86-671: Bradbury Landing is the August 6, 2012, landing site within Gale crater on planet Mars of the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) Curiosity rover . On August 22, 2012, on what would have been his 92nd birthday, NASA named the site for author Ray Bradbury , who had died on June 5, 2012. The coordinates of the landing site on Mars are: 4°35′22″S 137°26′30″E / 4.5895°S 137.4417°E / -4.5895; 137.4417 . The rover drove away from this specific landing location in
172-620: A colony in New Mexico. However, the heartland of the Spanish colonies remained New Spain (including Mexico and most of Central America) and Peru (including most of South America). In the 17th century, French, English and Dutch trading posts multiplied in northern America to exploit whaling, fishing and fur trading. French settlements progressed up the St Lawrence river to the Great Lakes and down
258-517: A definition of Indigenous peoples stating that, "such a definition is not necessary for purposes of protecting their human rights." In determining coverage of Indigenous peoples, the commission uses the criteria developed in documents such as ILO Convention No. 169 and the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. The commission states that self-identification as indigenous
344-483: A deliberate strategy in defending their claims against European rivals. Although the establishment of colonies throughout the world by various European powers aimed to expand those powers' wealth and influence, settler populations in some localities became anxious to assert their own autonomy. For example, settler independence movements in thirteen of the British American colonies were successful by 1783, following
430-520: A habitat for microbes. Gale contains a number of fans and deltas that provide information about lake levels in the past, including: Pancake Delta, Western Delta, Farah Vallis delta and the Peace Vallis Fan. Orbital THEMIS and topography data, plus visible and near-infrared images, were used to make a geologic map of the crater. CRISM data indicated the lower bench unit was composed of interstratified clay and sulfates . Curiosity explored
516-464: A message on Twitter "In tribute, I dedicate my landing spot on Mars to you, Ray Bradbury. Greetings from Bradbury Landing!" As part of the naming, NASA released a video of Bradbury from 1971 reading his poem "If Only We Had Taller Been" which is about the human quest to explore space. Gale (crater) Gale is a crater , and probable dry lake , at 5°24′S 137°48′E / 5.4°S 137.8°E / -5.4; 137.8 in
602-695: A minority in the state or traditional territory they inhabit and have experienced domination by other groups, especially non-Indigenous peoples. Although many Indigenous peoples have experienced colonization by settlers from European nations, Indigenous identity is not determined by Western colonization. The rights of Indigenous peoples are outlined in national legislation, treaties and international law. The 1989 International Labour Organization (ILO) Convention on Indigenous and Tribal Peoples protects Indigenous peoples from discrimination and specifies their rights to development, customary laws, lands, territories and resources, employment, education and health. In 2007,
688-621: A particular place – indeed how we/they came to be a place. Our/their relationships to land comprise our/their epistemologies, ontologies, and cosmologies". Indigenous peoples such as the Maasai and the Māori have oral traditional histories involving migration to their current location from somewhere else. Anthropologist Manvir Singh states that the term may lack coherence, pointing to inconsistencies in which ethnic groups are called Indigenous or not, and notes several scholars who suggest that it instead acts as
774-536: A relabeling of discredited and colonial ideas about "primitive" people. Singh states that some Indigenous people argue that the term and identity has resulted in pressure to appear "primordial" and "unchanging", and erases complex and modern identities. Other views It is sometimes argued that all Africans are Indigenous to Africa, all Asians are Indigenous to parts of Asia, or that there can be no Indigenous peoples in countries which did not experience large-scale Western settler colonialism. Many countries have avoided
860-406: A state, a special relationship with their traditional territory, and an experience of subjugation and discrimination under a dominant cultural model. Estimates of the population of Indigenous peoples range from 250 million to 600 million. There are some 5,000 distinct Indigenous peoples spread across every inhabited climate zone and inhabited continent of the world. Most Indigenous peoples are in
946-481: A state, a special relationship with their traditional territory, and an experience of subjugation and discrimination under a dominant cultural model. No definition of Indigenous peoples has been adopted by a United Nations agency. The Secretariat of the Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues states, "in the case of the concept of 'indigenous peoples', the prevailing view today is that no formal universal definition of
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#17328444897421032-539: Is a fundamental criterion. The World Bank states, "Indigenous Peoples are distinct social and cultural groups that share collective ancestral ties to the lands and natural resources where they live, occupy or from which they have been displaced." Amnesty International does not provide a definition of Indigenous peoples but states that they can be identified according to certain characteristics: Academics and other scholars have developed various definitions of Indigenous peoples. In 1986–87, José Martínez Cobo, developed
1118-526: Is a laminated mudstone overlain by a cross-bedded or clinoform sandstone, though in places the base is a conglomerate. Thus, the formation is interpreted to have been deposited in a lacustrine environment adjacent to a fluvial-deltaic one. The Murray Formation is overlain by clay and sulfate-bearing strata. An unusual feature of Gale is an enormous mound of "sedimentary debris" around its central peak, officially named Aeolis Mons (popularly known as "Mount Sharp" ) rising 5.5 km (18,000 ft) above
1204-496: Is a smooth region in "Yellowknife" Quad 51 of Aeolis Palus inside the crater in front of the mountain. The target landing site location was an elliptical area 20 by 7 km (12.4 by 4.3 mi). Gale Crater's diameter is 154 km (96 mi). The final landing location for the rover was less than 2.4 km (1.5 mi) from the center of the planned landing ellipse, after a 563,000,000 km (350,000,000 mi) journey. The landing site contains material washed down from
1290-459: Is no generally accepted definition of Indigenous peoples in the United Nations or international law. Various national and international organizations, non-government organizations, governments, Indigenous groups and scholars have developed definitions or have declined to provide a definition. As a reference to a group of people, the term "indigenous" was first used by Europeans to differentiate
1376-617: Is not the case–water stayed for some time. Also, with water coming and going on a regular pace, there is a better chance of more complex organic compounds being produced. As water evaporates chemicals are concentrated and have a better chance of combining. For example when amino acids are concentrated they are more likely to link up to form proteins. Curiosity found features that computer simulations show could be caused by past streams. They have been called benches and noses. The "noses" stick out like noses. Computer simulations show that these shapes can be produced by rivers. In July 2024
1462-647: Is the plain between the northern wall of Gale and the northern foothills of Aeolis Mons. Peace Vallis , a nearby outflow channel , 'flows' down from the hills to the Aeolis Palus below and seems to have been carved by flowing water . Several lines of evidence suggest that a lake existed inside Gale shortly after the formation of the crater. The NASA Mars rover Curiosity , of the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) mission, landed in "Yellowknife" Quad 51 of Aeolis Palus in Gale at 05:32 UTC August 6, 2012. NASA named
1548-676: Is the surviving remnant of an extensive sequence of deposits. Some scientists believe the crater filled in with sediments and, over time, the relentless Martian winds carved Aeolis Mons, which today rises about 5.5 km (3.4 mi) above the floor of Gale—three times higher than the Grand Canyon is deep. At 10:32 p.m. PDT on August 5, 2012 (1:32 a.m. EDT on August 6, 2012), the Mars Science Laboratory rover Curiosity landed on Mars at 4°30′S 137°24′E / 4.5°S 137.4°E / -4.5; 137.4 , at
1634-769: The American Revolutionary War . This resulted in the establishment of the United States of America as an entity separate from the British Empire . The United States continued and expanded European colonial doctrine through adopting a version of the discovery doctrine as law in 1823 with the US Supreme Court case Johnson v. McIntosh . Statements at the Johnson court case illuminated the United States' support for
1720-776: The Curiosity rover will continue to explore higher and younger layers of Mount Sharp in order to determine how the lake environment in ancient times on Mars became the drier environment in more modern times. On August 5, 2017, NASA celebrated the fifth anniversary of the Curiosity rover mission landing, and related exploratory accomplishments, on the planet Mars . (Videos: Curiosity 's First Five Years (02:07) ; Curiosity 's POV: Five Years Driving (05:49) ; Curiosity 's Discoveries About Gale Crater (02:54) ) On June 7, 2018, NASA 's Curiosity made two significant discoveries in Gale. Organic molecules preserved in 3.5 billion-year-old bedrock and seasonal variations in
1806-550: The Curiosity rover, that there was plenty of water on early Mars . In January 2020, researchers have found certain minerals, made of carbon and oxygen, in rocks at Gale, which may have formed in an ice-covered lake during a cold stage between warmer periods, or after Mars lost most of its atmosphere and became permanently cold. On November 5, 2020, researchers concluded based on data observed by Curiosity rover that Gale experienced megafloods which occurred around 4 billion years ago, taking into consideration antidunes reaching
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#17328444897421892-660: The Mars Science Laboratory spacecraft, which was launched November 26, 2011 and landed on Mars inside the crater Gale on the plains of Aeolis Palus on August 6, 2012. Gale was previously a candidate landing site for the 2003 Mars Exploration Rover mission, and has been one of four prospective sites for ESA 's ExoMars . In December 2012, scientists working on the Mars Science Laboratory mission announced that an extensive soil analysis of Martian soil performed by Curiosity showed evidence of water molecules , sulphur and chlorine , as well as hints of organic compounds . However, terrestrial contamination, as
1978-593: The United Nations Working Group on Indigenous Populations (WGIP) was on 9 August 1982 and this date is now celebrated as the International Day of the World's Indigenous Peoples . In the 21st century, the concept of Indigenous peoples is understood in a wider context than only the colonial experience. The focus has been on self-identification as indigenous peoples, cultural difference from other groups in
2064-480: The density of Mount Sharp in Gale, thereby establishing a clearer understanding of how the mountain was formed. Gale is located at about 5°24′S 137°48′E / 5.4°S 137.8°E / -5.4; 137.8 on Mars. Numerous channels eroded into the flanks of the crater's central mound could give access to the layers for study. Gale is the landing site of the Curiosity rover, delivered by
2150-507: The 10th century, however, the majority of the population of north Africa spoke Arabic and practiced Islam. From 1402, the Guanche of the Canary Islands resisted Spanish attempts at colonization. The islands finally came under Spanish control in 1496. Mohamed Adhikari has called the conquest of the islands a genocide . Early 15th-century Portuguese exploration of the west coast of Africa
2236-556: The 17th and 18th centuries, had extensive contact with Europeans when the continent was progressively colonized by the British from 1788. During colonization, the Aboriginal people experienced depopulation from disease and settler violence, dispossession of their land, and severe disruption of their traditional cultures. By 1850, indigenous peoples were a minority in Australia. From the 15th to
2322-632: The 19th centuries, European powers used a number of rationales for the colonization of newly encountered lands populated by indigenous peoples. These included a duty to spread the Gospel to non-Christians, to bring civilization to barbarian peoples, a natural law right to explore and trade freely with other peoples, and a right to settle and cultivate uninhabited or uncultivated land which they considered terra nullius ("no one's land"). Robert J. Miller, Jacinta Ruru, Larissa Behrendt and Tracey Lindberg argue that European powers rationalized their colonization of
2408-607: The 21st century, Indigenous groups and advocates for Indigenous peoples have highlighted numerous apparent violations of the rights of Indigenous peoples. Indigenous is derived from the Latin word indigena , meaning "sprung from the land, native". The Latin indigena is based on the Old Latin indu "in, within" + gignere "to beget, produce". Indu is an extended form of the Proto-Indo-European en or "in". There
2494-539: The Aztec Empire and its fall. The Cempoalans, Tlaxcalans and other allies of the Spanish were given some autonomy, but the Spanish were de facto rulers of Mexico. Smallpox devastated the indigenous population and aided the Spanish conquest. In 1530, the Spanish sailed south from Panama to the lands of the Inca Empire in the west of South America. The Inca, weakened by a smallpox epidemic and civil war, were defeated by
2580-509: The Bahamas and Cuba, leading to a severe decline in the Indigenous populations from disease, malnutrition, settler violence and cultural disruption. In the 1520s, the peoples of Mesoamerica encountered the Spanish who entered their lands in search of gold and other resources. Some indigenous peoples chose to ally with the Spanish to end Aztec rule. The Spanish incursions led to the conquest of
2666-609: The French. The indigenous inhabitants of the Hawaiian Islands first encountered Europeans in 1778 when Cook explored the region. Following increasing contact with European missionaries, traders and scientific expeditions, the indigenous population fell before their lands were annexed by the United States in 1893. The Māori of New Zealand also had sporadic encounters with Europeans in the 17th and 18th centuries. Following encounters with Cook's exploration parties in 1769–70, New Zealand
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2752-500: The Indigenous peoples of the Americas from enslaved Africans. The first known use was by Sir Thomas Browne in 1646, who wrote "and although in many parts thereof there be at present swarms of Negroes serving under the Spaniard , yet were they all transported from Africa , since the discovery of Columbus ; and are not indigenous or proper natives of America ." In the 1970s, the term
2838-461: The Martian environment, particularly changes in the amount of water on the surface of Mars. The rover will use its full instrument suite to study these minerals and how they formed. Certain minerals, including the clay and sulfate-rich layers near the bottom of Gale's mountain, are good at latching onto organic compounds—potential biosignatures —and protecting them from oxidation. Two canyons were cut in
2924-655: The Mississippi to Louisiana. English and Dutch settlements multiplied down the Atlantic coast from modern Massachusetts to Georgia. Native peoples formed alliances with the Europeans in order to promote trade, preserve their autonomy, and gain allies in conflicts with other native peoples. However, horses and new weapons made inter-tribal conflicts more deadly and the native population was devastated by introduced diseases. Native peoples also experienced losses from violent conflict with
3010-643: The New World by the discovery doctrine , which they trace back to papal decrees authorizing Spain and Portugal to conquer newly discovered non-Christian lands and convert their populations to Christianity. Kent McNeil, however, states, "While Spain and Portugal favoured discovery and papal grants because it was generally in their interests to do so, France and Britain relied more on symbolic acts, colonial charters, and occupation." Benton and Strauman argue that European powers often adopted multiple, sometimes contradictory, legal rationales for their acquisition of territory as
3096-498: The New World. In 1488, Portuguese ships rounded the Cape of Good Hope and by the 17th century, Portugal had established seaborn trading routes and fortified coastal trading posts from West Africa to India and Southern China, and a settler colony in Brazil. In 1532, the first African slaves were transported directly to the Americas. The trade in slaves expanded sharply in the 17th century, with
3182-503: The Rover cracked open a rock with its wheel and found crystals of sulfur . Minerals containing sulfur were discovered, but never the pure element. It was found in Gediz Vallis. Indigenous peoples There is no generally accepted definition of Indigenous peoples , although in the 21st century the focus has been on self-identification, cultural difference from other groups in
3268-517: The Spanish at Cajamarca in 1532, and the emperor Atahualpa was captured and executed. The Spanish appointed a puppet emperor and captured the Inca capital of Cuzco with the support of a number of native peoples. The Spanish established a new capital in 1535 and defeated an Inca rebellion in 1537, thus consolidating the conquest of Peru. In the 1560s, the Spanish established colonies in Florida and in 1598 founded
3354-691: The Stimson formation is the only stratigraphic unit within the Siccar Point group which has been investigated in-detail by Curiosity . The Stimson formation represents the preserved expression of a dry aeolian dune field , where sediment was transported towards the north, or northeast by palaeowinds within the crater. In the Emerson plateau area (from Marias Pass, to East Glacier), the outcrops are characterised predominantly by simple cross-sets, deposited by simple sinuous-crested dunes, with heights up to ~10 m. To
3440-447: The United Nations (UN) adopted a Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples including their rights to self-determination and to protect their cultures, identities, languages, ceremonies, and access to employment, health, education and natural resources. Indigenous peoples continue to face threats to their sovereignty, economic well-being, languages, cultural heritage, and access to the resources on which their cultures depend. In
3526-531: The amounts of methane in the atmosphere of the planet Mars ; in addition, organic chemicals were detected in powder drilled from a rock . Also, based on deuterium to hydrogen ratio studies, much of the water at Gale on Mars was found to have been lost during ancient times, before the lakebed in the crater was formed; afterwards, large amounts of water continued to be lost. On October 8, 2015, NASA confirmed that lakes and streams existed in Gale 3.3 to 3.8 billion years ago delivering sediments to build up
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3612-550: The ancestors of the Greeks , or as an earlier group of people who inhabited Greece before the Greeks. The disposition and precise identity of this former group is elusive, and sources such as Homer , Hesiod and Herodotus give varying, partially mythological accounts. Dionysius of Halicarnassus in his book, Roman Antiquities , gives a synoptic interpretation of the Pelasgians based on
3698-445: The basis of their continued existence as peoples, in accordance with their own cultural patterns, social institutions and legal systems. Martínez Cobo states that the following factors are relevant to historical continuity: occupation of ancestral lands, or at least of part of them; common ancestry with the original occupants of these lands; cultural factors such as religion, tribalism, dress, etc.; language; residence in certain parts of
3784-681: The circumstances of the people would allow them to exercise. ... [This loss of native property and sovereignty rights was justified, the Court said, by] the character and religion of its inhabitants ... the superior genius of Europe ... [and] ample compensation to the [Indians] by bestowing on them civilization and Christianity, in exchange for unlimited independence. Estimates of the population of Indigenous peoples range from 250 million to 600 million. The United Nations estimates that there are over 370 million Indigenous people living in over 90 countries worldwide. This would equate to just fewer than 6% of
3870-737: The colonists and the progressive dispossession of their traditional lands. In 1492, the population of the Americas as a whole was about 50 to 100 million. By 1700, introduced diseases had reduced the native population by 90%. European migration and transfer of slaves from Africa reduced the native population to a minority. By 1800 the population of North America comprised about 5 million Europeans and their descendants, one million Africans and 600,000 indigenous Americans. Native populations also encountered new animals and plants introduced by Europeans. These included pigs, horses, mules, sheep and cattle; wheat, barley, rye, oats, grasses and grapevines. These exotic animals and plants radically transformed
3956-678: The convention covers: peoples in independent countries who are regarded as indigenous on account of their descent from the populations which inhabited the country, or a geographical region to which the country belongs, at the time of conquest or colonisation or the establishment of present state boundaries and who, irrespective of their legal status, retain some or all of their own social, economic, cultural and political institutions. The convention also covers "tribal peoples" who are distinguished from Indigenous peoples and described as "tribal peoples in independent countries whose social, cultural and economic conditions distinguish them from other sections of
4042-541: The country, or in certain regions of the world; and other relevant factors. In 2004, James Anaya , defined Indigenous peoples as "living descendants of pre-invasion inhabitants of lands now dominated by others. They are culturally distinct groups that find themselves engulfed by other settler societies born of forces of empire and conquest". In 2012, Tuck and Yang propose a criterion based on accounts of origin: "Indigenous peoples are those who have creation stories, not colonization stories, about how we/they came to be in
4128-619: The crater completely, possibly originally deposited on a lakebed. Evidence of fluvial activity was observed early on in the mission at the Shaler outcrop (first observed on Sol 120, investigated extensively between Sols 309-324). Observations made by the rover Curiosity at the Pahrump Hills strongly support the lake hypothesis: sedimentary facies including sub mm-scale horizontally-laminated mudstones, with interbedded fluvial crossbeds are representative of sediments which accumulate in lakes, or on
4214-426: The crater floor, higher than Mount Rainier rises above Seattle. Gale is roughly the size of Connecticut and Rhode Island. The crater formed when an asteroid or comet hit Mars in its early history, about 3.5 to 3.8 billion years ago. The impactor punched a hole in the terrain, and the subsequent explosion ejected rocks and soil that landed around the crater. Layering in the central mound (Aeolis Mons) suggests it
4300-570: The exploitation of natural resources, spreading Christianity, and establishing strategic military bases, colonies and settlements. From 1492, the Arawak peoples of the Caribbean islands encountered Spanish colonizers initially led by Christopher Columbus . The Spanish enslaved some of the native population and forced others to work on farms and gold mines in a system of labor called encomienda . Spanish settlements spread from Hispaniola to Puerto Rico,
4386-524: The following "working definition" : Indigenous communities, peoples, and nations are those that, having a historical continuity with pre-invasion and pre-colonial societies that developed on their territories, consider themselves distinct from other sectors of the societies now prevailing in those territories, or parts of them. They form at present non-dominant sectors of society and are determined to preserve, develop, and transmit to future generations their ancestral territories, and their ethnic identity, as
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#17328444897424472-519: The foot of the layered mountain inside Gale. Curiosity landed within a landing ellipse approximately 7 km (4.3 mi) by 20 km (12 mi). The landing ellipse is about 4,400 m (14,400 ft) below Martian "sea level" (defined as the average elevation around the equator). The expected near-surface atmospheric temperatures at the landing site during Curiosity ' s primary mission (1 Martian year or 687 Earth days) are from −90 to 0 °C (−130 to 32 °F). Scientists chose Gale as
4558-562: The height of 10 meters (33 ft), which were formed by flood waters at least 24 meters (79 ft) deep with a velocity of 10 meters per second (22 mph). Research published in August, 2023 found evidence that liquid water may have existed for a long time and not just when an impact or volcano erupted. Shapes in a field of hexagonal ridges revealed that water appeared and then went away many times. The water did not just result from ground ice melting from something like an asteroid impact. To make these ridges many cycles of water saturating
4644-432: The involvement of the French, Dutch and English, before declining in the 19th century. At least 12 million slaves were transported from Africa. The slave trade increased inter-tribal warfare and stunted population growth and economic development in the west African interior. Indigenous encounters with Europeans increased during the age of discovery . The Europeans were motivated by a range of factors including trade,
4730-405: The landing location Bradbury Landing on August 22, 2012. Curiosity is exploring Aeolis Mons and surrounding areas. Gale, named for Walter F. Gale (1865–1945), an amateur astronomer from Australia, spans 154 km (96 mi) in diameter and holds a mountain, Aeolis Mons (informally named "Mount Sharp" to pay tribute to geologist Robert P. Sharp ) rising 18,000 ft (5,500 m) from
4816-422: The landing site for Curiosity because it has many signs that water was present over its history. The crater's geology is notable for containing both clays and sulfate minerals, which form in water under different conditions and may also preserve signs of past life. The history of water at Gale, as recorded in its rocks, is giving Curiosity many clues to study as it pieces together whether Mars ever could have been
4902-524: The landing site has been named " Goulburn " . This rock outcrop, along with several others further eastward, including " Link " and " Hottah " , suggest the "vigorous" flow of water in an ancient streambed. An area of top scientific interest for Curiosity lies at the edge of the landing ellipse and beyond a dark dune field. Here, orbiting instruments have detected signatures of both clay minerals and sulfate salts. Scientists studying Mars have several hypotheses about how these minerals reflect changes in
4988-532: The level of methane in the atmosphere further support the theory that past conditions may have been conducive to life. It is possible that a form of water-rock chemistry might have generated the methane, but scientists cannot rule out the possibility of biological origins. Methane previously had been detected in Mars' atmosphere in large, unpredictable plumes. This new result shows that low levels of methane within Gale repeatedly peak in warm, summer months and drop in
5074-456: The local environment and disrupted traditional agriculture and hunting practices. The indigenous populations of the Pacific had increasing contact with Europeans in the 18th century as British, French and Spanish expeditions explored the region. The natives of Tahiti had encounters with the expeditions of Wallis (1766), Bougainville (1768), Cook (1769) and many others before being colonized by
5160-488: The location, Michael Meyer, NASA program scientist for Curiosity , said "This was not a difficult choice for the science team. Many of us and millions of other readers were inspired in our lives by stories Ray Bradbury wrote to dream of the possibility of life on Mars." Bradbury wrote the 1950 novel The Martian Chronicles about indigenous Martians and the American exploration and settlement of Mars. The Curiosity team left
5246-431: The lower layers of Mount Sharp . On June 1, 2017, NASA reported that the Curiosity rover provided evidence of an ancient lake in Gale on Mars that could have been favorable for microbial life ; the ancient lake was stratified , with shallows rich in oxidants and depths poor in oxidants; and, the ancient lake provided many different types of microbe-friendly environments at the same time. NASA further reported that
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#17328444897425332-569: The margins of lakes which grow and contract in response to lake-level. These lake-bed mudstones are referred to as the Murray Formation , and form a significant amount of the Mount Sharp group. The Siccar Point group (named after the famous unconformity at Siccar Point ) overlies the Mount Sharp group, and the two units are separated by a major unconformity which dips toward the North. At present,
5418-426: The mound through the layers containing clay minerals and sulfate salts after deposition of the layers. These canyons expose layers of rock representing tens or hundreds of millions of years of environmental change. Curiosity may be able to investigate these layers in the canyon closest to the landing ellipse, gaining access to a long history of environmental change on the planet. The canyons also contain sediment that
5504-551: The national community and whose status is regulated wholly or partially by their own customs or traditions or by special laws or regulations." The convention states that self-identification as indigenous or tribal is a fundamental criterion for determining the groups to which the convention applies. The UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples does not define Indigenous peoples but affirms their right to self-determination including determining their own identity. The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights does not provide
5590-402: The northern crater floor and 4.5 km (15,000 ft) above the southern crater floor—slightly taller than the southern rim of the crater itself. The mound is composed of layered material and may have been laid down over a period of around 2 billion years. The origin of this mound is not known with certainty, but research suggests it is the eroded remnant of sedimentary layers that once filled
5676-464: The northwestern part of the Aeolis quadrangle on Mars . It is 154 km (96 mi) in diameter and estimated to be about 3.5–3.8 billion years old. The crater was named after Walter Frederick Gale , an amateur astronomer from Sydney , Australia, who observed Mars in the late 19th century. Mount Sharp is a mountain in the center of Gale and rises 5.5 km (18,000 ft) high. Aeolis Palus
5762-597: The pediment capping unit. Observations made during the ascent of the Greenheugh pediment between Sols 2665-2734 demonstrated that the pediment capping unit has sedimentary textures, facies and architecture that are consistent with the rest of the Stimson formation. Furthermore, analysis of sedimentary facies and architecture provided evidence which indicates fluctuating wind directions, from a seasonal temporal scale - recorded by interstratified windripple and avalanche strata, through to millennial time scales recorded by reversal of
5848-465: The principles of the discovery doctrine: The United States ... [and] its civilized inhabitants now hold this country. They hold, and assert in themselves, the title by which it was acquired. They maintain, as all others have maintained, that discovery gave an exclusive right to extinguish the Indian title of occupancy, either by purchase or by conquest; and gave also a right to such a degree of sovereignty, as
5934-458: The sediment transport direction. These wind reversals suggest variable and changeable atmospheric circulation during this time. Observations of possible cross-bedded strata on the upper mound suggest aeolian processes , but the origin of the lower mound layers remains ambiguous. In February 2019, NASA scientists reported that the Mars Curiosity rover had determined, for the first time,
6020-534: The source of the organic compounds, could not be ruled out. On September 26, 2013, NASA scientists reported that Curiosity detected "abundant, easily accessible" water (1.5 to 3 weight percent) in soil samples at the Rocknest region of Aeolis Palus in Gale. In addition, the rover found two principal soil types: a fine-grained mafic type and a locally derived, coarse-grained felsic type . The mafic type, similar to other martian soils and martian dust ,
6106-691: The sources available to him then, concluding that Pelasgians were Greek. In European late antiquity, many Berbers , Copts and Nubians of north Africa converted to various forms of Christianity under Roman rule, although elements of traditional religious beliefs were retained. Following the Arab invasions of North Africa in the 7th century, many Berbers were enslaved or recruited into the army. The majority of Berbers, however, remained nomadic pastoralists who also engaged in trade as far as sub-Saharan Africa. Coptic Egyptians remained in possession of their lands and many preserved their language and Christian religion. By
6192-561: The south, at the Murray buttes, the outcrop are characterised by compound cross-sets, with a hierarchy of bounding surfaces migration of small dunes superimposed on the lee-slope of a large dune known as a " draa ". These draas have estimates heights of ~40 m, and migrated toward the north, while superimposed dunes migrated toward the east-northeast. Further to the south, at the Greenheugh pediment, compound and simple cross-sets consistent with aeolian depositional processes have been observed in
6278-751: The stratigraphy of the crater consisting of the Bradbury Group and the overlying Mount Sharp Group. Formations within the Bradbury Group include the Yellowknife and Kimberley, while the Murray Formation is at the base of the Mount Sharp Group. The Bradbury Group consists of fluvial conglomerates , cross-bedded sandstones , and mudstones reflecting a basaltic provenance . Sandstone clinoforms indicate deltaic deposits . The Murray Formation
6364-557: The summer of 2012, but because of the nature of landing there is no actual lander there. The track prints and blast marks are slowly blowing away in the Martian wind, as recorded by Mars orbiters. Gale Crater was the MSL landing site in 2012. Within Gale Crater is a mountain, named Aeolis Mons (" Mount Sharp "), of layered rocks, rising about 5.5 km (18,000 ft) above the crater floor, that Curiosity will investigate. The landing site
6450-473: The surface and then drying were required. Chemicals were deposited by mineral-rich fluids in cracks. The minerals hardened such that they were harder than the rock around them. Later, when erosion took place, ridges were exposed. This discovery is significant. Much evidence exists to show that impacts and volcanic activity could melt ground ice to make liquid water. However, that water may not last long enough for life to develop. This new finding shows here it
6536-832: The term Indigenous peoples or have denied that Indigenous peoples exist in their territory, and have classified minorities who identify as Indigenous in other ways, such as 'hill tribes' in Thailand, 'scheduled tribes' in India, 'national minorities' in China, 'cultural minorities' in the Philippines, 'isolated and alien peoples' in Indonesia, and various other terms. Greek sources of the Classical period acknowledge Indigenous people whom they referred to as " Pelasgians ". Ancient writers saw these people either as
6622-483: The term is necessary, given that a single definition will inevitably be either over- or under-inclusive, making sense in some societies but not in others." However, a number of UN agencies have provided statements of coverage for particular international agreements concerning Indigenous peoples or "working definitions" for particular reports. The International Labour Organization's (ILO) Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989 (ILO Convention No. 169), states that
6708-636: The total world population. This includes at least 5,000 distinct peoples. As there is no universally accepted definition of Indigenous Peoples, their classification as such varies between countries and organizations. In the Americas, Australia and New Zealand, Indigenous status is often applied unproblematically to groups descended from the peoples who lived there prior to European settlement. However, In Asia and Africa, Indigenous status has sometimes been rejected by certain peoples, denied by governments or applied to peoples who may not be considered "Indigenous" in other contexts. The concept of indigenous peoples
6794-449: The wall of the crater, which will provide scientists with the opportunity to investigate the rocks that form the bedrock in this area. The landing ellipse also contains a rock type that is very dense, very brightly colored, and unlike any rock type previously investigated on Mars. It may be an ancient playa lake deposit, and it will likely be the mission's first target in checking for the presence of organic molecules. A rock outcrop near
6880-427: The way to Glenelg , was a mugearite and very similar to terrestrial mugearite rocks. On December 9, 2013, NASA reported that, based on evidence from Curiosity studying Aeolis Palus, Gale contained an ancient freshwater lake which could have been a hospitable environment for microbial life . On December 16, 2014, NASA reported detecting, by the Curiosity rover at Gale, an unusual increase, then decrease, in
6966-463: The winter every year. Organic carbon concentrations were discovered on the order of 10 parts per million or more. This is close to the amount observed in Martian meteorites and about 100 times greater than prior analysis of organic carbon on Mars' surface. Some of the molecules identified include thiophenes, benzene, toluene, and small carbon chains, such as propane or butene. On November 4, 2018, geologists presented evidence, based on studies in Gale by
7052-458: Was associated with hydration of the amorphous phases of the soil. Also, perchlorates , the presence of which may make detection of life-related organic molecules difficult, were found at the Curiosity landing site (and earlier at the more polar site of the Phoenix lander ) suggesting a "global distribution of these salts". NASA also reported that Jake M rock , a rock encountered by Curiosity on
7138-575: Was motivated by a quest for gold and crusading against Islam. Portugal's first attempt at colonization in what is now Senegal ended in failure. In the 1470s, the Portuguese established a fortified trading post on the West coast of Africa, south of the Akan goldfields. The Portuguese engaged in extensive trade of goods for gold and, in later years, slaves for their sugar plantations in the islands off West Africa and in
7224-430: Was transported by the water that cut the canyons; this sediment interacted with the water, and the environment at that time may have been habitable. Thus, the rocks deposited at the mouth of the canyon closest to the landing ellipse form the third target in the search for organic molecules. On March 27, 2015, NASA reported the landing site was fading from view in the two-and-a-half years since landing in 2012. On naming
7310-412: Was used as a way of linking the experiences, issues, and struggles of groups of colonized people across international borders. At this time 'indigenous people(s)' also began to be used to describe a legal category in Indigenous law created in international and national legislation. The use of the plural 'peoples' recognizes the cultural differences between various Indigenous peoples. The first meeting of
7396-509: Was visited by numerous European and North American whaling, sealing, and trading ships. From the early 19th century, Christian missionaries began to settle New Zealand, eventually converting most of the Māori population. The Māori population declined to around 40% of its pre-contact level during the 19th century; introduced diseases were the major factor. New Zealand became a British Crown colony in 1841. The Aboriginal inhabitants of Australia, after brief encounters with European explorers in
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