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53-521: Breed broiler is any chicken ( Gallus gallus domesticus ) that is bred and raised specifically for meat production. Most commercial broilers reach slaughter weight between four and six weeks of age, although slower growing breeds reach slaughter weight at approximately 14 weeks of age. Typical broilers have white feathers and yellowish skin. Broiler or sometimes broiler-fryer is also used sometimes to refer specifically to younger chickens under 2.0 kilograms ( 4 + 1 ⁄ 2  lb), as compared with

106-456: A gene pool that they see as having the necessary qualities needed to enhance the breed model they are aiming for. These animals are referred to as foundation stock . Furthermore, the breeder mates the most desirable representatives of the breed from his or her point of view, aiming to pass such characteristics to their progeny . This process is known as selective breeding . A written description of desirable and undesirable breed representatives

159-456: A certain country are known as "native breeds" of that country. Feed conversion ratio In animal husbandry , feed conversion ratio ( FCR ) or feed conversion rate is a ratio or rate measuring of the efficiency with which the bodies of livestock convert animal feed into the desired output. For dairy cows , for example, the output is milk , whereas in animals raised for meat (such as beef cows, pigs, chickens, and fish)

212-431: A consequence, the behaviour and physiology of broilers reared for meat are those of immature birds, rather than adults. Slow growing free-range and organic strains have been developed which reach slaughter-weight at 12 to 16 weeks of age. Typical broilers have white feathers and yellowish skin. Recent genetic analysis has revealed that the gene for yellow skin was incorporated into domestic birds through hybridization with

265-658: A culture of slaughtering pigs at very high weights, like Japan and Korea, have poor FCRs. Some data for sheep illustrate variations in FCR. A FCR (kg feed dry matter intake per kg live mass gain) for lambs is often in the range of about 4 to 5 on high-concentrate rations, 5 to 6 on some forages of good quality, and more than 6 on feeds of lesser quality. On a diet of straw, which has a low metabolizable energy concentration, FCR of lambs may be as high as 40. Other things being equal, FCR tends to be higher for older lambs (e.g. 8 months) than younger lambs (e.g. 4 months). As of 2011 in

318-448: A final milk product; that formula is (0.327 x milk mass) + (12.95 x fat mass) + (7.2 x protein mass). In the dairy industry, feed efficiency (ECM/intake) is often used instead of FCR (intake/ECM); an FE less than 1.3 is considered problematic. FE based simply on the weight of milk is also used; an FE between 1.30 and 1.70 is normal. Pigs have been kept to produce meat for 5,000 to 9,000 years. As of 2011 , pigs used commercially in

371-476: A great increase in the speed with which broilers develop and reach slaughter-weight. Selection and husbandry for very fast growth means there is a genetically induced mismatch between the energy-supplying organs of the broiler and its energy-consuming organs. Rapid growth can lead to metabolic disorders such as sudden death syndrome and ascites . Breeding for increased breast muscle affects the way chickens walk and puts additional stresses on their hips and legs. There

424-437: A lower proportion of essential compounds like vitamin E , lutein and zeaxanthin , yet an increase in glucose and cholesterol . Multiple studies show that dietary supplementation with chromium can help to relieve these issues due to its antioxidative properties, particularly in combination with zinc or herbs like wood sorrel . Resveratrol is another popular antioxidant administered to poultry for these reasons. Though

477-401: A partially fish-based diet, despite a decrease in overall resource use. The edible (fillet) FCR of tilapia is around 4.6 and the FCR of Chinese carp is around 4.9. In India, rabbits raised for meat had an FCR of 2.5 to 3.0 on high grain diet and 3.5 to 4.0 on natural forage diet, without animal-feed grain. In a global study, FAO estimated various feed conversion ratios, taking into account

530-441: A result of breeding animals of one breed with other animals of another breed are known as crossbreeds or mixed breeds. Crosses between animal or plant variants above the level of breed/cultivar (i.e. between species, subspecies , botanical variety , even different genera ) are referred to as hybrids . The breeder (or group of breeders) who initially establishes a breed does so by selecting individual animals from within

583-521: Is 3.5. Their FCR begins increasing gradually after this period. For instance, in the US as of 2012 , commercial pigs had FCR calculated using weight gain, of 3.46 for while they weighed between 240 and 250 pounds, 3.65 between 250 and 260 pounds, 3.87 between 260 and 270 lbs, and 4.09 between 280 and 270 lbs. Because FCR calculated on the basis of weight gained gets worse after pigs mature, as it takes more and more feed to drive growth, countries that have

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636-716: Is a global industry and at that time, only two or three breeding companies supplied around 90% of the world's breeder-broilers. The total number of meat chickens produced in the world was nearly 47 billion in 2004; of these, approximately 19% were produced in the US, 15% in China, 13% in the EU25 and 11% in Brazil. Consumption of broilers is surpassing that of beef in industrialized countries, with demand rising in Asia. Worldwide, 86.6 million tonnes of broiler meat were produced in 2014, and as of 2018,

689-584: Is a high frequency of skeletal problems in broilers, mainly in the locomotory system. These leg abnormalities impair the locomotor abilities of the birds, and lame birds spend more time lying and sleeping. Increased inactivity is linked with an increase in dermatitis caused by a greater amount of time in contact with ammonia in poultry litter . Broilers are usually kept at high stocking densities. This can reduce feed intake and growth. Management conditions (litter quality, temperature and humidity) are however more important than stocking density. Many broilers die during

742-410: Is about 1.5, and as of 2013 farmed catfish had a FCR of about 1. It is possible for fish to have an FCR below 1 despite obvious energy losses in feed-to-meat conversion. Fish feed tends to be dry food with higher energy density than water-rich fish flesh. For herbivorous and omnivorous fish like Chinese carp and tilapia , the plant-based feed yields much lower FCR compared to carnivorous kept on

795-407: Is commonly calculated using feed dry mass, it is sometimes calculated on an as-fed wet mass basis, (or in the case of grains and oilseeds, sometimes on a wet mass basis at standard moisture content), with feed moisture resulting in higher ratios. Animals that have a low FCR are considered efficient users of feed. However, comparisons of FCR among different species may be of little significance unless

848-478: Is no evidence of reduced motivation to extend the behavioral repertoire, as, for example, ground pecking remained at significantly higher levels in the outdoor groups because this behavior could also be performed from a lying posture rather than standing. Examining the frequency of all sexual behaviour shows a large decrease with age, suggestive of a decline in libido . The decline in libido is not enough to account for reduced fertility in heavy cocks at 58 weeks and

901-439: Is probably a consequence of the large bulk or the conformation of the males at this age interfering in some way with the transfer of semen during copulations which otherwise look normal. Chickens are omnivores and modern broilers are given access to a special diet of high protein feed, usually delivered via an automated feeding system. This is combined with artificial lighting conditions to stimulate eating and growth and thus

954-466: Is referred to as a breed standard . Breed specific characteristics, also known as breed traits, are inherited, and purebred animals pass such traits from generation to generation. Thus, all specimens of the same breed carry several genetic characteristics of the original foundation animal(s). In order to maintain the breed, a breeder would select those animals with the most desirable traits to achieve further maintenance and developing of such traits. At

1007-425: Is that a breed is consistent enough in type to be logically grouped together and when mated within the group produce the same type. When bred together, individuals of the same breed pass on these predictable traits to their offspring, and this ability – known as " breeding true " – is a requirement for a breed. Plant breeds are more commonly known as cultivars . The offspring produced as

1060-423: Is the ratio of inputs to outputs; it is the inverse of "feed efficiency" which is the ratio of outputs to inputs. FCR is widely used in hog and poultry production, while FE is used more commonly with cattle. Being a ratio the FCR is dimensionless , that is, it is not affected by the units of measurement used to determine the FCR. FCR a function of the animal's genetics and age, the quality and ingredients of

1113-406: Is used which is independent of size. RFI uses for output the difference between actual intake and predicted intake based on an animal's body weight, weight gain, and composition. The outputs portion may be calculated based on weight gained, on the whole animal at sale, or on the dressed product; with milk it may be normalized for fat and protein content. As for the inputs portion, although FCR

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1166-575: Is wider agreement that temperatures greater than 35 °C (95 °F) and 47 °C (117 °F) form "upper critical" and lethal zones, respectively. Average daily temperatures of around 33 °C (91 °F) are known to interfere with feeding in both broilers and egg hens, as well as lower their immune response , with outcomes such as reduced weight gain/egg production or greater incidence of salmonella infections, footpad dermatitis or meningitis . Persistent heat stress leads to oxidative stress in tissues, and harvested white meat ends up with

1219-410: The grey junglefowl ( G. sonneratii ). Modern crosses are also favorable for meat production because they lack the typical "hair" which many breeds have that must be removed by singeing after plucking the carcass. Both male and female broilers are reared for their meat. Broiler behavior is modified by the environment, and alters as the broilers' age and bodyweight rapidly increase. For example,

1272-461: The Cornish/Rock crossbreeds. As an example, Donald Shaver (originally a breeder of egg-production breeds) began gathering breeding stock for a broiler program in 1950. Besides the breeds normally favored, Cornish Game , Plymouth Rock , New Hampshire , Langshans , Jersey Black Giant , and Brahmas were included. A white feathered female line was purchased from Cobb. A full-scale breeding program

1325-508: The UK and Europe had an FCR, calculated using weight gain, of about 1 as piglets and ending about 3 at time of slaughter. As of 2012 in Australia and using dressed weight for the output, a FCR calculated using weight of dressed meat of 4.5 was fair, 4.0 was considered "good", and 3.8, "very good". The FCR of pigs is greatest up to the period, when pigs weigh 220 pounds. During this period, their FCR

1378-442: The US, broiler chickens has an FCR of 1.6 based on body weight gain, and mature in 39 days. At around the same time the FCR based on weight gain for broilers in Brazil was 1.8. The global average in 2013 is around 2.0 for weight gain (live weight) and 2.8 for slaughtered meat (carcass weight). For hens used in egg production in the US, as of 2011 the FCR was about 2, with each hen laying about 330 eggs per year. When slaughtered,

1431-442: The US, the price of milk is based on the protein and fat content, so the FCR is often calculated to take that into account. Using an FCR calculated just on the weight of protein and fat, as of 2011 an FCR of 13 was poor, and an FCR of 8 was very good. Another method for dealing with pricing based on protein and fat, is using energy-corrected milk (ECM), which adds a factor to normalize assuming certain amounts of fat and protein in

1484-453: The activity of broilers reared outdoors is initially greater than broilers reared indoors, but from six weeks of age, decreases to comparable levels in all groups. The same study shows that in the outdoors group, surprisingly little use is made of the extra space and facilities such as perches – it was proposed that the main reason for this was leg weakness as 80 per cent of the birds had a detectable gait abnormality at seven weeks of age. There

1537-460: The amount of edible farmed fish, as a ratio. The fish used in fishmeal and fish oil production are not used for human consumption, but with their use as fishmeal and fish oil in aquafeed they contribute to global food production. Fishmeal and fish oil inclusion rates in aquafeeds have shown a continual decline over time as aquaculture grows and more feed is produced, but with a finite annual supply of fishmeal and fish oil. Calculations have shown that

1590-454: The back region located towards the tail and behind the wings is caressed. This is done gently but quickly. Within a short period of time, the male should get an erection of the phallus. Once this occurs, the cloaca is squeezed and semen is collected from the external papilla of the vas deferens. During artificial insemination, semen is most frequently deposited intra-vaginally by means of a plastic syringe. In order for semen to be deposited here,

1643-416: The chickens that are raised by the broiler industry, as the genetics that cause fast growth decreased reproductive abilities. In aquaculture , the fish feed for carnivorous fish commonly includes fish-derived products in the form of fishmeal and fish oil . There are therefore two ratios to be reported: FIFO is a way of expressing the contribution from harvested wild fish used in aquafeed compared with

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1696-477: The desired body weight. In the U.S., the average feed conversion ratio (FCR) of a broiler was 1.91 kilograms of feed per kilograms of liveweight in 2011, an improvement from 4.70 in 1925. Canada has a typical FCR of 1.72. New Zealand commercial broiler farms have recorded the world's best broiler chicken FCR at 1.38. The microbiome of the broiler also has a large effect in addition to the birds nutrition and genetics on overall FCR. Artificial selection has led to

1749-498: The diversity of feed material consumed by livestock. At global level, ruminants require 133 kg of dry matter per kg of protein while monogastrics require 30 kg. However, when considering human edible feed only, ruminants require 5.9 kg of feed to produce 1 kg of animal protein, while monogastrics require 15.8 kg. When looking at meat only, ruminants consume an average of 2.8 kg of human edible feed per kg of meat produced, while monogastrics need 3.2 kg. Finally, when accounting for

1802-567: The effect of supplementation is limited, it is much cheaper than interventions to improve cooling or simply stock fewer birds, and so remains popular. While the majority of literature on poultry heat stress and dietary supplementation focuses on chickens, similar findings were seen in Japanese quails , which eat less and gain less weight, suffer reduced fertility and hatch eggs of worse quality under heat stress, and also seem to benefit from mineral supplementation. Breed Another point of view

1855-429: The feed conversion ratios of edible insects , the house cricket ( Acheta domesticus ) has been shown to have a FCR of 0.9 - 1.1 depending on diet composition. A more recent work gives an FCR of 1.9–2.4. Reasons contributing to such a low FCR include the whole body being used for food, the lack of internal temperature control (insects are poikilothermic ), high fecundity and rate of maturation. If one treats tofu as

1908-456: The feed, and the conditions in which the animal is kept, and storage and use of the feed by the farmworkers. As a rule of thumb, the daily FCR is low for young animals (when relative growth is large) and increases for older animals (when relative growth tends to level out). However FCR is a poor basis to use for selecting animals to improve genetics, as that results in larger animals that cost more to feed; instead residual feed intake (RFI)

1961-453: The feeds involved are of similar quality and suitability. As of 2013 in the US, an FCR calculated on live weight gain of 4.5–7.5 was in the normal range with an FCR above 6 being typical. Divided by an average carcass yield of 62.2%, the typical carcass weight FCR is above 10. As of 2013 FCRs had not changed much compared to other fields in the prior 30 years, especially compared to poultry which had improved feed efficiency by about 250% over

2014-450: The flock. The breeding stock (broiler-breeders) do grow to maturity but also have their own welfare concerns related to the frustration of a high feeding motivation and beak trimming. Broilers are usually grown as mixed-sex flocks in large sheds under intensive conditions. Before the development of modern commercial meat breeds, broilers were mostly young male chickens culled from farm flocks. Pedigree breeding began around 1916. Magazines for

2067-412: The hen's reproductive tract may be limited because of this. Additionally, the males' overall sex drive may be significantly reduced due to growth selection. Artificial insemination has allowed many farmers to incorporate selected genes into their stock, increasing their genetic quality. Abdominal massage is the most common method used for semen collection. During this process, the rooster is restrained and

2120-413: The larger roasters. Due to extensive breeding selection for rapid early growth and the husbandry used to sustain this, broilers are susceptible to several welfare concerns, particularly skeletal malformation and dysfunction, skin and eye lesions and congestive heart conditions. Management of ventilation, housing, stocking density and in-house procedures must be evaluated regularly to support good welfare of

2173-580: The last 50 years. The dairy industry traditionally didn't use FCR but in response to increasing concentration in the dairy industry and other livestock operations, the EPA updated its regulations in 2003 controlling manure and other waste releases produced by livestock operators. In response the USDA began issuing guidance to dairy farmers about how to control inputs to better minimize manure output and to minimize harmful contents, as well as optimizing milk output. In

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2226-455: The other hand to insert the instrument and semen into the vagina. Modern commercial broilers, for example, Cornish crosses and Cornish-Rocks, are artificially selected and bred for large-scale, efficient meat production. They are noted for having very fast growth rates, a high feed conversion ratio , and low levels of activity. Modern commercial broilers are bred to reach a slaughter-weight of about 2 kg (4.4 lb) in only 5 to 7 weeks. As

2279-497: The output is the flesh , that is, the body mass gained by the animal, represented either in the final mass of the animal or the mass of the dressed output. FCR is the mass of the input divided by the output (thus mass of feed per mass of milk or meat). In some sectors, feed efficiency , which is the output divided by the input (i.e. the inverse of FCR), is used. These concepts are also closely related to efficiency of conversion of ingested foods (ECI). Feed conversion ratio (FCR)

2332-503: The overall fed aquaculture FIFO declined from 0.63 in 2000 to 0.33 in 2010, and 0.22 in 2015. In 2015, therefore, approximately 4.55 kg of farmed fish was produced for every 1 kg of wild fish harvested and used in feed. (For Salmon & Trout, the FIFO ratios for 2000, 2010, and 2015 are: 2.57, 1.38, 0.82.) As of 2015 farm-raised Atlantic salmon had a commodified feed supply with four main suppliers, and an FCR of around 1. Tilapia

2385-480: The poultry industry existed at this time. A crossbred variety of chicken was produced from a male of a naturally double-breasted Cornish strain, and a female of a tall, large-boned strain of white Plymouth Rocks . This first attempt at a meat crossbreed was introduced in the 1930s and became dominant in the 1960s. The original crossbreed was plagued by problems of low fertility, slow growth and disease susceptibility. Modern broilers have become very different from

2438-498: The processes of catching, packing and transport. The commercial production of broiler chickens for meat consumption is a highly industrialized process. There are two major sectors: (1) rearing birds intended for consumption and (2) rearing parent stock for breeding the meat birds. A report in 2005 stated that around 5.9 billion broiler chickens for eating were produced yearly in the European Union. Mass production of chicken meat

2491-471: The protein content of the feed, ruminant need an average of 0.6 kg of edible plant protein to produce 1 kg of animal protein while monogastric need 2 kg. This means that ruminants make a positive net contribution to the supply of edible protein for humans at global level. Many alternatives to conventional animal meat sources have been proposed for higher efficiency, including insects, meat analogues , and cultured meats . Although there are few studies of

2544-453: The same time, the breed would avoid animals carrying characteristics undesirable or not typical for the breed, including faults or genetic defects. The population within the same breed should consist of a sufficient number of animals to maintain the breed within the specified parameters without the necessity of forced inbreeding . Domestic animal breeds commonly differ from country to country, and from nation to nation. Breeds originating in

2597-406: The vaginal orifice is everted through the cloaca. This is simply done by applying pressure to the abdomen of the hen. The semen-containing instrument is placed 2–4 cm into the vaginal orifice. As the semen is deposited, the pressure applied to the hen's abdomen is released simultaneously. The person performing this procedure typically uses one hand to move and direct the tail feathers, while using

2650-436: The world average layer flock as of 2013 yields a carcass FCR of 4.2, still much better than the average backyard chicken flock (FCR 9.2 for eggs, 14.6 for carcass). From the early 1960s to 2011 in the US broiler growth rates doubled and their FCRs halved, mostly due to improvements in genetics and rapid dissemination of the improved chickens. The improvement in genetics for growing meat created challenges for farmers who breed

2703-443: The worldwide estimation of broiler chick population was approximately 23 billion. It is believed that the thermal comfort zone for poultry is in the 18–25 °C (64–77 °F) range. Some papers describe 26–35 °C (79–95 °F) as the "critical zone" for heat stress , but others report that due to acclimatization , birds in the tropical countries do not begin to experience heat stress until 32 °C (90 °F). There

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2756-435: Was achieved. Artificial insemination is a mechanism in which spermatozoa are deposited into the reproductive tract of a female. Artificial insemination provides a number of benefits relating to reproduction in the poultry industry. Broiler breeds have been selected specifically for growth, causing them to develop large pectoral muscles, which interfere with and reduce natural mating. The amount of sperm produced and deposited in

2809-584: Was commenced in 1958, with commercial shipments in Canada and the US in 1959 and in Europe in 1963. As a second example, color sexing broilers was proposed by Shaver in 1973. The genetics were based on the company's breeding plan for egg layers, which had been developed in the mid-1960s. A difficulty facing the breeders of the color-sexed broiler is that the chicken must be white-feathered by slaughter age. After 12 years, accurate color sexing without compromising economic traits

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