors’ origin. Hulda Garborg (1862–1934) and Klara Semb (1884–1970) are cited as pioneers in bringing bunads into mainstream culture. With Garborg's publication of

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4216-413: The traditional dresses in order to align them with a more conventional idea of beauty and fashion. For example, few Norwegians still use the headdresses and headpieces that were a part of the traditional costumes, preferring instead to show their hair, in accord with modern, Western fashions. These headdresses, like the one in the photo at the top of this article, were often seen as the most important part of

4284-539: The war were supporters of Romanticism, to reconsider their stance after the war and the Nazi experience and to adopt a more anti-Romantic position. Heinrich Heine parodied such Romantic modernizations of medieval folkloric myths in the " Barbarossa " chapter of his large 1844 poem Germany. A Winter's Tale : Forgive, O Barbarossa , my hasty words! I do not possess a wise soul Like you, and I have little patience, So, please, come back soon, after all!   Retain

4352-409: Was a movement in Norway between 1840 and 1867 in art, literature, and popular culture that emphasized the aesthetics of Norwegian nature and the uniqueness of the Norwegian national identity. A subject of much study and debate in Norway , it was characterized by nostalgia. The context and impact of Norwegian romantic nationalism derived from recent history and the political situation. Following

4420-656: Was a supporter of this new wave of collecting, starting one of the oldest outdoor museums, the origins of Norsk Folkemuseum . He supported the manager of the Royal domains at Bygdøy , Christian Holst in his efforts to gather old buildings from the rural districts. Among the buildings that are still at the museum, the Gol stave church , moved here in the beginning of the 1880s, is the most prominent. Soon after other pioneers started equal efforts to rescue important pieces of traditional Norwegian architecture and handicraft. Anders Sandvig started

4488-412: Was embodied, not in literature, but in the movement toward a national style, both in architecture and in ethos . Earlier, there was a strong romantic nationalist element mixed with Enlightenment rationalism in the rhetoric used in North America , in the American colonists' declaration of independence from Great Britain and the drafting of the U.S. Constitution of 1787, as well as the rhetoric in

4556-405: Was essential in spearheading the upsurge of German nationalism in the 19th century and especially the popular movement aiding the resurgence of Prussia after its defeat to Napoleon in the 1806 Battle of Jena . Johann Gottlieb Fichte 's 1808 Addresses to the German Nation , Heinrich von Kleist 's fervent patriotic stage dramas before his death, and Ernst Moritz Arndt 's war poetry during

4624-411: Was felt to provide people self-identified as " Anglo-Saxon " with their missing "national epic", just when the need for it was first being felt: the fact that Beowulf himself was a Geat was easily overlooked. The pseudo-Gaelic literary forgeries of " Ossian " had failed, finally, to fill the need for the first Romantic generation. The first publication of The Tale of Igor's Campaign coincided with

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