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72-468: In the Old Kingdom (about 2686–2181 BCE ), there was an Egyptian colonial town at Buhen, which was also used for copper working. An archaeological investigation in 1962 revealed what was described as an ancient copper factory. This was surrounded by a massive though crude stone wall, and further evidence points to the colony having been supplied from the north. The settlement may have been established during

144-740: A biological anthropologist also reviewed studies on the biological affinities of the Ancient Egyptian population and characterised the skeletal morphologies of predynastic southern Egyptians as a "Saharo-tropical African variant". Keita also added that it is important to emphasize that whilst Egyptian society became more socially complex and biologically varied, the "ethnicity of the Niloto-Saharo-Sudanese origins did not change. The cultural morays, ritual formulae, and symbols used in writing, as far as can be ascertained, remained true to their southern origins." The proto-dynastic kings emerged from

216-520: A 2005 study on mummified remains found that "some Theban nobles had a histology which indicated notably dark skin ". In the eleventh century, large numbers of pastoralists , known as Hilalians, fled Upper Egypt and moved westward into Libya and as far as Tunis . It is believed that degraded grazing conditions in Upper Egypt, associated with the beginning of the Medieval Warm Period , were

288-820: A Crucible from Buhen in the Petrie Museum.” UCL Discovery - UCL Discovery , Apr. 2021, discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10124084/ . Accessed 3 Mar. 2024. Raulwing, Peter, and Juliet Clutton-Brock. "The Buhen Horse: Fifty Years after Its Discovery (1958–2008)". Journal of Egyptian History 2.1 (2009): 1-106. https://doi.org/10.1163/187416509X12492786609122 Web. Accessed 3 Mar. 2024. Stanley, Daniel Jean, and Jonathan G. Wingerath. “Clay Mineral Distributions to Interpret Nile Cell Provenance and Dispersal: I. Lower River Nile to Delta Sector.” Journal of Coastal Research , vol. 12, no. 4, 1996, pp. 911–29. JSTOR , http://www.jstor.org/stable/4298542 . Accessed 5 Mar. 2024. Old Kingdom of Egypt In ancient Egyptian history,

360-409: A brief hallway. Dominating the center of the edifice stood a grand hall adorned with fifteen imposing pillars. Towards the northeast, an additional sizable hall, flanked by six pillars, was accompanied by a slender elongated chamber leading to three smaller rooms.Meanwhile, to the southwest of the central hall, two diminutive chambers resided. One boasted a rectangular layout, while the other featured

432-453: A copper chloride. Proposing that atacamite formation occurred during occasional Nile inundations when malachite reacted with chlorine ions . Other elements detected through atomic absorption analysis included zinc , calcium , lead , and silver , with minimal iron content. Further analysis using an Electron Probe Micro-Analyzer detected an average of 0.18 wt% gold in parts of the ore prepared for optical microscopy . Crucible smelting

504-549: A ferruginous flux , which requires iron oxide and is abundant throughout the Nile valley. However, not much is known about the sources of the ore. The excavation found copper ores, which analysis showed were initially atacamite and later atacamite containing gold. All the copper deposits recorded in Egypt and Northern Sudan are a long way from Buhen and located to the east of the Nile; this required transportation over long distances and across

576-499: A historical region even after the classical period. The main city of prehistoric Upper Egypt was Nekhen . The patron deity was the goddess Nekhbet , depicted as a vulture. By approximately 3600 BC, Neolithic Egyptian societies along the Nile based their culture on the raising of crops and the domestication of animals. Shortly thereafter, Egypt began to grow and increase in complexity. A new and distinctive pottery appeared, related to

648-419: A king's portrayal was about the idea of the office of kingship, which were dependent on the time period. The Old Kingdom was considered a golden age for Egypt, a grandiose height to which all future kingdoms aspired. As such, the king was portrayed as young and vital, with features that agreed with the standards of beauty of the time. The musculature seen in male figures was also applied to kings. A royal rite,

720-512: A mineral-based flux, and large quantities of ore. During the time of the Old Kingdom, Buhen could offer almost everything necessary: the nearby Nile provided both water and clay, Egypt had many skilled workers who could be brought to Buhen, and although there is little local timber now remaining, during the Old Kingdom, the higher rainfall would have supported more timber along the Nile and Wadis . The furnace slags found contained iron, indicative of

792-686: A monument to his father Khufu. Alternatively, the Sphinx has been proposed to be the work of Khafre and Khufu himself. There were military expeditions into Canaan and Nubia , with Egyptian influence reaching up the Nile into what is today Sudan . The later kings of the Fourth Dynasty were Menkaure (2532–2504 BC), who built the smallest of the three great pyramids in Giza; Shepseskaf (2504–2498 BC); and, perhaps, Djedefptah (2498–2496 BC). The Fifth Dynasty (2494–2345 BC) began with Userkaf (2494–2487 BC) and

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864-571: A piece to a particular time frame. Proportions of the human figure are one of the most distinctive, as they vary between kingdoms. Old Kingdom male figures have characteristically broad shoulders and a long torso, with obvious musculature. On the other hand, females are narrower in the shoulders and waist, with longer legs and a shorter torso. However, in the Sixth Dynasty, the male figures lose their muscularity and their shoulders narrow. The eyes also tend to get much larger. In order to help maintain

936-418: A square shape and was supported by four pillars. Encircling these chambers and the central hall were three elongated corridors. Ascending the smaller staircase granted access to the upper floor, while the larger staircase ascended to the apex of the main wall. Archaeological investigations revealed remnants of decorative paintings and remnants of weaponry within the structure, indicating its repurposing during

1008-602: Is also known as Middle Egypt . It is believed to have been united by the rulers of the supposed Thinite Confederacy who absorbed their rival city states during the Naqada III period (c. 3200–3000 BC), and its subsequent unification with Lower Egypt ushered in the Early Dynastic period . Upper and Lower Egypt became intertwined in the symbolism of pharaonic sovereignty such as the Pschent double crown. Upper Egypt remained as

1080-592: Is an example of a typical Old Kingdom sculpture. The three figures display frontality and axiality, while fitting with the proportions of this time period. The graywacke came from the Eastern Desert in Egypt and is therefore associated with rebirth and the rising of the sun in the east. Upper Egypt Upper Egypt ( Arabic : صعيد مصر Ṣaʿīd Miṣr , shortened to الصعيد , Egyptian Arabic pronunciation: [es.sˤe.ˈʕiːd] , locally: [es.sˤɑ.ˈʕiːd] ; Coptic : ⲙⲁⲣⲏⲥ , romanized:  Mares )

1152-570: Is called Sa'id or Sahid, from صعيد meaning "uplands", from the root صعد meaning to go up, ascend, or rise. Inhabitants of Upper Egypt are known as Sa'idis and they generally speak Sa'idi Egyptian Arabic . Upper Egypt is between the Cataracts of the Nile beyond modern-day Aswan , downriver (northward) to the area of El-Ayait, which places modern-day Cairo in Lower Egypt . The northern (downriver) part of Upper Egypt, between Sohag and El-Ayait,

1224-625: Is evidence that Merenre was not only active in Nubia like Pepi I but also sent officials to maintain Egyptian rule over Nubia from the northern border to the area south of the third cataract. During the Sixth Dynasty (2345–2181 BC) the power of the pharaoh gradually weakened in favor of powerful nomarchs (regional governors). These no longer belonged to the royal family and their charge became hereditary, thus creating local dynasties largely independent from

1296-579: Is most commonly regarded as the period from the Third Dynasty to the Sixth Dynasty (2686–2181 BC). Information from the Fourth to the Sixth Dynasties of Egypt is scarce, and historians regard the history of the era as literally "written in stone" and largely architectural in that it is through the monuments and their inscriptions that scholars have been able to construct a history. Egyptologists also include

1368-616: Is the southern portion of Egypt and is composed of the Nile River valley south of the delta and the 30th parallel N. It thus consists of the entire Nile River valley from Cairo south to Lake Nasser (formed by the Aswan High Dam). In ancient Egypt, Upper Egypt was known as tꜣ šmꜣw , literally "the Land of Reeds" or "the Sedgeland", named for the sedges that grow there. In Arabic , the region

1440-548: The 11th , 12th , 17th , 18th and 25th dynasties, reunified and reinvigorated pharaonic Egypt after periods of fragmentation. For most of Egypt's ancient history, Thebes was the administrative center of Upper Egypt. After its devastation by the Assyrians, the importance of Egypt declined. Under the dynasty of the Ptolemies, Ptolemais Hermiou took over the role of the capital city of Upper Egypt. Shomarka Keita reported that

1512-468: The 13th Dynasty , and held it until Ahmose I recaptured it at the beginning of the 18th Dynasty . One of the contributing factors for the creation of the fortress in Buhen was the goal of annexing Nubia. Both Senusret I and Senusret III dedicated much of their reign to campaigning into Nubia, in an attempt to extend the boundaries of Egypt. In doing so, the two kings built the fortress in Buhen, along with

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1584-568: The Levantine ceramics , and copper implements and ornaments became common. Mesopotamian building techniques became popular, using sun-dried adobe bricks in arches and decorative recessed walls. In Upper Egypt, the predynastic Badari culture was followed by the Naqada culture (Amratian), being closely related to the Lower Nubian; other northeast African populations, coastal communities from

1656-584: The Maghreb , some tropical African groups, and possibly inhabitants of the Middle East . According to bioarchaeologist Nancy Lovell, the morphology of ancient Egyptian skeletons gives strong evidence that: "In general, the inhabitants of Upper Egypt and Nubia had the greatest biological affinity to people of the Sahara and more southerly areas", but exhibited local variation in an African context. S. O. Y. Keita,

1728-568: The Old Kingdom is the period spanning c.  2700 –2200 BC. It is also known as the "Age of the Pyramids" or the "Age of the Pyramid Builders", as it encompasses the reigns of the great pyramid-builders of the Fourth Dynasty , such as King Sneferu , under whom the art of pyramid -building was perfected, and the kings Khufu , Khafre and Menkaure , who commissioned the construction of

1800-591: The pyramids at Giza . Egypt attained its first sustained peak of civilization during the Old Kingdom, the first of three so-called "Kingdom" periods (followed by the Middle Kingdom and New Kingdom ), which mark the high points of civilization in the lower Nile Valley . The concept of an "Old Kingdom" as one of three "golden ages" was coined in 1845 by the German Egyptologist Baron von Bunsen , and its definition evolved significantly throughout

1872-570: The 19th and the 20th centuries. Not only was the last king of the Early Dynastic Period related to the first two kings of the Old Kingdom, but the "capital", the royal residence, remained at Ineb-Hedj , the Egyptian name for Memphis . The basic justification for separating the two periods is the revolutionary change in architecture accompanied by the effects on Egyptian society and the economy of large-scale building projects. The Old Kingdom

1944-685: The Delta cultures, where the direct Western Asian contact was made, further vitiates the Mesopotamian-influence argument". Similarly, Christopher Ehret , historian and linguist, stated that the cultural practice of sacral chiefship and kingship which emerged in Upper Egypt in the fourth millennium had originated centuries earlier in Nubia and the Middle Nile south of Egypt. He based this judgement on supporting, archaeological and comparative ethnographic evidence. These cultural advances paralleled

2016-560: The Department of Egyptology at University College London , the horse's skeleton originates from excavations conducted at the Buhen fortress by the Egypt Exploration Society , under Emery's direction in 1958 and 1959. During the initial sacking of the fortress circa 1675 BC, the horse, potentially confined between two bastions of the main fortress wall, met its demise, falling onto a brick pavement. Subsequent layers of rubble and

2088-634: The Memphite Seventh and Eighth Dynasties in the Old Kingdom as a continuation of the administration, centralized at Memphis. While the Old Kingdom was a period of internal security and prosperity, it was followed by a period of disunity and relative cultural decline referred to by Egyptologists as the First Intermediate Period . During the Old Kingdom, the King of Egypt (not called the Pharaoh until

2160-493: The Middle Kingdom ensured that art was axial, symmetrical, proportional, and most importantly reproducible and therefore recognizable. Composite composition, the second principle, also contributes to the goal of identification. Multiple perspectives were used in order to ensure that the onlooker could determine precisely what they saw. Though Egyptian art almost always includes descriptive text, literacy rates were not high, so

2232-695: The Naqada region. Excavations at Hierakonpolis (Upper Egypt) found archaeological evidence of ritual masks similar to those used further south of Egypt, and obsidian linked to Ethiopian quarry sites. Frank Yurco stated that depictions of pharonic iconography such as the royal crowns , Horus falcons and victory scenes were concentrated in the Upper Egyptian Naqada culture and A-Group Lower Nubia . He further elaborated that " Egyptian writing arose in Naqadan Upper Egypt and A-Group Lower Nubia, and not in

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2304-661: The New Kingdom period. The fortress at Buhen is now submerged under Lake Nasser as a result of the construction of the Aswan Dam in 1964. Before the site was covered with water, it was excavated by a team led by Walter Bryan Emery . The investigation into potential copper production activities at Buhen offers valuable insights into ancient metallurgical practices. Emery's discovery of what he identified as an Old Kingdom copper 'factory' has drawn attention from Egyptologists interested in metalworking techniques. Samples collected from

2376-511: The New Kingdom) became a living god who ruled absolutely and could demand the services and wealth of his subjects. Under King Djoser , the first king of the Third Dynasty of the Old Kingdom, the royal capital of Egypt was moved to Memphis, where Djoser established his court. A new era of building was initiated at Saqqara under his reign. King Djoser's architect, Imhotep , is credited with

2448-463: The administration for the whole fortified region of the Second Cataract. Its fortifications included a moat three meters deep, drawbridges , bastions , buttresses , ramparts , battlements , loopholes , and a catapult . The outer wall included an area between the two walls pierced with a double row of arrow loops, allowing both standing and kneeling archers to fire at the same time. The walls of

2520-421: The art gave another method for communicating the same information. One of the best examples of composite composition is the human form. In most two-dimensional relief, the head, legs, and feet are seen in profile, while the torso faces directly front. Another common example is an aerial view of a building or location. The third principle, the hierarchy of scale, illustrates relative importance in society. The larger

2592-640: The benefit of the fortress. The large rock wall provided a strong preliminary base for the construction of the fortress. During the Middle Kingdom, the majority of people occupying Buhen were Egyptians who were directed south from Lower Egypt , and cycled through. Following the Middle Kingdom came the Second-Intermediate Period . With the Second Intermediate Period came the Funerary Stele of Sebek-dedu and Sebek-em-heb. The excavation of

2664-636: The central authority of the Pharaoh. However, Nile flood control was still the subject of very large works, including especially the canal to Lake Moeris around 2300 BC, which was likely also the source of water to the Giza pyramid complex centuries earlier. Internal disorders set in during the incredibly long reign of Pepi II (2278–2184 BC) towards the end of the dynasty. His death, certainly well past that of his intended heirs, might have created succession struggles. The country slipped into civil wars mere decades after

2736-416: The close of Pepi II's reign. The final blow was the 22nd century BC drought in the region that resulted in a drastic drop in precipitation. For at least some years between 2200 and 2150 BC, this prevented the normal flooding of the Nile . Whatever its cause, the collapse of the Old Kingdom was followed by decades of famine and strife. An important inscription on the tomb of Ankhtifi , a nomarch during

2808-463: The consistency of these proportions, the Egyptians used a series of eight guidelines to divide the body. They occurred at the following locations: the top of the head, the hairline, the base of the neck, the underarms, the tip of the elbow or the bottom of the ribcage, the top of the thigh at the bottom of the buttocks, the knee, and the middle of the lower leg. From the soles of the feet to the hairline

2880-578: The development of building with stone and with the conception of the new architectural form , the step pyramid . The Old Kingdom is best known for a large number of pyramids constructed at this time as burial places for Egypt's kings. The first King of the Old Kingdom was Djoser (sometime between 2691 and 2625 BC) of the Third Dynasty , who ordered the construction of a pyramid (the Step Pyramid ) in Memphis' necropolis, Saqqara . An important person during

2952-417: The dynasties. The three primary principles of that style, frontality, composite composition, and hierarchy scale, illustrate this quite well. These characteristics, initiated in the Early Dynastic Period and solidified during the Old Kingdom, persisted with some adaptability throughout the entirety of ancient Egyptian history as the foundation of its art. Frontality, the first principle, indicates that art

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3024-487: The dynasty sent expeditions to the stone quarries and gold mines of Nubia and the mines of Sinai. there are references and depictions of military campaigns in Nubia and Asia. The sixth dynasty peaked during the reigns of Pepi I and Merenre I with flourishing trade, several mining and quarrying expeditions and major military campaigns. Militarily, aggressive expansion into Nubia marked Pepi I's reign. At least five military expeditions were sent into Canaan. There

3096-516: The dynasty were Menkauhor Kaiu (2421–2414 BC), Djedkare Isesi (2414–2375 BC), and Unas (2375–2345), the earliest ruler to have the Pyramid Texts inscribed in his pyramid. Egypt's expanding interests in trade goods such as ebony , incense such as myrrh and frankincense , gold, copper, and other useful metals inspired the ancient Egyptians to build suitable ships for navigation of the open sea. They traded with Lebanon for cedar and travelled

3168-429: The early First Intermediate Period , describes the pitiful state of the country when famine stalked the land. The most defining feature of ancient Egyptian art is its function, as that was the entire purpose of creation. Art was not made for enjoyment in the strictest sense, but rather served a role of some kind in Egyptian religion and ideology. This fact manifests itself in the artistic style, even as it evolved over

3240-478: The figure, the more important the individual. The king is usually the largest, aside from deities. The similarity in size equated to similarity in position. However, this is not to say that physical differences were not shown as well. Women, for example, are usually shown as smaller than men. Children retain adult features and proportions but are substantially smaller in size. Aside from the three primary conventions, there are several characteristics that can help date

3312-407: The fort were about 5 metres (16 ft) thick and 10 metres (33 ft) high. The walls of Buhen were crafted with rough stone. The walls of Buhen are unique as most Egyptian fortress walls were constructed with timber and mud-brick. The fortress at Buhen is now submerged under Lake Nasser as a result of the construction of the Aswan Dam in 1964. At Buhen, the central administrative hub occupied

3384-400: The jubilee run which was established during the Old Kingdom, involved the king running around a group of markers that symbolized the geographic borders of Egypt. This was meant to be a demonstration of the king's physical vigor, which determined his capacity to continue his reign. This idea of kingly youth and strength were pervasive in the Old Kingdom and thus shown in the art. The sculpture

3456-417: The later reconstruction efforts of the New Kingdom encased the horse's remains within the fortress walls, offering a clear chronological context for its discovery. Identifying the species of the animal posed an initial challenge. Since true horses were not native to Ancient Egypt , while both wild and domestic asses were common, and Grevy's zebra ( Equus grevyi ) was likely available, confirming its identity

3528-520: The length of the Red Sea to the Kingdom of Punt - modern-day Eritrea —for ebony, ivory, and aromatic resins. Shipbuilders of that era did not use pegs ( treenails ) or metal fasteners, but relied on the rope to keep their ships assembled. Planks and the superstructure were tightly tied and bound together. This period also witnessed direct trade between Egypt and its Aegean neighbors and Anatolia. The rulers of

3600-402: The nature of time during this period held that the universe worked in cycles, and the Pharaoh on earth worked to ensure the stability of those cycles. They also perceived themselves as specially selected people. The Old Kingdom and its royal power reached a zenith under the Fourth Dynasty (2613–2494 BC). King Sneferu, the first king of the Fourth Dynasty, held territory from ancient Libya in

3672-408: The northern corner of the settlement. Spanning the entirety of block A, its expansive footprint surpassed 1000m². Positioned directly adjacent to the main wall, the structure boasted a single entrance located in the western corner. Upon entry, one would encounter an anteroom with a solitary pillar. Adjacent to this space lay another anteroom, also featuring a lone pillar, and connected to a staircase and

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3744-420: The other fortresses around the 2nd cataract. These fortresses established a new border for Upper Egypt . The fortress itself extended more than 150 metres (490 ft) along the west bank of the Nile. It covered 13,000 square metres (140,000 sq ft), and had within its wall a small town laid out in a grid system. At its peak it probably had a population of around 3,500 people. The fortress also included

3816-495: The political unification of towns of the upper Nile River, or Upper Egypt, while the same occurred in the societies of the Nile Delta , or Lower Egypt . This led to warfare between the two new kingdoms. During his reign in Upper Egypt, King Narmer defeated his enemies on the delta and became sole ruler of the two lands of Upper and Lower Egypt, a sovereignty which endured throughout Dynastic Egypt. In royal symbolism, Upper Egypt

3888-639: The pyramid. The Meidum pyramid was the first to have an above-ground burial chamber. Using more stones than any other Pharaoh, he built the three pyramids: a now collapsed pyramid in Meidum , the Bent Pyramid at Dahshur , and the Red Pyramid , at North Dahshur. However, the full development of the pyramid style of building was reached not at Saqqara, but during the building of the Great Pyramids at Giza. Sneferu

3960-449: The reign of Sneferu , of the 4th Dynasty . Nevertheless, there is evidence of earlier 2nd Dynasty occupation at Buhen. Graffiti and other inscribed items from the site show that the Egyptians stayed about 200 years, until late in the 5th Dynasty , when they were probably forced out by immigration from the south. In the Middle Kingdom (2055-1650 BCE ), the fortress at Buhen was established. The physical geography of Buhen worked to

4032-405: The reign of Djoser was his vizier , Imhotep . It was in this era that formerly independent ancient Egyptian states became known as nomes , under the rule of the king. The former rulers were forced to assume the role of governors or otherwise work in tax collection. Egyptians in this era believed the king to be the incarnation of Horus , linking the human and spiritual worlds. Egyptian views on

4104-653: The river. A large number of andirons were found in Buhen. Andirons were commonly used in Egyptian cooking, but these were associated with copper smelting. Exactly how they were used in the smelting process is not known other than being involved in fire and burning. The copper produced was probably used in the manufacture of household and agricultural tools, including knives and hoes. BADAWY, ALEXANDER M. “ASKUT: A Middle Kingdom Fortress in Nubia.” Archaeology , vol. 18, no. 2, 1965, pp. 124–31. J STOR , http://www.jstor.org/stable/41667517 . Accessed 5 Mar. 2024. Davey, CJ, et al. “Egyptian Middle Kingdom Copper: Analysis of

4176-403: The rule of Senusret III in around 1860 BCE (12th Dynasty ). Senusret III conducted four campaigns into Kush and established a line of forts within signaling distance of one another; Buhen was the northernmost of these. The other forts along the banks were Mirgissa , Shalfak , Uronarti , Askut , Dabenarti , Semna , and Kumma . The Kushites captured Buhen during

4248-713: The site, including copper ore fragments, smelted copper metal, slag, crucible pieces, and a small copper artifact, were sent to the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology at University College London for analysis. El Gayar and Jones conducted the analysis at the Royal School of Mines in London. However, attempts to locate these samples have been unsuccessful. Analysis of a 150 gm ore sample revealed its composition, predominantly consisting of finely dispersed quartz (approximately 44 wt%) and malachite, with notable traces of atacamite ,

4320-453: The solar aspect of their religion and the inundations of the Nile. Though the above concepts apply to most, if not all, figures in Egyptian art, there are additional characteristics that applied to the representations of the king. Their appearance was not an exact rendering of the king's visage, though kings are somewhat identifiable through looks alone. Identification could be supplied by inscriptions or context. A huge, more important part of

4392-460: The stele produced a new understanding of the annexation of Nubia at the site of Buhen. The stele iterates that the Egyptians who had gained control over Buhen had been dependent on Nubian kings in achieving this. The Buhen horse holds significant archaeological importance, particularly noted in the works of Professor Emery in 1959 and 1960. Currently housed at the Khartoum Museum and on loan to

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4464-570: The west to the Sinai Peninsula in the east, to Nubia in the south. An Egyptian settlement was founded at Buhen in Nubia which endured for 200 years. After Djoser, Sneferu was the next great pyramid builder. He commissioned the building of not one, but three pyramids. The first is called the Meidum Pyramid , named for its location in Egypt . Sneferu abandoned it after the outside casing fell off of

4536-466: Was Sahure's son. Neferirkare introduced the prenomen in the royal titulary. He was followed by two short-lived kings, his son Neferefre (2455–2453 BC) and Shepseskare , the latter of uncertain parentage. Shepseskare may have been deposed by Neferefre's brother Nyuserre Ini (2445–2421 BC), a long-lived pharaoh who built extensively in Abusir and restarted royal activity in Giza. The last pharaohs of

4608-447: Was a major product of the Old Kingdom. The position of the figures in this period was mostly limited to sitting or standing, either with feet together or in the striding pose. Group statues of the king with either gods or family members, typically his wife and children, were also common. It was not just the subject of sculpture that was important, but also the material: The use of hard stone, such as gneiss, graywacke, schist, and granite,

4680-498: Was also divided into thirds, one-third between the soles and the knee, another third between the knee and the elbow, and the final third from the elbow to the hairline. The broad shoulders that appeared in the Fifth Dynasty constituted roughly that one-third length as well. These proportions not only help with the identification of representations and the reproduction of art but also tie into the Egyptian ideal of order, which tied into

4752-410: Was crucial. Notably, Grevy's zebra, the largest and northernmost distributed among zebra species, could feasibly be mistaken for a horse. However, the structure of the Buhen horse's skeleton aligns with those introduced into various regions during the same era, such as India, Iran, northern Mesopotamia , Syria , Egypt , and Greece . Buhen is known for its large fortress , probably constructed during

4824-454: Was marked by the growing importance of the cult of sun god Ra . Consequently, fewer efforts were devoted to the construction of pyramid complexes than during the Fourth Dynasty and more to the construction of sun temples in Abusir . Userkaf was succeeded by his son Sahure (2487–2475 BC), who commanded an expedition to Punt . Sahure was in turn succeeded by Neferirkare Kakai (2475–2455 BC), who

4896-460: Was relatively common in the Old Kingdom. The color of the stone had a great deal of symbolism and was chosen deliberately. Four colors were distinguished in the ancient Egyptian language: black, green, red, and white. Black was associated with Egypt due to the color of the soil after the Nile flood, green with vegetation and rebirth, red with the sun and its regenerative cycle, and white with purity. The statue of Menkaure with Hathor and Anput

4968-489: Was represented by the tall White Crown Hedjet , the flowering lotus, and the sedge. Its patron deity, Nekhbet, was depicted by the vulture. After unification, the patron deities of Upper and Lower Egypt were represented together as the Two Ladies , to protect all of the ancient Egyptians, just as the two crowns were combined into a single pharaonic diadem. Several dynasties of southern or Upper Egyptian origin, which included

5040-519: Was succeeded by his son, Khufu (2589–2566 BC), who built the Great Pyramid of Giza . After Khufu's death, his sons Djedefre (2566–2558 BC) and Khafre (2558–2532 BC) may have quarrelled. The latter built the second pyramid and (in traditional thinking) the Great Sphinx of Giza . Recent re-examination of evidence has led Egyptologist Vassil Dobrev to propose that the Sphinx was built by Djedefre as

5112-546: Was suggested as a practice at the site, and the ore's association with nearby gold deposits was speculated. However, recent research challenges Emery's interpretations, with some scholars questioning the site's use for pyro-metallurgical treatment. There are doubts about some of Emery's metallurgical features. In 1962, an archaeological expedition to Buhen discovered a copper smelter. Buhen would have been an ideal location to produce small quantities of copper, which requires several local resources: human labor, water, clay, wood,

5184-409: Was viewed directly from the front. One was meant to approach a piece as they would a living individual, for it was meant to be a place of manifestation. The act of interaction would bring forth the divine entity represented in the art. It was therefore imperative that whoever was represented be as identifiable as possible. The guidelines developed in the Old Kingdom and the later grid system developed in

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