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106-565: Richard Buckminster Fuller ( / ˈ f ʊ l ər / ; July 12, 1895 – July 1, 1983) was an American architect, systems theorist , writer, designer, inventor, philosopher, and futurist . He styled his name as R. Buckminster Fuller in his writings, publishing more than 30 books and coining or popularizing such terms as " Spaceship Earth ", " Dymaxion " (e.g., Dymaxion house , Dymaxion car , Dymaxion map ), " ephemeralization ", " synergetics ", and " tensegrity ". Fuller developed numerous inventions, mainly architectural designs, and popularized

212-401: A holistic approach to the study of ecological systems , especially ecosystems ; it can be seen as an application of general systems theory to ecology. Central to the systems ecology approach is the idea that an ecosystem is a complex system exhibiting emergent properties . Systems ecology focuses on interactions and transactions within and between biological and ecological systems, and

318-494: A Verb , he wrote: "I live on Earth at present, and I don't know what I am. I know that I am not a category. I am not a thing—a noun. I seem to be a verb, an evolutionary process—an integral function of the universe." Fuller wrote that the universe's natural analytic geometry was based on tetrahedra arrays. He developed this in several ways, from the close-packing of spheres and the number of compressive or tensile members required to stabilize an object in space. One confirming result

424-494: A bracket, or a shaft, or something extraordinarily complex, such as aerospace components accurate to 5 micrometres. Good machinists are highly sought after and respected skilled trades persons and are generally well-paid. In utility, medical, and military use companies, experienced machinists can earn over $ 100 000 per year. Some titles reflect further development of machinist skills such as tool and die maker , patternmaker , mold maker , programmer , and operator . A machinist

530-541: A commitment to "the search for the principles governing the universe and help advance the evolution of humanity in accordance with them ... finding ways of doing more with less to the end that all people everywhere can have more and more." By 1928, Fuller was living in Greenwich Village and spending much of his time at the popular café Romany Marie 's, where he had spent an evening in conversation with Marie and Eugene O'Neill several years earlier. Fuller accepted

636-430: A computer program is passive when it is a file stored on the hardrive and active when it runs in memory. The field is related to systems thinking , machine logic, and systems engineering . Systems theory is manifest in the work of practitioners in many disciplines, for example the works of physician Alexander Bogdanov , biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy , linguist Béla H. Bánáthy , and sociologist Talcott Parsons ; in

742-427: A family inheritance. Fuller associated the word Dymaxion , a blend of the words dy namic , max imum , and tens ion to sum up the goal of his study, "maximum gain of advantage from minimal energy input". The Dymaxion was not an automobile but rather the 'ground-taxying mode' of a vehicle that might one day be designed to fly, land and drive — an "Omni-Medium Transport" for air, land and water. Fuller focused on

848-1420: A fine-mist shower that reduces water consumption. According to Fuller biographer Steve Crooks, the house was designed to be delivered in two cylindrical packages, with interior color panels available at local dealers. A circular structure at the top of the house was designed to rotate around a central mast to use natural winds for cooling and air circulation. Systems theorist Social network analysis Small-world networks Centrality Motifs Graph theory Scaling Robustness Systems biology Dynamic networks Evolutionary computation Genetic algorithms Genetic programming Artificial life Machine learning Evolutionary developmental biology Artificial intelligence Evolutionary robotics Reaction–diffusion systems Partial differential equations Dissipative structures Percolation Cellular automata Spatial ecology Self-replication Conversation theory Entropy Feedback Goal-oriented Homeostasis Information theory Operationalization Second-order cybernetics Self-reference System dynamics Systems science Systems thinking Sensemaking Variety Ordinary differential equations Phase space Attractors Population dynamics Chaos Multistability Bifurcation Rational choice theory Bounded rationality Systems theory

954-440: A full skin of concrete it was not until 1949 that Fuller erected a geodesic dome building that could sustain its own weight with no practical limits. It was 4.3 meters (14 feet) in diameter and constructed of aluminium aircraft tubing and a vinyl-plastic skin, in the form of an icosahedron . To prove his design, Fuller suspended from the structure's framework several students who had helped him build it. The U.S. government recognized

1060-473: A general systems theory that could explain all systems in all fields of science. " General systems theory " (GST; German : allgemeine Systemlehre ) was coined in the 1940s by Ludwig von Bertalanffy , who sought a new approach to the study of living systems . Bertalanffy developed the theory via lectures beginning in 1937 and then via publications beginning in 1946. According to Mike C. Jackson (2000), Bertalanffy promoted an embryonic form of GST as early as

1166-1127: A general theory of systems "should be an important regulative device in science," to guard against superficial analogies that "are useless in science and harmful in their practical consequences." Others remain closer to the direct systems concepts developed by the original systems theorists. For example, Ilya Prigogine , of the Center for Complex Quantum Systems at the University of Texas , has studied emergent properties , suggesting that they offer analogues for living systems . The distinction of autopoiesis as made by Humberto Maturana and Francisco Varela represent further developments in this field. Important names in contemporary systems science include Russell Ackoff , Ruzena Bajcsy , Béla H. Bánáthy , Gregory Bateson , Anthony Stafford Beer , Peter Checkland , Barbara Grosz , Brian Wilson , Robert L. Flood , Allenna Leonard , Radhika Nagpal , Fritjof Capra , Warren McCulloch , Kathleen Carley , Michael C. Jackson , Katia Sycara , and Edgar Morin among others. With

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1272-477: A habit of being familiar with and knowledgeable about the materials that his later projects would require. Fuller earned a machinist 's certification, and knew how to use the press brake , stretch press, and other tools and equipment used in the sheet metal trade. Fuller attended Milton Academy in Massachusetts, and after that began studying at Harvard College , where he was affiliated with Adams House . He

1378-465: A holistic way. Such criticisms would have lost their point had it been recognized that von Bertalanffy's general system theory is a perspective or paradigm, and that such basic conceptual frameworks play a key role in the development of exact scientific theory. .. Allgemeine Systemtheorie is not directly consistent with an interpretation often put on 'general system theory,' to wit, that it is a (scientific) "theory of general systems." To criticize it as such

1484-538: A job decorating the interior of the café in exchange for meals, giving informal lectures several times a week, and models of the Dymaxion house were exhibited at the café. Isamu Noguchi arrived during 1929— Constantin Brâncuși , an old friend of Marie's, had directed him there—and Noguchi and Fuller were soon collaborating on several projects, including the modeling of the Dymaxion car based on recent work by Aurel Persu . It

1590-567: A large variety of shapes, and whose use in the workflow depends on the part to be machined. CNC machines are becoming the standard due to their speed, precision, flexibility, repeatability, and reduced downtime while changing jobs. Production runs consisting of large numbers of parts are more cost effective and commonly referred to as production work in the trade. Conversely, small production runs are sometimes referred to as prototype or jobbing work. Production engineers use blueprints and engineering drawings to produce detailed specifications of

1696-403: A new human computer interaction (HCI) information system . Overlooking this and developing software without insights input from the future users (mediated by user experience designers) is a serious design flaw that can lead to complete failure of information systems, increased stress and mental illness for users of information systems leading to increased costs and a huge waste of resources. It

1802-468: A new apparatus for human propulsion of small boats. By age 12, he had invented a 'push pull' system for propelling a rowboat by use of an inverted umbrella connected to the transom with a simple oar lock which allowed the user to face forward to point the boat toward its destination. Later in life, Fuller took exception to the term "invention." Years later, he decided that this sort of experience had provided him with not only an interest in design, but also

1908-426: A saw cut length of stock or a casting . Producing a part will often require several steps and more than one machine tool. Each machine tool plays a specific role in cutting away excess material. When large numbers of parts are needed, production planning is required to plan the most logical workflow through a series of machines. Computer numerical controlled (CNC) machines are computer-driven tools that can machine

2014-441: A system may affect other components or the whole system. It may be possible to predict these changes in patterns of behavior. For systems that learn and adapt, the growth and the degree of adaptation depend upon how well the system is engaged with its environment and other contexts influencing its organization. Some systems support other systems, maintaining the other system to prevent failure. The goals of systems theory are to model

2120-776: A system's dynamics, constraints , conditions, and relations; and to elucidate principles (such as purpose, measure, methods, tools) that can be discerned and applied to other systems at every level of nesting, and in a wide range of fields for achieving optimized equifinality . General systems theory is about developing broadly applicable concepts and principles, as opposed to concepts and principles specific to one domain of knowledge. It distinguishes dynamic or active systems from static or passive systems. Active systems are activity structures or components that interact in behaviours and processes or interrelate through formal contextual boundary conditions (attractors). Passive systems are structures and components that are being processed. For example,

2226-532: A systems and developmentally oriented organizational psychology ," some theorists recognize that organizations have complex social systems; separating the parts from the whole reduces the overall effectiveness of organizations. This difference, from conventional models that center on individuals, structures, departments and units, separates in part from the whole, instead of recognizing the interdependence between groups of individuals, structures and processes that enable an organization to function. László explains that

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2332-413: A team effort, forming a structured development process that proceeds from concept to production to operation and disposal. Systems engineering considers both the business and the technical needs of all customers, with the goal of providing a quality product that meets the user's needs. Systems thinking is a crucial part of user-centered design processes and is necessary to understand the whole impact of

2438-491: A thousandth of an inch – or 0.0025 mm) for specialty operations. A machinist deals with all facets of shaping, cutting and some aspects of forming metal, although forming is typically a separate trade. The operations most commonly performed by machinists are milling , drilling , turning , and grinding . There are other more specialized operations that a machinist will less frequently be called upon to perform such as honing , keyseating , lapping , and polishing , to name

2544-438: A transportation fuel by people commuting to work represents a huge net loss compared to their actual earnings. An encapsulation quotation of his views might best be summed up as: "There is no energy crisis, only a crisis of ignorance." Though Fuller was concerned about sustainability and human survival under the existing socioeconomic system, he remained optimistic about humanity's future. Defining wealth in terms of knowledge as

2650-483: A vehicle at our disposal, [Fuller] felt that human travel, like that of birds, would no longer be confined to airports, roads, and other bureaucratic boundaries, and that autonomous free-thinking human beings could live and prosper wherever they chose. — Lloyd S. Sieden, Bucky Fuller's Universe , 2000 To his young daughter Allegra: Fuller described the Dymaxion as a " zoom-mobile , explaining that it could hop off

2756-483: A white sphere of light. A voice spoke directly to Fuller, and declared: From now on you need never await temporal attestation to your thought. You think the truth. You do not have the right to eliminate yourself. You do not belong to you. You belong to the Universe. Your significance will remain forever obscure to you, but you may assume that you are fulfilling your role if you apply yourself to converting your experiences to

2862-468: A whole. In fact, Bertalanffy's organismic psychology paralleled the learning theory of Jean Piaget . Some consider interdisciplinary perspectives critical in breaking away from industrial age models and thinking, wherein history represents history and math represents math, while the arts and sciences specialization remain separate and many treat teaching as behaviorist conditioning. The contemporary work of Peter Senge provides detailed discussion of

2968-426: Is a tradesperson or trained professional who operates machine tools , and has the ability to set up tools such as milling machines, grinders, lathes, and drilling machines. A competent machinist should have a well-developed mechanical aptitude, the ability to correctly use precision measuring instruments and to interpret blueprints, and a working knowledge of the proper parameters required for successfully utilizing

3074-430: Is a branch of psychology that studies human behaviour and experience in complex systems . It received inspiration from systems theory and systems thinking, as well as the basics of theoretical work from Roger Barker , Gregory Bateson , Humberto Maturana and others. It makes an approach in psychology in which groups and individuals receive consideration as systems in homeostasis . Systems psychology "includes

3180-443: Is a movement that draws on several trends in bioscience research. Proponents describe systems biology as a biology-based interdisciplinary study field that focuses on complex interactions in biological systems , claiming that it uses a new perspective ( holism instead of reduction ). Particularly from the year 2000 onwards, the biosciences use the term widely and in a variety of contexts. An often stated ambition of systems biology

3286-427: Is a world-view that is based on the discipline of SYSTEM INQUIRY. Central to systems inquiry is the concept of SYSTEM. In the most general sense, system means a configuration of parts connected and joined together by a web of relationships. The Primer Group defines system as a family of relationships among the members acting as a whole. Von Bertalanffy defined system as "elements in standing relationship." Systems biology

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3392-433: Is also related to the origin of life ( abiogenesis ). Systems engineering is an interdisciplinary approach and means for enabling the realisation and deployment of successful systems . It can be viewed as the application of engineering techniques to the engineering of systems, as well as the application of a systems approach to engineering efforts. Systems engineering integrates other disciplines and specialty groups into

3498-463: Is currently surprisingly uncommon for organizations and governments to investigate the project management decisions leading to serious design flaws and lack of usability. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers estimates that roughly 15% of the estimated $ 1 trillion used to develop information systems every year is completely wasted and the produced systems are discarded before implementation by entirely preventable mistakes. According to

3604-447: Is especially concerned with the way the functioning of ecosystems can be influenced by human interventions. It uses and extends concepts from thermodynamics and develops other macroscopic descriptions of complex systems. Systems chemistry is the science of studying networks of interacting molecules, to create new functions from a set (or library) of molecules with different hierarchical levels and emergent properties. Systems chemistry

3710-530: Is one who is called on to fix a problem with a part or to create a new one using metals, plastics, or rarely, wood. Depending on the company, a machinist can be any or all of the titles listed above. Other related fields include Millwrights , quality assurance , and mechanical engineers . In Australia, a related profession is a fitter and turner . A fitter and turner is the tradesperson who fits, assembles, grinds and shapes metal parts and subassemblies to fabricate production machines and other equipment. Under

3816-443: Is the transdisciplinary study of systems , i.e. cohesive groups of interrelated, interdependent components that can be natural or artificial . Every system has causal boundaries, is influenced by its context, defined by its structure, function and role, and expressed through its relations with other systems. A system is "more than the sum of its parts" when it expresses synergy or emergent behavior . Changing one component of

3922-431: Is the modelling and discovery of emergent properties which represents properties of a system whose theoretical description requires the only possible useful techniques to fall under the remit of systems biology. It is thought that Ludwig von Bertalanffy may have created the term systems biology in 1928. Subdisciplines of systems biology include: Systems ecology is an interdisciplinary field of ecology that takes

4028-717: Is to shoot at straw men. Von Bertalanffy opened up something much broader and of much greater significance than a single theory (which, as we now know, can always be falsified and has usually an ephemeral existence): he created a new paradigm for the development of theories. Theorie (or Lehre ) "has a much broader meaning in German than the closest English words 'theory' and 'science'," just as Wissenschaft (or 'Science'). These ideas refer to an organized body of knowledge and "any systematically presented set of concepts, whether empirically , axiomatically , or philosophically " represented, while many associate Lehre with theory and science in

4134-671: The American Humanist Association named him the 1969 Humanist of the Year. In 1976, Fuller was a key participant at UN Habitat I , the first UN forum on human settlements. Fuller's last filmed interview took place on June 21, 1983, in which he spoke at Norman Foster 's Royal Gold Medal for architecture ceremony. His speech can be watched in the archives of the AA School of Architecture, in which he spoke after Sir Robert Sainsbury 's introductory speech and Foster's keynote address. In

4240-450: The Dymaxion car project. International recognition began with the success of huge geodesic domes during the 1950s. Fuller lectured at North Carolina State University in Raleigh in 1949, where he met James Fitzgibbon, who would become a close friend and colleague. Fitzgibbon was director of Geodesics, Inc. and Synergetics, Inc. the first licensees to design geodesic domes. Thomas C. Howard

4346-831: The Gold Medal award from the American Institute of Architects the same year. Also in 1970, Fuller received the title of Master Architect from Alpha Rho Chi (APX), the national fraternity for architecture and the allied arts. In 1976, he received the St. Louis Literary Award from the Saint Louis University Library Associates. In 1977, he received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement . He also received numerous other awards, including

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4452-507: The Presidential Medal of Freedom , presented to him on February 23, 1983, by President Ronald Reagan . Fuller was born on July 12, 1895, in Milton, Massachusetts , the son of Richard Buckminster Fuller, a prosperous leather and tea merchant, and Caroline Wolcott Andrews. He was a grand-nephew of Margaret Fuller , an American journalist, critic, and women's rights advocate associated with

4558-562: The U.S. Navy in World War I , as a shipboard radio operator, as an editor of a publication, and as commander of the crash rescue boat USS Inca . After discharge, he worked again in the meat-packing industry, acquiring management experience. In 1917, he married Anne Hewlett. During the early 1920s, he and his father-in-law developed the Stockade Building System for producing lightweight, weatherproof, and fireproof housing—although

4664-801: The University of Pennsylvania , Bryn Mawr College , Haverford College , Swarthmore College , and the University City Science Center ; as a result of this affiliation, the University of Pennsylvania appointed him university professor emeritus in 1975. Fuller believed human societies would soon rely mainly on renewable sources of energy , such as solar- and wind-derived electricity. He hoped for an age of "omni-successful education and sustenance of all humanity." Fuller referred to himself as "the property of universe" and during one radio interview he gave later in life, declared himself and his work "the property of all humanity." For his lifetime of work,

4770-419: The philosophy of science , physics , computer science , biology , and engineering , as well as geography , sociology , political science , psychotherapy (especially family systems therapy ), and economics . Systems theory promotes dialogue between autonomous areas of study as well as within systems science itself. In this respect, with the possibility of misinterpretations, von Bertalanffy believed

4876-470: The systems approach into the (rationalist) hard sciences of the 19th century, also known as the energy transformation . Then, the thermodynamics of this century, by Rudolf Clausius , Josiah Gibbs and others, established the system reference model as a formal scientific object. Similar ideas are found in learning theories that developed from the same fundamental concepts, emphasising how understanding results from knowing concepts both in part and as

4982-418: The "technological ability to protect, nurture, support, and accommodate all growth needs of life", his analysis of the condition of "Spaceship Earth" caused him to conclude that at a certain time during the 1970s, humanity had attained an unprecedented state. He was convinced that the accumulation of relevant knowledge, combined with the quantities of major recyclable resources that had already been extracted from

5088-455: The 1920s and 1930s, but it was not until the early 1950s that it became more widely known in scientific circles. Jackson also claimed that Bertalanffy's work was informed by Alexander Bogdanov 's three-volume Tectology (1912–1917), providing the conceptual base for GST. A similar position is held by Richard Mattessich (1978) and Fritjof Capra (1996). Despite this, Bertalanffy never even mentioned Bogdanov in his works. The systems view

5194-540: The American transcendentalism movement. The unusual middle name, Buckminster, was an ancestral family name. As a child, Richard Buckminster Fuller tried numerous variations of his name. He used to sign his name differently each year in the guest register of his family summer vacation home at Bear Island, Maine. He finally settled on R. Buckminster Fuller. Fuller spent much of his youth on Bear Island , in Penobscot Bay off

5300-641: The CHAOS report published in 2018 by the Standish Group , a vast majority of information systems fail or partly fail according to their survey: Pure success is the combination of high customer satisfaction with high return on value to the organization. Related figures for the year 2017 are: successful: 14%, challenged: 67%, failed 19%. System dynamics is an approach to understanding the nonlinear behaviour of complex systems over time using stocks, flows , internal feedback loops , and time delays. Systems psychology

5406-471: The coast of Maine. He attended Froebelian Kindergarten He was dissatisfied with the way geometry was taught in school, disagreeing with the notions that a chalk dot on the blackboard represented an "empty" mathematical point , or that a line could stretch off to infinity . To him these were illogical, and led to his work on synergetics . He often made items from materials he found in the woods, and sometimes made his own tools. He experimented with designing

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5512-696: The commonplace critique of educational systems grounded in conventional assumptions about learning, including the problems with fragmented knowledge and lack of holistic learning from the "machine-age thinking" that became a "model of school separated from daily life." In this way, some systems theorists attempt to provide alternatives to, and evolved ideation from orthodox theories which have grounds in classical assumptions, including individuals such as Max Weber and Émile Durkheim in sociology and Frederick Winslow Taylor in scientific management . The theorists sought holistic methods by developing systems concepts that could integrate with different areas. Some may view

5618-441: The company would ultimately fail in 1927. Fuller recalled 1927 as a pivotal year of his life. His daughter Alexandra had died in 1922 of complications from polio and spinal meningitis just before her fourth birthday. Barry Katz, a Stanford University scholar who wrote about Fuller, found signs that around this time in his life Fuller had developed depression and anxiety . Fuller dwelled on his daughter's death, suspecting that it

5724-589: The constituent elements in isolation. Béla H. Bánáthy , who argued—along with the founders of the systems society—that "the benefit of humankind" is the purpose of science, has made significant and far-reaching contributions to the area of systems theory. For the Primer Group at the International Society for the System Sciences , Bánáthy defines a perspective that iterates this view: The systems view

5830-593: The contradiction of reductionism in conventional theory (which has as its subject a single part) as simply an example of changing assumptions. The emphasis with systems theory shifts from parts to the organization of parts, recognizing interactions of the parts as not static and constant but dynamic processes. Some questioned the conventional closed systems with the development of open systems perspectives. The shift originated from absolute and universal authoritative principles and knowledge to relative and general conceptual and perceptual knowledge and still remains in

5936-442: The different ways various materials react to stress and heat in the machining process. The machine trade is an extremely broad field with a wide variety of workplaces, job duties, and types of work. Most machinists work in machine shops and factories where they operate machinery that produce precision component parts. In general, the occupation is exacting, and requires extensive knowledge of the tools and processes in order to achieve

6042-507: The domain of engineering psychology , but in addition seems more concerned with societal systems and with the study of motivational, affective, cognitive and group behavior that holds the name engineering psychology." In systems psychology, characteristics of organizational behaviour (such as individual needs, rewards, expectations , and attributes of the people interacting with the systems ) "considers this process in order to create an effective system." System theory has been applied in

6148-436: The earth, had attained a critical level, such that competition for necessities had become unnecessary. Cooperation had become the optimum survival strategy. He declared: "selfishness is unnecessary and hence-forth unrationalizable ... War is obsolete." He criticized previous utopian schemes as too exclusive and thought this was a major source of their failure. To work, he felt that a utopia needed to include everyone. Fuller

6254-429: The efficiency of the entire process. Fuller also coined the word synergetics , a catch-all term used broadly for communicating experiences using geometric concepts, and more specifically, the empirical study of systems in transformation; his focus was on total system behavior unpredicted by the behavior of any isolated components. Fuller was a pioneer in thinking globally and explored energy and material efficiency in

6360-416: The etymology of general systems, though it also does not translate from the German very well; its "closest equivalent" translates to 'teaching', but "sounds dogmatic and off the mark." An adequate overlap in meaning is found within the word " nomothetic ", which can mean "having the capability to posit long-lasting sense." While the idea of a "general systems theory" might have lost many of its root meanings in

6466-668: The feats of engineering with the Egyptian pyramids . Differentiated from Western rationalist traditions of philosophy, C. West Churchman often identified with the I Ching as a systems approach sharing a frame of reference similar to pre-Socratic philosophy and Heraclitus . Ludwig von Bertalanffy traced systems concepts to the philosophy of Gottfried Leibniz and Nicholas of Cusa 's coincidentia oppositorum . While modern systems can seem considerably more complicated, they may embed themselves in history. Figures like James Joule and Sadi Carnot represent an important step to introduce

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6572-434: The field of neuroinformatics and connectionist cognitive science. Attempts are being made in neurocognition to merge connectionist cognitive neuroarchitectures with the approach of system theory and dynamical systems theory . Predecessors Founders Other contributors Systems thinking can date back to antiquity, whether considering the first systems of written communication with Sumerian cuneiform to Maya numerals , or

6678-409: The fields of architecture, engineering, and design. In his book Critical Path (1981) he cited the opinion of François de Chadenèdes (1920–1999) that petroleum, from the standpoint of its replacement cost in our current energy "budget" (essentially, the net incoming solar flux ), had cost nature "over a million dollars" per U.S. gallon ($ 300,000 per litre) to produce. From this point of view, its use as

6784-464: The foundations of modern organizational theory and management by the late 19th century. Where assumptions in Western science from Plato and Aristotle to Isaac Newton 's Principia (1687) have historically influenced all areas from the hard to social sciences (see, David Easton 's seminal development of the " political system " as an analytical construct), the original systems theorists explored

6890-514: The geodesic design by Walther Bauersfeld for the Zeiss-Planetarium , built some 28 years prior to Fuller's work, reveals that Fuller's Geodesic Dome patent (U.S. 2,682,235; awarded in 1954) is the same design as Bauersfeld's. Their construction is based on extending some basic principles to build simple " tensegrity " structures (tetrahedron, octahedron , and the closest packing of spheres), making them lightweight and stable. The geodesic dome

6996-489: The highest advantage of others. Fuller stated that this experience led to a profound re-examination of his life. He ultimately chose to embark on "an experiment, to find what a single individual could contribute to changing the world and benefiting all humanity." Speaking to audiences later in life, Fuller would frequently recount the story of his Lake Michigan experience, and its transformative impact on his life. In 1927, Fuller resolved to think independently which included

7102-537: The implications of 20th-century advances in terms of systems. Between 1929 and 1951, Robert Maynard Hutchins at the University of Chicago had undertaken efforts to encourage innovation and interdisciplinary research in the social sciences, aided by the Ford Foundation with the university's interdisciplinary Division of the Social Sciences established in 1931. Many early systems theorists aimed at finding

7208-654: The importance of this work, and employed his firm Geodesics, Inc. in Raleigh, North Carolina to make small domes for the Marines . Within a few years, there were thousands of such domes around the world. Fuller's first "continuous tension – discontinuous compression" geodesic dome (full sphere in this case) was constructed at the University of Oregon Architecture School in 1959 with the help of students. These continuous tension – discontinuous compression structures featured single force compression members (no flexure or bending moments) that did not touch each other and were 'suspended' by

7314-493: The landing and taxiing qualities, and noted severe limitations in its handling. The team made improvements and refinements to the platform, and Fuller noted the Dymaxion "was an invention that could not be made available to the general public without considerable improvements". The bodywork was aerodynamically designed for increased fuel efficiency and its platform featured a lightweight cromoly-steel hinged chassis, rear-mounted V8 engine, front-drive, and three-wheels. The vehicle

7420-596: The machinist title are other specialty titles that refer to specific skills that may be more highly developed to meet the needs of a particular job position, such as fitter (assembles parts), turning hand , mill hand , and grinder . A machinist is usually called upon when a part needs to be produced from a stock material by cutting. Such a part may be unique or may be needed in the thousands. The part could be anything made from metal or plastic, though machined parts are usually ones that require high precision and cannot be produced by other means. Machinists generally start with

7526-701: The meaning of the term suggests the need for specialized handling and/or tooling to machine them effectively. While the foregoing were primarily the materials that a machinist would be cutting, the cutters that the machinist uses must be harder and tougher than the materials to be cut. The materials in the cutters a machinist uses are most commonly high-speed steel , tungsten carbide , ceramics , Borazon , and diamond . Machinists usually work to very small tolerances , usually within 0.010" or 0.25 mm (more commonly expressed as ±0.005" (Plus or minus five thousandths of an inch) or ±0.13 mm), and sometimes at tolerances as low as +/-0.0001" (plus or minus one tenth of

7632-482: The modern foundations for a general theory of systems following World War I, Ervin László , in the preface for Bertalanffy's book, Perspectives on General System Theory , points out that the translation of "general system theory" from German into English has "wrought a certain amount of havoc": It (General System Theory) was criticized as pseudoscience and said to be nothing more than an admonishment to attend to things in

7738-575: The most common materials. Materials that machinists work with occasionally are plastics , rubber , glass , and wood products. Rarely, machinists also work with exotic and refractory metals . The term exotic metals is a general term describing out of the ordinary, rare or special purpose metals. A synonym might be space-age. A list of exotic metals might include, but is not limited to, titanium , beryllium , vanadium, chromium , molybdenum and tungsten , as well as special high-temperature metal alloys like Inconel or Hastelloy ( superalloys ). Very often

7844-469: The new systems view of organized complexity went "one step beyond the Newtonian view of organized simplicity" which reduced the parts from the whole, or understood the whole without relation to the parts. The relationship between organisations and their environments can be seen as the foremost source of complexity and interdependence. In most cases, the whole has properties that cannot be known from analysis of

7950-543: The other car hit the Dymaxion only after it had begun to roll over. Despite courting the interest of important figures from the auto industry, Fuller used his family inheritance to finish the second and third prototypes — eventually selling all three, dissolving Dymaxion Corporation and maintaining the Dymaxion was never intended as a commercial venture. One of the three original prototypes survives. Fuller's energy-efficient and inexpensive Dymaxion house garnered much interest, but only two prototypes were ever produced. Here

8056-471: The part, especially its geometry (shape), then decide on a strategy to make it. Machine tools are then configured by the machinist and production commences. The machinist works with the quality department to ensure the specifications are maintained in the finished product. Large commercial organizations often staff machinists on site in a maintenance mode to ensure continuing operations of the production machinery. Such machinists can often make replacement parts

8162-534: The period leading up to his death, his wife had been lying comatose in a Los Angeles hospital, dying of cancer. It was while visiting her there that he exclaimed, at a certain point: "She is squeezing my hand!" He then stood up, had a heart attack, and died an hour later, at age 87. His wife of 66 years died 36 hours later. They are buried in Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Buckminster Fuller

8268-399: The principles of science to solving the problems of humanity." From 1972 until retiring as university professor emeritus in 1975, Fuller held a joint appointment at Southern Illinois University Edwardsville , where he had designed the dome for the campus Religious Center in 1971. During this period, he also held a joint fellowship at a consortium of Philadelphia -area institutions, including

8374-551: The road at will, fly about, then, as deftly as a bird, settle back into a place in traffic". The Dymaxion car was a vehicle designed by Fuller, featured prominently at Chicago's 1933-1934 Century of Progress World's Fair. During the Great Depression , Fuller formed the Dymaxion Corporation and built three prototypes with noted naval architect Starling Burgess and a team of 27 workmen — using donated money as well as

8480-872: The same day. Because of this, the labor cost for this role are significantly lower than costs involved with production shutdowns. Additive machining means 3D printing to create industrial components, prototypes, tooling, and end-use production parts. Additive machining comes into its own in the manufacturing of very small intricate parts, which could not be produced through any other manufacturing process. There are several processes in additive manufacturing which include direct metal deposition: electron beam melting, fused filament fabrication, select laser sintering, and variations of them. The most common materials that machinists make parts from are steel , aluminium , brass , copper , and various alloys of these materials. Other less common materials such as vanadium , zinc , lead , or manganese are often used as alloying elements for

8586-464: The solution to his family's struggles on long walks around Chicago. During the autumn of 1927, Fuller contemplated suicide by drowning in Lake Michigan, so that his family could benefit from a life insurance payment. Fuller said that he had experienced a profound incident which would provide direction and purpose for his life. He felt as though he was suspended several feet above the ground enclosed in

8692-548: The study of ecological systems by Howard T. Odum , Eugene Odum ; in Fritjof Capra 's study of organizational theory ; in the study of management by Peter Senge ; in interdisciplinary areas such as human resource development in the works of Richard A. Swanson ; and in the works of educators Debora Hammond and Alfonso Montuori. As a transdisciplinary , interdisciplinary, and multiperspectival endeavor, systems theory brings together principles and concepts from ontology ,

8798-530: The summer of 1959, Fuller was recruited by longtime friend Harold Cohen to serve as a research professor of "design science exploration" at the institution's School of Art and Design. According to SIU architecture professor Jon Davey, the position was "unlike most faculty appointments ... more a celebrity role than a teaching job" in which Fuller offered few courses and was only stipulated to spend two months per year on campus. Nevertheless, his time in Carbondale

8904-529: The tensional members. For half of a century, Fuller developed many ideas, designs, and inventions, particularly regarding practical, inexpensive shelter and transportation. He documented his life, philosophy, and ideas scrupulously by a daily diary (later called the Dymaxion Chronofile ), and by twenty-eight publications. Fuller financed some of his experiments with inherited funds, sometimes augmented by funds invested by his collaborators, one example being

9010-568: The term "Dymaxion" is used in effect to signify a "radically strong and light tensegrity structure". One of Fuller's Dymaxion Houses is on display as a permanent exhibit at the Henry Ford Museum in Dearborn, Michigan . Designed and developed during the mid-1940s, this prototype is a round structure (not a dome), shaped something like the flattened "bell" of certain jellyfish. It has several innovative features, including revolving dresser drawers, and

9116-443: The tight tolerances and surface finishes that these parts specify. Many machinists make mass-produced parts using highly automated computer numerical control machines which are common today, but still require such professionals to set up and calibrate the machines. Other more specialised machinists produce custom-made parts for prototyping, repair, or research. A machinist may work on manufacturing something relatively simple like

9222-402: The tradition of theorists that sought to provide means to organize human life. In other words, theorists rethought the preceding history of ideas ; they did not lose them. Mechanistic thinking was particularly critiqued, especially the industrial-age mechanistic metaphor for the mind from interpretations of Newtonian mechanics by Enlightenment philosophers and later psychologists that laid

9328-452: The translation, by defining a new way of thinking about science and scientific paradigms , systems theory became a widespread term used for instance to describe the interdependence of relationships created in organizations . A system in this frame of reference can contain regularly interacting or interrelating groups of activities. For example, in noting the influence in the evolution of "an individually oriented industrial psychology [into]

9434-439: The tutelage of Arthur Penn , then a student at Black Mountain, Fuller broke through his inhibitions to become confident as a performer and speaker. At Black Mountain, with the support of a group of professors and students, he began reinventing a project that would make him famous: the geodesic dome . Although the geodesic dome had been created, built and awarded a German patent on June 19, 1925, by Dr. Walther Bauersfeld , Fuller

9540-515: The various tools commonly used in machining operations. CNC (computer numerical control) is the modern manufacturing method in which machinist use a form of programming called G-code to make components for a wide variety of industries. CNC programming is a highly skilled position. Programmers are usually machinist as well. A CNC programmer creates programs using software called CAM (computer aided manufacturing). The programmer must be proficient in math, speeds and feeds, machine tooling, work holding, and

9646-523: The widely known geodesic dome ; carbon molecules known as fullerenes were later named by scientists for their structural and mathematical resemblance to geodesic spheres. He also served as the second World President of Mensa International from 1974 to 1983. Fuller was awarded 28 United States patents and many honorary doctorates. In 1960, he was awarded the Frank P. Brown Medal from The Franklin Institute . He

9752-671: The year of his death, Fuller described himself as follows: Guinea Pig B: I am now close to 88 and I am confident that the only thing important about me is that I am an average healthy human. I am also a living case history of a thoroughly documented, half-century, search-and-research project designed to discover what, if anything, an unknown, moneyless individual, with a dependent wife and newborn child, might be able to do effectively on behalf of all humanity that could not be accomplished by great nations, great religions or private enterprise, no matter how rich or powerfully armed. Fuller died on July 1, 1983, 11 days before his 88th birthday. During

9858-714: Was "extremely productive", and Fuller was promoted to university professor in 1968 and distinguished university professor in 1972. Working as a designer, scientist, developer, and writer, he continued to lecture for many years around the world. He collaborated at SIU with John McHale . In 1965, they inaugurated the World Design Science Decade (1965 to 1975) at the meeting of the International Union of Architects in Paris, which was, in Fuller's own words, devoted to "applying

9964-498: Was a Unitarian , and, like his grandfather Arthur Buckminster Fuller (brother of Margaret Fuller ), a Unitarian minister. Fuller was also an early environmental activist , aware of Earth's finite resources, and promoted a principle he termed " ephemeralization ", which, according to futurist and Fuller disciple Stewart Brand , was defined as "doing more with less". Resources and waste from crude, inefficient products could be recycled into making more valuable products, thus increasing

10070-524: Was a result of Fuller's exploration of nature's constructing principles to find design solutions. The Fuller Dome is referenced in the Hugo Award -winning novel Stand on Zanzibar by John Brunner , in which a geodesic dome is said to cover the entire island of Manhattan , and it floats on air due to the hot-air balloon effect of the large air-mass under the dome (and perhaps its construction of lightweight materials). The Omni-Media-Transport: With such

10176-459: Was awarded United States patents. Fuller's patent application made no mention of Bauersfeld's self-supporting dome built some 26 years prior. Although Fuller undoubtedly popularized this type of structure he is mistakenly given credit for its design. One of his early models was first constructed in 1945 at Bennington College in Vermont, where he lectured often. Although Bauersfeld's dome could support

10282-527: Was based on several fundamental ideas. First, all phenomena can be viewed as a web of relationships among elements, or a system . Second, all systems, whether electrical , biological , or social , have common patterns , behaviors , and properties that the observer can analyze and use to develop greater insight into the behavior of complex phenomena and to move closer toward a unity of the sciences. System philosophy, methodology and application are complementary to this science. Machinist A machinist

10388-555: Was connected with the Fullers' damp and drafty living conditions. This provided motivation for Fuller's involvement in Stockade Building Systems , a business which aimed to provide affordable, efficient housing. In 1927, at age 32, Fuller lost his job as president of Stockade. The Fuller family had no savings, and the birth of their daughter Allegra in 1927 added to the financial challenges. Fuller drank heavily and reflected upon

10494-464: Was elected an honorary member of Phi Beta Kappa in 1967, on the occasion of the 50-year reunion of his Harvard class of 1917 (from which he had been expelled in his first year). He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1968. The same year, he was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Associate member. He became a full Academician in 1970, and he received

10600-492: Was expelled from Harvard twice: first for spending all his money partying with a vaudeville troupe, and then, after having been readmitted, for his "irresponsibility and lack of interest." By his own appraisal, he was a non-conforming misfit in the fraternity environment. Between his sessions at Harvard, Fuller worked in Canada as a mechanic in a textile mill , and later as a laborer in the meat-packing industry . He also served in

10706-547: Was influenced by Alfred Korzybski 's idea of general semantics . In the 1950s, Fuller attended seminars and workshops organized by the Institute of General Semantics , and he delivered the annual Alfred Korzybski Memorial Lecture in 1955. Korzybski is mentioned in the Introduction of his book Synergetics . The two shared a remarkable amount of similarity in their general semantics formulations. In his 1970 book, I Seem To Be

10812-466: Was lead designer, architect, and engineer for both companies. Richard Lewontin , a new faculty member in population genetics at North Carolina State University, provided Fuller with computer calculations for the lengths of the domes' edges. Fuller began working with architect Shoji Sadao in 1954, together designing a hypothetical Dome over Manhattan in 1960, and in 1964 they co-founded the architectural firm Fuller & Sadao Inc., whose first project

10918-427: Was steered via the third wheel at the rear, capable of 90° steering lock . Able to steer in a tight circle, the Dymaxion often caused a sensation, bringing nearby traffic to a halt. Shortly after launch, a prototype rolled over and crashed, killing the Dymaxion's driver and seriously injuring its passengers. Fuller blamed the accident on a second car that collided with the Dymaxion. Eyewitnesses reported, however, that

11024-548: Was that the strongest possible homogeneous truss is cyclically tetrahedral. He had become a guru of the design, architecture, and "alternative" communities, such as Drop City , the community of experimental artists to whom he awarded the 1966 "Dymaxion Award" for "poetically economic" domed living structures. Fuller was most famous for his lattice shell structures – geodesic domes , which have been used as parts of military radar stations, civic buildings, environmental protest camps, and exhibition attractions. An examination of

11130-535: Was the beginning of their lifelong friendship. Fuller taught at Black Mountain College in North Carolina during the summers of 1948 and 1949, serving as its Summer Institute director in 1949. Fuller had been shy and withdrawn, but he was persuaded to participate in a theatrical performance of Erik Satie's Le piège de Méduse produced by John Cage , who was also teaching at Black Mountain. During rehearsals, under

11236-513: Was to design the large geodesic dome for the U.S. Pavilion at Expo 67 in Montreal. This building is now the " Montreal Biosphère ". In 1962, the artist and searcher John McHale wrote the first monograph on Fuller, published by George Braziller in New York. After employing several Southern Illinois University Carbondale (SIU) graduate students to rebuild his models following an apartment fire in

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