Charles III
51-477: 53°04′34″N 3°03′00″W / 53.076°N 3.050°W / 53.076; -3.050 Brymbo is a village and community in Wrexham County Borough , Wales . It lies in the hilly country to the west of Wrexham city, largely surrounded by farmland. At the 2001 Census , the population of the community area (including Brymbo village, along with the villages of Tanyfron and Bwlchgwyn and
102-553: A burial chamber alongside a flint knife and earthenware beaker. It is believed that he was 5 feet 8 inches (1.73 m) tall and aged between 35 and 40 years. Brymbo Man was taken to the National Museum in Cardiff until May 1998 when it was returned to Wrexham. In 2001 Manchester University produced a wax model reconstruction of the skull which can also be seen in the galleries of Wrexham Museum . Another archaeological find
153-484: A bridge called Pont y Place Mayne vppon ye north side, and from Gwersilt by a little brooke called y Frwe, and from Broughton by a little brook running from a common called Harwood to a place called y Groes faen on ye east side ; and vpon ye west, from ye said common called Nant y Frith to a place vpon ye said common called Maes Maylo' or thereabouts; but ye certaine boundes of ye said towneshipp vppon ye said mountayne or common, they cannott sett downe. While there
204-511: A higher concentration of hydroxide (OH-) in ground water . This alkalinity promotes the mineralization of dissolved CO 2 (from the atmosphere) to produce calcite (CaCO 3 ), which can accumulate to as thick as 20 cm. This can also lead to the dissolution of other metals in slag, such as iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), nickel (Ni), and molybdenum (Mo), which become insoluble in water and mobile as particulate matter . The most effective method to detoxify alkaline ground water discharge
255-431: A highly abrasive dust that has caused car parts to wear at significantly greater than normal rates. Dissolution of slags generate alkalinity that can be used to precipitate out metals, sulfates, and excess nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) in wastewater treatment. Similarly, ferrous slags have been used as soil conditioners to re-balance soil pH and fertilizers as sources of calcium and magnesium. Because of
306-449: A large quantity of horse bones along with horse shoes "of rude workmanship" were found beneath the dyke near Brymbo Hall, but gave no other details. While there are few very old buildings in Brymbo, it contains several structures of interest in industrial archaeology , such as the original "No. 1" blast furnace commissioned by John Wilkinson, and associated buildings. Above the village stand
357-540: A new housing estate on the land in 2007, dubbed 'Mountain View'. But this estate has been named 'Plas Brymbo' by locals, as there is a street named 'Mountain View' already, just off Cheshire View at the top of the village. With unhindered views of 'Hope Mountain'. In 2017, a road which directly connects the estate to the village was opened, named Phoenix Drive. In 2018 the Brymbo Heritage Trust received £1.1m to renovate
408-475: A number of rural hamlets) was 3,482, increasing to 4,836 at the 2011 Census. Brymbo is also the name of an electoral ward of Wrexham County Borough, whose population (including Brymbo and Tanyfron only) was 2,653 at the 2001 census, increasing to 3,981 at the 2011 Census. The area was formerly heavily dependent on coal mining and steelmaking, and the Brymbo Steelworks , which operated between 1794 and 1990,
459-413: A series of experiments testing the reactivity of a specific slag material (i.e., dissolution ) or using the topological constraint theory (TCT) to account for its complex chemical network. Slags are transported along with slag tailings to "slag dumps", where they are exposed to weathering, with the possibility of leaching of toxic elements and hyperalkaline runoffs into the soil and water, endangering
510-642: Is a division of land in Wales that forms the lowest tier of local government in Wales . Welsh communities are analogous to civil parishes in England but, unlike English parishes, communities cover the whole of Wales. There are 878 communities in Wales. Until 1974 Wales was divided into civil parishes . These were abolished by section 20 (6) of the Local Government Act 1972 , and replaced by communities by section 27 of
561-879: Is designed to minimize iron loss, which gives out the significant amount of iron, following by oxides of calcium , silicon , magnesium , and aluminium. As the slag is cooled down by water, several chemical reactions from a temperature of around 2,600 °F (1,430 °C) (such as oxidization ) take place within the slag. Based on a case study at the Hopewell National Historical Site in Berks and Chester counties, Pennsylvania , US, ferrous slag usually contains lower concentration of various types of trace elements than non-ferrous slag . However, some of them, such as arsenic (As), iron, and manganese , can accumulate in groundwater and surface water to levels that can exceed environmental guidelines. Non-ferrous slag
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#1732855497897612-467: Is produced from non-ferrous metals of natural ores. Non-ferrous slag can be characterized into copper, lead, and zinc slags due to the ores' compositions, and they have more potential to impact the environment negatively than ferrous slag. The smelting of copper, lead and bauxite in non-ferrous smelting, for instance, is designed to remove the iron and silica that often occurs with those ores, and separates them as iron-silicate-based slags. Copper slag,
663-526: Is slags) are generated per tonne of steel produced. Slag is usually a mixture of metal oxides and silicon dioxide . However, slags can contain metal sulfides and elemental metals. It is important to note, the oxide form may or may not be present once the molten slag solidifies and forms amorphous and crystalline components. The major components of these slags include the oxides of calcium , magnesium , silicon , iron, and aluminium, with lesser amounts of manganese , phosphorus , and others depending on
714-588: Is used in the manufacture of high-performance concretes, especially those used in the construction of bridges and coastal features, where its low permeability and greater resistance to chlorides and sulfates can help to reduce corrosive action and deterioration of the structure. Slag can also be used to create fibers used as an insulation material called slag wool . Slag is also used as aggregate in asphalt concrete for paving roads . A 2022 study in Finland found that road surfaces containing ferrochrome slag release
765-470: The Grade II listed Bryn Sion (Independent, 1861; closed 1968), all of which are now derelict or converted to other uses. In August 1958, workmen digging a pipe trench at Cheshire View in Brymbo made an important archaeological find – a burial site containing the remains commonly referred to as Brymbo Man or Brymbo Beaker Man , dating back to the early Bronze Age , around 1600BC. The remains were found in
816-961: The Local Government (Wales) Act 1994 and the Local Government (Wales) Measure 2011 . Slag The general term slag may be a by-product or co-product of smelting ( pyrometallurgical ) ores and recycled metals depending on the type of material being produced. Slag is mainly a mixture of metal oxides and silicon dioxide . Broadly, it can be classified as ferrous (co-products of processing iron and steel), ferroalloy (a by-product of ferroalloy production) or non-ferrous / base metals (by-products of recovering non-ferrous materials like copper , nickel , zinc and phosphorus ). Within these general categories, slags can be further categorized by their precursor and processing conditions (e.g., blast furnace slags, air-cooled blast furnace slag, granulated blast furnace slag, basic oxygen furnace slag, and electric arc furnace slag). Slag generated from
867-667: The alumina and silica separated from the metal, and assisting in the removal of sulfur and phosphorus from the steel. As a co-product of steelmaking , slag is typically produced either through the blast furnace – oxygen converter route or the electric arc furnace – ladle furnace route. To flux the silica produced during steelmaking, limestone and/or dolomite are added, as well as other types of slag conditioners such as calcium aluminate or fluorspar . There are three types of slag: ferrous , ferroalloy , non-ferrous slags, which are produced through different smelting processes. Ferrous slags are produced in different stages of
918-585: The temperature control of the smelting, and minimizing any re-oxidation of the final liquid metal product before the molten metal is removed from the furnace and used to make solid metal. In some smelting processes, such as ilmenite smelting to produce titanium dioxide , the slag can be the valuable product. During the Bronze Age of the Mediterranean area there were a vast number of differential metallurgical processes in use. A slag by-product of such workings
969-453: The 1970s; its churchyard is now a small park including the village war memorial . St Mary's church (built in 1872 to the designs of Thomas Henry Wyatt ) and the " Tin Chapel " ( Wesleyan or 'English' Methodist Church) remain in use. Brymbo had a large number of Nonconformist chapels, including Engedi ( Calvinistic Methodist , 1820; closed 2003) Tabernacle (Welsh Baptist, 1864; closed 1987) and
1020-475: The Crown . In Wales, all town councils are community councils. There are now three communities with city status: Bangor , St Asaph and St Davids . The chair of a town council or city council will usually have the title mayor (Welsh: maer ). However, not every community has a council. In communities with populations too small to sustain a full community council, community meetings may be established. The communities in
1071-491: The EAF process can contain toxic metals, which can be hazardous to human and environmental health. Due to the large demand for ferrous, ferralloy, and non-ferrous materials, slag production has increased throughout the years despite recycling (most notably in the iron and steelmaking industries) and upcycling efforts. The World Steel Association (WSA) estimates that 600 kg of co-materials (co-products and by-products)(about 90 wt%
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#17328554978971122-655: The Opposition Andrew RT Davies MS ( C ) Shadow Cabinet ( current ) Prime Minister Rt Hon Keir Starmer MP ( L ) Secretary of State for Wales Rt Hon Jo Stevens MP (L) Principal councils ( leader list ) Corporate Joint Committees Local twinning see also: Regional terms and Regional economy United Kingdom Parliament elections European Parliament elections (1979–2020) Local elections Police and crime commissioner elections Referendums A community ( Welsh : cymuned )
1173-450: The Smelt drift mine, west of the village, closed in 1967 (many of the remaining coal deposits were extracted by open-cast mining immediately west of the steelworks during 1972–75). The steelworks itself, after several years of uncertainty, was finally to close in stages between 1990 and 1991, having a severe economic impact on the village. In 1844, the old township of Brymbo, previously part of
1224-745: The community boundaries within their area every fifteen years. The councils propose changes to the Local Democracy and Boundary Commission for Wales , which prepares a report and makes recommendations to the Welsh Government . If the Welsh Government accepts the recommendations, then it implements them using a statutory instrument . For example, in 2016 four new communities were created in the City and County of Cardiff . The legislation surrounding community councils in Wales has been amended significantly in
1275-575: The ecclesiastical parish of Wrexham, became the new ecclesiastical parish of Brymbo. The corresponding civil parish of Brymbo, also based on the old township boundaries, was (as a result of the Local Government Act 1972 ) replaced in 1974 by the Community of Brymbo, which includes the village itself, the smaller neighbouring village of Tanyfron, and Bwlchgwyn , in addition to the small settlements of Vron or Fron, Pen-Rhos, Four Crosses, Maes Maelor, Glascoed, and Ffrwd: these boundaries are still very similar to
1326-400: The ffirst article the said Jurie doe say that the towneshipp of Brymbo, beeing part of ye said mannor, is bounded from Mynera by a brooke called Gwenfro, by a common there called Y Koed boeth by the south side; and from Flintshire by a brooke called Avon y Frith, running from a common called Nant y Frith to a rive' called Kegidog ; and soe the said Kegidog running downeward a little beyond
1377-624: The iron and steelmaking processes resulting in varying physiochemical properties. Additionally, the rate of cooling of the slag material affects its degree of crystallinity further diversifying its range of properties. For example, slow cooled blast furnace slags (or air-cooled slags) tend have more crystalline phases than quenched blast furnace slags ( ground granulated blast furnace slags ) making it denser and better suited as an aggregate. It may also have higher free calcium oxide and magnesium oxide content, which are often converted to its hydrated forms if excessive volume expansions are not desired. On
1428-429: The later strength gain of concrete. This leads to concrete with reduced permeability and better durability. Careful consideration of the slag type used is required, as the high calcium oxide and magnesium oxide content can lead to excessive volume expansion and cracking in concrete. These hydraulic properties have also been used for soil stabilization in roads and railroad constructions . Granulated blast furnace slag
1479-513: The local ecological communities. Leaching concerns are typically around non-ferrous or base metal slags, which tend to have higher concentrations of toxic elements. However, ferrous and ferroalloy slags may also have them, which raises concerns about highly weathered slag dumps and upcycled materials. Dissolution of slags can produce highly alkaline groundwater with pH values above 12. The calcium silicates (CaSiO 4 ) in slags react with water to produce calcium hydroxide ions that leads to
1530-461: The molten metal and can be removed. Slag is the collection of compounds that are removed. In many smelting processes, oxides are introduced to control the slag chemistry, assisting in the removal of impurities and protecting the furnace refractory lining from excessive wear. In this case, the slag is termed synthetic . A good example is steelmaking slag: quicklime (CaO) and magnesite (MgCO 3 ) are introduced for refractory protection, neutralizing
1581-570: The new parts had to be built on a vast artificial plateau of slag from the furnaces, filling the width of the valley and burying most of the village of Lodge, whose houses were purchased and demolished. Although the steelworks continued in production, many of the area's collieries ran into geological and financial problems by the time of the Great Depression , and the area's last deep mine (the Plas Power pit, near Southsea ) closed in 1938, though
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1632-459: The nineteenth century, a number of larger deep mines were sunk around the area, and the majority of the village of Brymbo was developed as accommodation for the miners and ironworkers. The village itself was constructed on and around the steep sides of Brymbo Hill with views towards the Cheshire Plain , though the area's topography was later to cause problems when the steelworks expanded in 1956:
1683-515: The old steelworks building. Community (Wales) Heir Apparent William, Prince of Wales First Minister ( list ) Rt Hon Eluned Morgan MS ( L ) Deputy First Minister Huw Irranca-Davies MS ( L ) Counsel General-designate – Elisabeth Jones Chief Whip and Trefnydd – Jane Hutt MS (L) Permanent Secretary Sixth Senedd Llywydd (Presiding Officer) Elin Jones MS ( PC ) Leader of
1734-653: The other hand, water quenched blast furnace slags have greater amorphous phases giving it latent hydraulic properties (as discovered by Emil Langen in 1862) similar to Portland cement . During the process of smelting iron, ferrous slag is created, but dominated by calcium and silicon compositions. Through this process, ferrous slag can be broken down into blast furnace slag (produced from iron oxides of molten iron), then steel slag (forms when steel scrap and molten iron combined). The major phases of ferrous slag contain calcium-rich olivine -group silicates and melilite -group silicates. Slag from steel mills in ferrous smelting
1785-439: The plastic, and concrete industries and leached for metals to be used in the electronic industries. However, high physical and chemical variability across different types of slags results in performance and yield inconsistencies. Moreover, stoichiometric -based calculation of the carbonation potential can lead to overestimation that can further obfuscate the material's true potential. To this end, some have proposed performing
1836-560: The remains of Wilkinson's lead smelter, the "Bottle", next to a pond (locally known as the "Cold Pool") used to supply water to the Steelworks until 1990: in the nearby hamlet of Pen-Rhos is the Penrhos Engine House, also built by Wilkinson and now a Scheduled Ancient Monument. The village itself has undergone restoration work to transform the site of the former Steelworks into a new development. The building firm, Taylor Wimpey built
1887-487: The same Act. The principal areas of Wales are divided entirely into communities. Unlike in England, where unparished areas exist, no part of Wales is outside a community, even in urban areas . Most, but not all, communities are administered by community councils , which are equivalent to English parish councils in terms of their powers and the way they operate. Welsh community councils may call themselves town councils unilaterally and may have city status granted by
1938-710: The slowly released phosphate content in phosphorus -containing slag, and because of its liming effect, it is valued as fertilizer in gardens and farms in steel making areas. However, the most important application is construction. Slags have one of the highest carbonation potential among the industrial alkaline waste due their high calcium oxide and magnesium oxide content, inspiring further studies to test its feasibility in CO 2 capture and storage ( CCS ) methods (e.g., direct aqueous sequestration, dry gas-solid carbonation among others). Across these CCS methods, slags can be transformed into precipitated calcium carbonates to be used in
1989-403: The specifics of the raw materials used. Furthermore, slag can be classified based on the abundance of iron among other major components. In nature, iron, copper, lead, nickel , and other metals are found in impure states called ores , often oxidized and mixed in with silicates of other metals. During smelting, when the ore is exposed to high temperatures, these impurities are separated from
2040-532: The township boundaries given in Norden's 1620 survey. The Community is divided into three electoral wards, Brymbo, Bwlchgwyn and Vron and is governed by Brymbo Community Council ( Welsh : Cyngor Cymuned Brymbo ). Brymbo was within the county of Denbighshire until 1974, and the new county of Clwyd until 1996, when the latter was abolished. It is now within Wrexham County Borough. The first church in Brymbo
2091-519: The township. Sometime in the fifteenth century, landowner Edward ap Morgan ap Madoc, gentleman, built a dwelling in the township that was later to become Brymbo Hall , the home of his descendants the Griffith family. A survey of the Lordship of Bromfield and Yale , conducted in 1620 by John Norden and his son, described the boundaries of the township of Brymbo, in the manor of Esclusham , as follows: To
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2142-551: The urban areas of the cities of Cardiff , Swansea and Newport do not have community councils. As of the 2001 United Kingdom census , there were 869 communities in Wales. 84 percent, or more than 730, have a council. They vary in size from Rhayader with an area of 13,945 hectares (34,460 acres) to Cefn Fforest with an area of 64 hectares (160 acres). They ranged in population from Barry with 45,053 recorded inhabitants to Baglan Bay with no permanent residents. The twenty-two principal area councils are required to review
2193-466: The waste product of smelting copper ores, was studied in an abandoned Penn Mine in California, US. For six to eight months per year, this region is flooded and becomes a reservoir for drinking water and irrigation . Samples collected from the reservoir showed the higher concentration of cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) that exceeded regulatory guidelines. Slags can serve other purposes, such as assisting in
2244-453: Was St John's, consecrated in 1838; it was closed in 1869 after it was affected by subsidence due to construction work on the Wrexham and Minera Railway . A replacement, consecrated to St. Mary, was built nearby, but in 1892 a second Anglican church (St John's) was built on the original site for the use of Welsh speakers. Predictably this church was also affected by subsidence and was demolished in
2295-471: Was a township covering a considerable area and containing a number of scattered settlements, farms, commons, and "wastes", or uncultivated areas. In 1410, the burgesses of the local settlement of Holt were granted the right to dig for coal in the wastes of "Harwd" and Coedpoeth ; "Harwd", another early name for Brymbo, came from the English name "Harwood" ("Hare Wood") and referred to a common in one part of
2346-423: Was a colorful, glassy material found on the surfaces of slag from ancient copper foundries. It was primarily blue or green and was formerly chipped away and melted down to make glassware products and jewelry. It was also ground into powder to add to glazes for use in ceramics. Some of the earliest such uses for the by-products of slag have been found in ancient Egypt . Historically, the re-smelting of iron ore slag
2397-460: Was a prominent feature of the village and much of the surrounding area. The area had a strong community spirit and at least three major railways ( GWR , LNWR , LNER ) were present. Brymbo, possibly from the Welsh Bryn baw ("mud hill" or "dirt hill") first appears in records in 1339, although the area had clearly been occupied for centuries beforehand (see "Brymbo Man" below). At this stage Brymbo
2448-439: Was also used as an aggregate and had begun being integrated into the cement industry as a geopolymer . Today, ground granulated blast furnace slags are used in combination with Portland cement to create " slag cement ". Granulated blast furnace slags react with portlandite ( Ca(OH) 2 ), which is formed during cement hydration, via the pozzolanic reaction to produce cementitious properties that primarily contribute to
2499-442: Was common practice, as improved smelting techniques permitted greater iron yields—in some cases exceeding that which was originally achieved. During the early 20th century, iron ore slag was also ground to a powder and used to make agate glass , also known as slag glass. Use of slags in the construction industry dates back to the 1800s, where blast furnace slags were used to build roads and railroad ballast. During this time, it
2550-580: Was made in 2006 by workers redeveloping the site of the former steelworks – a fossilised forest of the petrified wood of over 20 trees, dating from the Carboniferous Period . The ancient earthwork Offa's Dyke passes close to the village; a long section was formerly visible close to Brymbo Hall. In 1892, Professor Thomas McKenny Hughes carried out the first scientific excavation of Offa's Dyke near Brymbo. The cartographer Samuel Lewis , in his Topographical Dictionary of Wales (1833), recorded that
2601-521: Was mining of coal in the area on a small scale, the late eighteenth century saw an expansion in activity, particularly after the industrialist John "Iron-Mad" Wilkinson purchased Brymbo Hall and began developing its estate, mining coal and ironstone and building an ironworks which was later to become the Brymbo Steelworks. By 1821 there was a total of 41 coal pits on the Brymbo Hall estate alone. In
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