The Botafumeiro is a famous thurible used at the Santiago de Compostela Cathedral , in Spain . Its name comes from the Galician language , where botar means "to eject, to throw away, to expel", and the Latin fume , meaning "smoke".
134-502: It is considered a symbol of both the cathedral and the city . The Botafumeiro is especially celebrated for its swinging motion during the Pilgrim's Mass and other solemn dates, where it can reach speeds of about 60 km/h. This ritual has been taking place since at least the 12th century. The current Botafumeiro is made of an alloy of brass and bronze and is plated by a very thin 20-micrometre layer of silver . The current Botafumeiro
268-525: A Renfe rail service. Santiago de Compostela Airport is the 2nd busiest airport in northern Spain after Bilbao Airport . The airport is located in the parish of Lavacolla, 12 km from the city center and handled 2,903,427 passengers in 2019. Santiago de Compostela railway station is linked to the Spanish High Speed Railway Network . Madrid is reached in 3 hours. Porto can also be reached in less than 5 hours changing to
402-574: A cist in the crypts of the cathedral of the city. The excavations conducted in the cathedral during the 19th and 20th centuries uncovered a Roman cella memoriae or martyrium , around which grew a small cemetery in Roman and Suevi times which was later abandoned. This martyrium , which proves the existence of an old Christian holy place , has been sometimes attributed to Priscillian , although without further proof. Santiago's economy, although still heavily dependent on public administration (i.e. being
536-512: A European battlefield. Besieged by 70,000 French troops, a reconstituted national government, the Cortes —in effect a government-in-exile —fortified itself in the secure port of Cádiz in 1810. The British army, under Arthur Wellesley , the future Duke of Wellington, guarded Portugal and campaigned against the French alongside the reformed Portuguese Army and provided whatever supplies they could get to
670-673: A French army corps at Bailén and the loss of Portugal, Napoleon was convinced of the peril he faced in Spain. With his Armée d'Espagne of 278,670 men drawn up on the Ebro, facing 80,000 raw, disorganized Spanish troops, Napoleon and his marshals carried out a massive double envelopment of the Spanish lines in November 1808. Napoleon struck with overwhelming strength and the Spanish defense evaporated at Burgos , Tudela , Espinosa and Somosierra . The Junta
804-621: A bloody war to oust them. The war on the peninsula lasted until the Sixth Coalition defeated Napoleon in 1814, and is regarded as one of the first wars of national liberation . It is also significant for the emergence of large-scale guerrilla warfare . In 1808, the Spanish army in Andalusia defeated the French at the Battle of Bailén , considered the first open-field defeat of the Napoleonic army on
938-625: A journey to marry the heir to the English throne in 1499 and stopped by the cathedral in Santiago de Compostela . While it was being swung, the Botafumeiro flew out of the cathedral through the Platerias high window. No one was reported to have been injured on this occasion. The ropes and other devices securing the Botafumeiro have also failed; on May 23, 1622, and more recently in 1925 and July 1937. In 1622,
1072-435: A large and multinational population. Under the rule of this prelate , the townspeople rebelled, headed by the local council, beginning a secular tradition of confrontation by the people of the city—who fought for self-government—against the local bishop, the secular and jurisdictional lord of the city and of its fief, the semi-independent Terra de Santiago ("land of Saint James"). The culminating moment in this confrontation
1206-545: A local TV, and a radio station. Galician-language online news portal Galicia Hoxe is also based in the city. Televisión de Galicia , the public broadcaster corporation of Galicia, has its headquarters in Santiago. During medieval times, the Santiago de Compostela pilgrimage emerged as one of the most significant Christian journeys in Europe, attracting thousands of pilgrims seeking spiritual redemption and fulfillment. Believed to be
1340-474: A measure of acquiescence among the propertied classes. Francisco de Goya , who remained in Madrid throughout the French occupation, painted Joseph's picture and documented the war in a series of 82 prints called Los Desastres de la Guerra ( The Disasters of War ). For many imperial officers, life could be comfortable. Among the liberal, republican and radical segments of the Spanish and Portuguese populations there
1474-477: A new French assault on Portugal was imminent, Wellington created a powerful defensive position near Lisbon, to which he could fall back if necessary. To protect the city, he ordered the construction of the Lines of Torres Vedras —three strong lines of mutually supporting forts, blockhouses , redoubts , and ravelins with fortified artillery positions—under the supervision of Sir Richard Fletcher . The various parts of
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#17328585978571608-578: A pair of oxen she allegedly had by the Pico Sacro , a local sacred mountain where a dragon dwelt, hoping that the dragon would kill the Christians, but as soon as the beast attacked the disciples, at the sight of the cross, the dragon exploded. Then the disciples marched to collect the oxen, which were actually wild bulls which the queen used to punish her enemies; but again, at the sight of the Christian's cross,
1742-616: A provisional basis and sequester their goods. After a few days, a large force started concentrating at Bayonne . Meanwhile, the Portuguese government's resolve was stiffening, and shortly afterward Napoleon was once again told that Portugal would not go beyond its original agreements. Napoleon now had all the pretext that he needed, while his force, the First Corps of Observation of the Gironde with divisional general Jean-Andoche Junot in command,
1876-401: A pulley mechanism under the dome on the roof of the church. The current pulley mechanism was installed in 1604. The ropes typically last about 20 years before they have to be replaced. However, recently a thicker rope than usual was used, and the extra rubbing produced premature wear of the rope. Therefore, this thicker rope had to be replaced sooner than had been expected, in 2004. Before 2004,
2010-543: A regency and the Cortes of Cádiz , which established a permanent government under the Constitution of 1812 . Cádiz was heavily fortified, while the harbour was full of British and Spanish warships. Alburquerque's army and the Voluntarios Distinguidos had been reinforced by 3,000 soldiers who had fled Seville, and a strong Anglo-Portuguese brigade commanded by General William Stewart. Shaken by their experiences,
2144-520: A rope hung from the pulley mechanism. There is another large thurible used in the other masses carried out in the cathedral, called La Alcachofa (literally, 'the Artichoke') or La Repollo (literally, 'the Cabbage'). La Alcachofa is a silver-colored metal censer. It was created in 2013 by the sacred art artisans working under the craftsman Luis Molina Acedo. The Botafumeiro is suspended 20 m from
2278-444: A second siege that had commenced on 20 December. Lannes and Moncey committed two army corps of 45,000 men and considerable artillery firepower. Palafox's second defence brought the city enduring national and international fame. The Spaniards fought with determination, endured disease and starvation, entrenching themselves in convents and burning their own homes. The garrison of 44,000 was left with 8,000 survivors—1,500 of them ill— but
2412-470: A share of the booty. However, the Andalusian commander showed no interest in the alleged relics of St James. In response to these challenges bishop Cresconio , in the mid-11th century, fortified the entire town, building walls and defensive towers. According to some authors, by the middle years of the 11th century the site had already become a pan-European "place of peregrination", while others maintain that
2546-625: A staggering defeat, while the French lost only 1,000. On 27 March, Spanish forces defeated the French at Vigo , recaptured most of the cities in the province of Pontevedra and forced the French to retreat to Santiago de Compostela . On 7 June, the French army of Marshal Michel Ney was defeated at Puente Sanpayo in Pontevedra by Spanish forces under the command of Colonel Pablo Morillo , and Ney and his forces retreated to Lugo on 9 June while being harassed by Spanish guerrillas. Ney's troops joined up with those of Soult and these forces withdrew for
2680-455: A thurible "performance" at the cathedral. It is however very popular with pilgrims, tourists and visitors. The Botafumeiro officially operates during these solemn dates: The Botafumeiro is carried and swung by eight men in red robes, called tiraboleiros . The term tiraboleiro is a Galician derivation from the Latin word turifer , which means 'incense carrier', and from which is derived
2814-404: A wide area with a much lower expenditure of men, energy, and supplies and facilitated the conventional victories of Wellington and his Anglo-Portuguese army and the subsequent liberation of Portugal and Spain. Mass resistance by the people of Spain inspired the war efforts of Austria, Russia and Prussia against Napoleon. Hatred of the French and devotion to God, King and Fatherland were not
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#17328585978572948-475: A zona nova in Galician , la zona nueva in Spanish or ensanche ) and the old town ( Galician : a zona vella , Spanish : la zona vieja , trade-branded as zona monumental ), a mix of middle-aged residents and younger students maintain a lively presence until the early hours of the morning. Radiating from the centre of the city, the historic cathedral is surrounded by paved granite streets, tucked away in
3082-738: Is an accepted version of this page Coalition victory 1811: April 1813: Coalition 1813: The Peninsular War (1807–1814) was the military conflict fought in the Iberian Peninsula by Portugal , Spain and the United Kingdom against the invading and occupying forces of the First French Empire during the Napoleonic Wars . In Spain, it is considered to overlap with the Spanish War of Independence . The war started when
3216-564: Is from this conflict that the English language borrowed the word. The guerrillas troubled the French troops, but they also frightened their own countrymen with forced conscription and looting. Many of the partisans were either fleeing the law or trying to get rich. Later in the war the authorities tried to make the guerrillas reliable, and many of them formed regular army units such as Espoz y Mina 's "Cazadores de Navarra". The French believed that enlightened absolutism had made less progress in Spain and Portugal than elsewhere, and that resistance
3350-481: Is set in the historic part of Santiago de Compostela. A pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela provides the narrative framework of the Luis Buñuel film La Voie lactée (The Milky Way) . A mystic pilgrimage was portrayed in the autobiography and romance The Pilgrimage ("O Diário de um Mago") of Brazilian writer Paulo Coelho , published in 1987. Santiago de Compostela is served by Santiago de Compostela Airport and
3484-621: Is the Hostal dos Reis Católicos , founded in 1492 by the Catholic Monarchs , Isabella of Castille and Ferdinand II of Aragon , as a pilgrims' hospice (now a Parador ). The Obradoiro façade of the cathedral, the best known, is depicted on the Spanish euro coins of 1 cent, 2 cents, and 5 cents (€0.01, €0.02, and €0.05). Santiago is the site of the University of Santiago de Compostela , established in
3618-428: Is uncommon, with 2-3 snowy days per year. Temperatures above 35 °C (95 °F) are very exceptional. The city is governed by a mayor–council form of government . Following the 2023 Spanish local elections the mayor of Santiago is Goretti Sanmartín , of BNG . The population of the city in 2019 was 96,260 inhabitants, while the metropolitan area reaches 178,695. In 2010 there were 4,111 foreigners living in
3752-687: Is very important thanks to the Way of St. James , particularly in Holy Compostelan Years (when the Feast of Saint James falls on a Sunday). Following the Xunta's considerable investment and hugely successful advertising campaign for the Holy Year of 1993, the number of pilgrims completing the route has been steadily rising. More than 272,000 pilgrims made the trip during the course of the Holy Year of 2010. Following 2010,
3886-540: The Grande Armée did not advance beyond the Ebro . On 20 February 1809, the garrison capitulated, leaving behind burnt-out ruins filled with 64,000 corpses, of which 10,000 were French. The Junta took over direction of the Spanish war effort and established war taxes, organized an Army of La Mancha, signed a treaty of alliance with Britain on 14 January 1809 and issued a royal decree on 22 May to convene at Cortes. An attempt by
4020-597: The Bidasoa River into Spain at Irun . Junot was selected because he had served as ambassador to Portugal in 1805. He was known as a good fighter and an active officer, although he had never exercised independent command. By 1800, Spain was in a state of social unrest. Townsfolk and peasants all over the country, who had been forced to bury family members in new municipal cemeteries rather than churches or other consecrated ground, took back their bodies at night and tried to restore them to their old resting-places. In Madrid ,
4154-673: The Celta train in Vigo . On 24 July 2013 there was a serious rail accident near the city in which 79 people died and at least 130 were injured when a train derailed on a bend as it approached Compostela station. Santiago de Compostela is twinned with: [REDACTED] This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain : Chisholm, Hugh , ed. (1911). " Santiago de Compostela ". Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 24 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 191–192. Peninsular War This
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4288-493: The Cortes of Cádiz in the summer of 1809. The Junta came up with what it hoped would be a war-winning strategy, a two-pronged offensive to recapture Madrid, involving over 100,000 troops in three armies under the Duke del Parque , Juan Carlos de Aréizaga and the Duke of Alburquerque . Del Parque defeated Jean Gabriel Marchand 's VI Corps at the Battle of Tamames on 18 October 1809 and occupied Salamanca on 25 October. Marchand
4422-506: The Holy Land after preaching in Galicia. There he was beheaded, but his disciples got his body to Jaffa , where they found a marvelous stone ship which miraculously conducted them and the apostle's body to Iria Flavia , back in Galicia. There, the disciples asked the local pagan queen Loba ('She-wolf') for permission to bury the body; she, annoyed, decided to deceive them, sending them to pick
4556-516: The Iberian Peninsula and had preached there is one of a number of early traditions concerning the missionary activities and final resting places of the apostles of Jesus. Although the 1884 Bull of Pope Leo XIII Omnipotens Deus accepted the authenticity of the relics at Compostela, the Vatican remains uncommitted as to whether the relics are those of Saint James the Greater , while continuing to promote
4690-635: The Kingdom of Castile . During this same 10th century and in the first years of the 11th century Viking raiders tried to assault the town —Galicia is known in the Nordic sagas as Jackobsland or Gallizaland —and bishop Sisenand II, who was killed in battle against them in 968, ordered the construction of a walled fortress to protect the sacred place. In 997 Compostela was assaulted and partially destroyed by Ibn Abi Aamir (known as al-Mansur), Andalusian leader accompanied in his raid by Christian lords, who all received
4824-696: The Köppen climate classification , Santiago de Compostela has a temperate oceanic climate ( Cfb ) with mild to warm and somewhat dry summers and mild, wet winters. The prevailing winds from the Atlantic and the surrounding mountains combine to give Santiago some of Spain's highest rainfall: about 1,800 millimetres (70.9 in) annually. The winters are mild, despite being far inland and at an altitude of 370 metres (1,210 ft) frosts are only common in December, January and February, with an average of just 13 days per year. Snow
4958-563: The Latin : Campus Stellae ('field of the star'). According to a medieval legend, the remains of the apostle James, son of Zebedee were brought to Galicia for burial, where they were lost. Eight hundred years later the light of a bright star guided a shepherd, Pelagius the Hermit , who was watching his flock at night to the burial site in Santiago de Compostela. This site was originally called Mount Libredon [ gl ] and its physical topography leads prevalent seaborne winds to clear
5092-458: The Mutiny of Aranjuez and Charles IV was forced to abdicate in favour of his son, Ferdinand VII . In the aftermath of the abdication, attacks on godoyistas were frequent. On 23 March, Murat entered Madrid with pomp. Ferdinand VII arrived on 27 March and asked Murat to get Napoleon's confirmation of his accession. Charles IV, however, was persuaded to protest his abdication to Napoleon, who summoned
5226-615: The Russian Empire allied with the First French Empire , Napoleon expressed irritation that Portugal was open to trade with Britain. Pretexts were plentiful; Portugal was Britain's oldest ally in Europe , Britain was finding new opportunities for trade with Portugal's colony in Brazil, the Royal Navy used Lisbon's port in its operations against France, and he wanted to deny the British the use of
5360-592: The autonomous community of Galicia , in northwestern Spain . The city has its origin in the shrine of Saint James the Great , now the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela , as the destination of the Way of St. James , a leading Catholic pilgrimage route since the 9th century. In 1985, the city's Old Town was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site . Santiago de Compostela has a very mild climate for its latitude with heavy winter rainfall courtesy of its relative proximity to
5494-565: The 10th century. The devotion to Saint James of Compostela was just one of many arising throughout northern Iberia during the 10th and 11th centuries, as rulers encouraged their own region-specific devotions, such as Saint Eulalia in Oviedo and Saint Aemilian in Castile. After the centre of Asturian political power moved from Oviedo to León in 910, Compostela became more politically relevant, and several kings of Galicia and of León were acclaimed by
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5628-410: The Botafumeiro fell at the feet of the tiraboleiros . In July 1937, the cords holding the Botafumeiro failed again, and hot coals were spilled onto the floor. Current procedure is to attach the rope to the Botafumeiro with a set of sailor's knots . Santiago de Compostela Santiago de Compostela , simply Santiago , or Compostela , in the province of A Coruña , is the capital of
5762-738: The British army, reinforced with Portuguese regiments trained by General Beresford . These new forces turned Soult out of Portugal at the Battle of Grijó (10–11 May) and the Second Battle of Porto (12 May), and the other northern cities were recaptured by General Silveira. Soult escaped without his heavy equipment by marching through the mountains to Orense. With Portugal secured, Wellesley advanced into Spain to unite with Cuesta's forces. Victor's I Corps retreated before them from Talavera. Cuesta's pursuing forces fell back after Victor's reinforced army, now commanded by Marshal Jean-Baptiste Jourdan , drove upon them. Two British divisions advanced to help
5896-671: The British had made a substantial contribution to the Spanish cause by helping to evacuate some 9,000 men of La Romana 's Division of the North from Denmark. In August 1808, the British Baltic fleet helped transport the Spanish division , except three regiments that failed to escape, back to Spain by way of Gothenburg in Sweden. The division arrived in Santander in October 1808. After the surrender of
6030-607: The Camino de Santiago, is one of the world's most significant and historical Christian pilgrimages. This sacred journey leads to the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela in the Galicia region of northwest Spain, where the remains of Saint James the Apostle are believed to be buried. The pilgrimage dates back to the Middle Ages and continues to draw thousands of pilgrims annually from all corners of
6164-607: The Catholic faithful to bolster support for their stronghold in northern Spain during the Christian crusades against the Moors, but also led to the growth and development of the city. Along the western side of the Praza do Obradoiro is the elegant 18th-century Pazo de Raxoi, now the city hall. Across the square is the Pazo de Raxoi (Raxoi's Palace), the town hall, and on the right from the cathedral steps
6298-498: The English equivalent, thurifer . This comes from the Latin words thus , meaning 'incense', and fero ', meaning 'carry'. There is a comparable term in Spanish, turiferario . (This is also the term used in Italian.) One tradition has it that the use of a swinging censer in the Santiago de Compostela Cathedral began in the 11th century. Arriving pilgrims were tired and unwashed. It
6432-519: The French picquets at Sahagún on 21 December. Abandoning plans to immediately conquer Seville and Portugal, Napoleon rapidly amassed 80,000 troops and debouched from the Sierra de Guadarrama into the plains of Old Castile to encircle the British Army. Moore retreated for the safety of the British fleet at La Coruna and Soult failed to intercept him. The rearguard of La Romana 's retreating force
6566-508: The French and Spanish armies invaded and occupied Portugal in 1807 by transiting through Spain, and it escalated in 1808 after Napoleonic France occupied Spain, which had been its ally. Napoleon Bonaparte forced the abdications of Ferdinand VII and his father Charles IV and then installed his brother Joseph Bonaparte on the Spanish throne and promulgated the Bayonne Constitution . Most Spaniards rejected French rule and fought
6700-554: The French army shot hundreds of Madrid's citizens. Similar reprisals occurred in other cities and continued for days. Bloody, spontaneous fighting known as guerrilla (literally "little war") broke out in much of Spain against the French as well as the Ancien Régime 's officials. Although the Spanish government, including the Council of Castile , had accepted Napoleon's decision to grant the Spanish crown to his brother, Joseph Bonaparte ,
6834-416: The French enjoyed several victories in battle, they were eventually defeated, as their communications and supplies were severely tested and their units were frequently isolated, harassed or overwhelmed by Spanish partisans fighting an intense guerrilla war of raids and ambushes. The Spanish armies were repeatedly beaten and driven to the peripheries, but they would regroup and relentlessly hound and demoralize
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#17328585978576968-410: The French infantry. In March 1809, Soult invaded Portugal through the northern corridor, with Francisco da Silveira 's 12,000 Portuguese troops unraveling amid riot and disorder, and within two days of crossing the border Soult had taken the fortress of Chaves . Swinging west, 16,000 of Soult's professional troops attacked and killed 4,000 of 25,000 unprepared and undisciplined Portuguese at Braga at
7102-545: The French occupation; the uprising was put down by Joachim Murat's elite Imperial Guard and Mamluk cavalry, which crashed into the city and trampled the rioters. In addition, the Mamelukes of the Imperial Guard of Napoleon fought residents of Madrid, wearing turbans and using curved scimitars, thus provoking memories of Muslim Spain . The next day, as immortalized by Francisco Goya in his painting The Third of May 1808 ,
7236-509: The French troops. This drain on French resources led Napoleon, who had unwittingly provoked a total war , to call the conflict the "Spanish Ulcer". War and revolution against Napoleon's occupation led to the Spanish Constitution of 1812 , promulgated by the Cortes of Cádiz , later a cornerstone of European liberalism . Though victorious in war, the burden of war destroyed the social and economic fabric of both Portugal and Spain; and
7370-572: The French. In August 1808, 15,000 British troops—including the King's German Legion —landed in Portugal under the command of Lieutenant-General Sir Arthur Wellesley , who drove back Henri François Delaborde 's 4,000-strong detachment at Roliça on 17 August and smashed Junot's main force of 14,000 men at Vimeiro . Wellesley was replaced at first by Sir Harry Burrard and then Sir Hew Dalrymple . Dalrymple granted Junot an unmolested evacuation from Portugal by
7504-418: The Galician noblemen and crowned and anointed by the local bishop at the cathedral, among them Ordoño IV in 958, Bermudo II in 982, and Alfonso VII in 1111, by which time Compostela had become capital of the Kingdom of Galicia . Later, 12th-century kings were also sepulchered in the cathedral, namely Fernando II and Alfonso IX , last of the Kings of León and Galicia before both kingdoms were united with
7638-405: The Greater . This discovery was accepted in part because Pope Leo III and Charlemagne —who had died in 814—had acknowledged Asturias as a kingdom and Alfonso II as king, and had also crafted close political and ecclesiastic ties. Around the place of the discovery a new settlement and centre of pilgrimage emerged, which was known to the author Usuard in 865 and which was called Compostella by
7772-423: The Louis XI censer was replaced by the present less-ostentatious Losada thurible in 1851. After 155 years of use, the Botafumeiro was restored in early 2006 by artisans and craftsmen working under Luis Molina Acedo. They repaired the dents and cracks in the Botafumeiro and reapplied a 20 micrometre thick plating of silver to the vessel. Many other cathedrals had similar large thuribles at one time. However, most of
7906-424: The Portuguese fleet. Furthermore, Prince John of Braganza , regent for his insane mother Queen Maria I , had declined to join the emperor's Continental System against British trade. Events moved rapidly. The Emperor sent orders on 19 July 1807 to his Foreign Minister, Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord , to order Portugal to declare war on Britain, close its ports to British ships, detain British subjects on
8040-660: The Royal Navy in the controversial Convention of Cintra in August. In early October 1808, following the scandal in Britain over the Convention of Cintra and the recall of the generals Dalrymple, Burrard, and Wellesley, Sir John Moore took command of the 30,000-man British force in Portugal. In addition, Sir David Baird , in command of an expedition of reinforcements out of Falmouth consisting of 150 transports carrying between 12,000 and 13,000 men, convoyed by HMS Louie , HMS Amelia and HMS Champion , entered Corunna Harbour on 13 October. Logistical and administrative problems prevented any immediate British offensive. Meanwhile,
8174-565: The Spain's Army of the Centre to recapture Madrid ended with the complete destruction of the Spanish forces at Uclés on 13 January by Victor's I Corps . The French lost 200 men while their Spanish opponents lost 6,887. King Joseph made a triumphant entry into Madrid after the battle. Sébastiani defeated Cartaojal 's army at Ciudad Real on 27 March, inflicting 2,000 casualties and suffering negligible losses. Victor invaded southern Spain and routed Gregorio de la Cuesta 's army at Medellín near Badajoz on 28 March, where Cuesta lost 10,000 men in
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#17328585978578308-417: The Spaniards had abandoned their earlier scruples about a British garrison. Victor's French troops camped at the shoreline and tried to bombard the city into surrender. Thanks to British naval supremacy, a naval blockade of the city was impossible. The French bombardment was ineffectual and the confidence of the gaditanos grew and persuaded them that they were heroes. With food abundant and falling in price,
8442-408: The Spaniards under Conde de Caldagues and Theodor von Reding at Molins de Rei . By November 1808, the British army led by Moore was advancing into Spain with orders to assist the Spanish armies' fight against Napoleon's forces. Moore decided to attack Soult's scattered and isolated 16,000-man corps' at Carrión , opening his attack with a successful raid by Lieutenant-General Paget 's cavalry on
8576-452: The Spanish population rejected Napoleon's plans. The first wave of uprisings were in Cartagena and Valencia on 23 May; Zaragoza and Murcia on 24 May; and the province of Asturias , which cast out its French governor on 25 May and declared war on Napoleon. Within weeks, all the Spanish provinces followed suit. After hearing of the Spanish uprising, Portugal erupted in revolt in June. A French detachment under Louis Henri Loison crushed
8710-428: The Spanish, while the Spanish armies and guerrillas tied down vast numbers of Napoleon's troops. In 1812, when Napoleon set out with a massive army on what proved to be a disastrous French invasion of Russia , a combined allied army defeated the French at Salamanca and took the capital Madrid . In the following year the Coalition scored a victory over King Joseph Bonaparte 's army at the Battle of Vitoria paving
8844-447: The Spanish. On 27 July at the Battle of Talavera , the French advanced in three columns and were repulsed several times, but at a heavy cost to the Anglo-Allied force, which lost 7,500 men for French losses of 7,400. Wellesley withdrew from Talavera on 4 August to avoid being cut off by Soult's converging army, which defeated a Spanish blocking force in an assault crossing at the River Tagus near Puente del Arzobispo . Lack of supplies and
8978-423: The apparatus extant under the old regime, while placing responsibility for local government in many provinces in the hands of royal commissioners. After much preparation and debate, on 2 July 1809 Spain was divided into 38 new provinces, each headed by an Intendant appointed by King Joseph, and on 17 April 1810 these provinces were converted into French-style prefectures and sub-prefectures . The French obtained
9112-466: The bombardment was hopeless despite both hurricane and epidemic—a storm destroyed many ships in the spring of 1810 and the city was ravaged by yellow fever. Once Cádiz was secured, attention turned to the political situation. The Junta Central announced that the cortes would open on 1 March 1810. Suffrage was to be extended to all male householders over 25. After public voting, representatives from district-level assemblies would choose deputies to send to
9246-427: The bulls calmed down, and after being subjected to a yoke they carried the apostle's body to the place where now Compostela is. The legend was again referred with minor changes by the Czech traveller Jaroslav Lev of Rožmitál , in the 15th century. The relics were said to have been later rediscovered in the 9th century by a hermit named Pelagius, who after observing strange lights in a local forest went for help after
9380-427: The central government, they were unsure how to treat the French troops, who marched openly as allies with flags flying and bands announcing their arrival. Some commanders opened their fortresses to them, while others resisted. General Guillaume Philibert Duhesme , who occupied Barcelona with 12,000 troops, soon found himself besieged in the citadel; he was not relieved until January 1809. On 20 February, Joachim Murat
9514-419: The centre Saint James riding a white horse and wearing a white cloak, sword in hand: The legend of the miraculous armed intervention of Saint James, disguised as a white knight to help the Christians when battling the Muslims, was a recurrent myth during the High Middle Ages. As the lowest-lying land on that stretch of coast, the city's site took on added significance. Legends supposed of Celtic origin made it
9648-485: The city . After defeating Spanish counterattacks, Moncey retreated. At the Battle of Medina de Rioseco on 14 July, Bessières defeated Cuesta and Old Castile returned to French control. Blake escaped, but the Spaniards lost 2,200 men and thirteen guns. French losses were minimal at 400 men. Bessières's victory salvaged the French army's strategic position in northern Spain. Joseph entered Madrid on 20 July; and on 25 July he
9782-508: The city, representing 4.3% of the total population. The main nationalities are Brazilians (11%), Portuguese (8%) and Colombians (7%). By language, according to 2008 data, 21.17% of the population always speak in Galician , 15% always speak in Spanish, 31% mostly in Galician and the 32.17% mostly in Spanish. According to a Xunta de Galicia 2010 study the 38.5% of the city primary and secondary education students had Galician as their mother tongue . The area of Santiago de Compostela
9916-460: The cloud deck immediately overhead. The shepherd quickly reported his discovery to the bishop of Iria, Theodemir . The bishop declared that the remains were those of the apostle James and immediately notified King Alfonso II in Oviedo . To honour St. James, the cathedral was built on the spot where his remains were said to have been found. The legend , which included numerous miraculous events, enabled
10050-772: The cost of 200 Frenchmen. At the First Battle of Porto on 29 March, the Portuguese defenders panicked, many attempting to flee alongside the city's residents south over the river Douro, to die in the Porto Boat Bridge disaster . Between 6,000 and 20,000 Portuguese soldiers were dead, wounded or captured. Suffering fewer than 500 casualties, Soult had secured Portugal's second city and, with its valuable dockyards and arsenals intact, captured immense quantities of supplies. Soult halted at Porto to refit his army before advancing on Lisbon. Wellesley returned to Portugal in April 1809 to command
10184-403: The course of the expedition. The French occupied the most populated region in Spain, including the important towns of Lugo and La Corunna. The Spanish were shocked by the British retreat. Napoleon returned to France on 19 January 1809 to prepare for war with Austria, giving the Spanish command back to his marshals. Zaragoza, already scarred from Lefebvre 's bombardments that summer, was under
10318-406: The devotion to Saint James was before 11-12th centuries an essentially Galician affair, supported by Asturian and Leonese kings to win over faltering Galician loyalties. Santiago would become in the course of the following century a main Catholic shrine second only to Rome and Jerusalem . In the 12th century, under the impulse of bishop Diego Gelmírez , Compostela became an archbishopric, attracting
10452-413: The early 16th century. The main campus can be seen best from an alcove in the large municipal park in the centre of the city. Within the old town there are many narrow winding streets full of historic buildings. The new town all around it has less character though some of the older parts of the new town have some big flats in them. Santiago de Compostela has a substantial nightlife. Both in the new town (
10586-434: The final resting place of Saint James the Apostle, the pilgrimage route traversed many countries and scenic locations. The pilgrimage not only fostered spiritual growth but also facilitated cultural exchange, as towns along the route thrived with the influx of visitors, leading to the construction of churches, and further development of the towns. This sacred journey symbolized a profound devotion to faith, enduring trials, and
10720-433: The fleet, protected by the British, and fled to Brazil. He was joined in flight by many nobles, merchants and others. With 15 warships and more than 20 transports, the fleet of refugees weighed anchor on 29 November and set sail for the colony of Brazil . The flight had been so chaotic that 14 carts loaded with treasure were left behind on the docks. As one of Junot's first acts, the property of those who had fled to Brazil
10854-626: The following civil wars between liberal and absolutist factions ushered in revolts in Spanish America and the beginning of an era of social turbulence, increased political instability, and economic stagnation. The Treaties of Tilsit , negotiated during a meeting in July 1807 between Emperors Alexander I of Russia and Napoleon , concluded the War of the Fourth Coalition . With Prussia shattered, and
10988-567: The globe. Participants embark on various routes, the most popular being the Camino Francés, traversing hundreds of kilometers on foot, by bicycle, or even on horseback. The journey is not just a physical challenge but also a profound spiritual and introspective experience, offering a sense of community, personal reflection, and fulfillment. Along the way, pilgrims pass through diverse landscapes and historic towns and encounter symbols of faith and support. The legend that St. James found his way to
11122-470: The growing numbers of afrancesados (Francophiles) at court were opposed by the majos : shopkeepers, artisans, tavern keepers, and laborers who dressed in traditional style, and took pleasure in picking fights with petimetres , the young who styled themselves with French fashion and manners. Spain was an ally of Napoleon's First French Empire; however, defeat in the naval Battle of Trafalgar in October 1805, which had decimated Spain's navy, had removed
11256-556: The hands of the enemy. The result was revolution. On 23 January the Junta Central at Seville decided to flee to the safety of Cádiz. It then dissolved itself on 29 January 1810 and set up a five-person Regency Council of Spain and the Indies, charged with convening the Cortes. Soult cleared all of southern Spain except Cádiz, which he left Victor to blockade. The system of juntas was replaced by
11390-472: The headquarters of the autonomous government of Galicia), cultural tourism, industry, and higher education through its university , is becoming increasingly diversified. New industries such as timber transformation (FINSA), the automotive industry ( UROVESA ), and telecommunications and electronics (Blusens and Televés) have been established. Banco Gallego, a banking institution owned by Novacaixagalicia , has its headquarters in downtown rúa do Hórreo . Tourism
11524-569: The hitherto unbeatable Imperial armies—a Bonaparte had been chased from his throne; tales of Spanish heroism inspired Austria and showed the force of national resistance. Bailén set in motion the rise of the Fifth Coalition . Britain's involvement in the Peninsular War was the start of a prolonged campaign in Europe to increase British military power on land and liberate the Iberian peninsula from
11658-564: The hope of divine grace. A symbol of the Pilgrimage is the scallop shell, as seen in a sculpture, depicted below, in Santo Domingo de Silos, in which Jesus is shown as a pilgrim with a satchel that is embroidered with the scallop shell. The Scallop shell comes from a legend about St. James’s arrival: he frightened a horse, scaring it into the sea, and the horse reemerged with the shell covering itself. Santiago de Compostela’s pilgrimage, known as
11792-568: The last time from Galicia in July 1809. In Catalonia, Saint-Cyr defeated Reding again at Valls on 25 February. Reding was killed and his army lost 3,000 men for French losses of 1,000. Saint-Cyr began the third siege of Girona on 6 May and the city finally fell on 12 December. Louis-Gabriel Suchet 's III Corps was defeated at Alcañiz by Blake on 23 May, losing 2,000 men. Suchet retaliated at María on 15 June, crushing Blake's right wing and inflicting 5,000 casualties. Three days later, Blake lost 2,000 more men to Suchet at Belchite . Saint-Cyr
11926-423: The length of the rope pulled by the tiraboleiros . In the 15th century, France's King Louis XI (1423–1483) donated money to the cathedral to replace their medieval thurible, which was made of silver. A new silver thurible was put into service in 1554. Unfortunately, this ornate vessel was stolen by Napoleon 's troops in April, 1809, during an episode in the Spanish War of Independence (1808–1814). Therefore,
12060-420: The lines communicated with each other by semaphore , allowing immediate response to any threat. The work began in the autumn of 1809 and the main defences were finished just in time one year later. To further hamper the enemy, the areas in front of the lines were subjected to a scorched earth policy: they were denuded of food, forage and shelter. 200,000 inhabitants of neighbouring districts were relocated inside
12194-470: The local bishop, Theodemar of Iria , in the west of Galicia. The legend affirms that Theodemar was then guided to the spot by a star, drawing upon a familiar myth-element, hence "Compostela" was given an etymology as a corruption of Campus Stellae, "Field of Stars." In the 15th century, the red banner which guided the Galician armies to battle, was still preserved in the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela, in
12328-486: The more general benefits of pilgrimage to the site. Pope Benedict XVI undertook a ceremonial pilgrimage to the site on his visit to Spain in 2010. The 1,000-year-old pilgrimage to the shrine of St. James in the Santiago de Compostela Cathedral is known in English as the Way of St. James and in Spanish as the Camino de Santiago . Over 200,000 pilgrims travel to the city each year from points all over Europe and other parts of
12462-410: The next Holy Year will not be for another 11 years when St James feast day again falls on a Sunday. Outside of Holy Years, the city still receives a remarkable number of pilgrims. In 2013, 215,880 people completed the pilgrimage. In 2014, there were 237,983 persons. In 2015, there were 262,513 persons and in 2016, there were 277,854 persons. Editorial Compostela owns daily newspaper El Correo Gallego ,
12596-578: The northern part was to become the Kingdom of Northern Lusitania , under Charles II, Duke of Parma . The southern portion, as the Principality of the Algarves, would fall to Godoy. The rump of the country, centered on Lisbon, was to be administered by the French. According to the Treaty of Fontainebleau, Junot's invasion force was to be supported by 25,500 Spanish troops. On 12 October, Junot's corps began crossing
12730-437: The occupation because of the violence and brutality it brought. Marxians wrote that there was a positive identification on the part of the people with the Napoleonic revolution, but this is probably impossible to substantiate by the reasons for collaboration being practical rather than ideological. The Peninsular War is regarded as one of the first people's wars, significant for the emergence of large-scale guerrilla warfare. It
12864-542: The old Hanseatic League and Spanish troops marched into Denmark in early 1808. Napoleon instructed Junot, with the cooperation of Spanish military troops, to invade Portugal, moving west from Alcántara along the Tagus valley to Portugal, a distance of only 120 miles (193 km). On 19 November 1807, the French troops under Junot set out for Lisbon and occupied it on 30 November. The Prince Regent John escaped, loading his family, courtiers, state papers and treasure aboard
12998-414: The old town, and separated from the newer part of the city by the largest of many parks throughout the city, Parque da Alameda . Santiago gives its name to one of the four military orders of Spain: Santiago , Calatrava , Alcántara and Montesa . One of the most important economic centres in Galicia, Santiago is the seat for organisations like Association for Equal and Fair Trade Pangaea . Under
13132-469: The only reason to join the Partisans. The French imposed restrictions on movement and on many traditional aspects of street life, so opportunities to find alternative sources of income were limited—industry was at a standstill and many señores were unable to pay their existing retainers and domestic servants, and could not take on new staff. Hunger and despair reigned on all sides. Because the military record
13266-400: The other cathedrals discontinued the use of their swinging censers over the years. Over the years, a number of accidents have occurred during the swinging of the Botafumeiro. Apparently at one time, the Botafumeiro was attached to the rope with a hook which sometimes became disconnected. One of the most renowned accidents took place during a visit of Princess Catherine of Aragon . She was on
13400-571: The overseas territories. Unrest erupted in Quito and Charcas , which saw themselves as the capitals of kingdoms and resented being subsumed in the larger "kingdom" of Peru . The revolts were suppressed (See Luz de América and Bolivian War of Independence ). Throughout early 1809 the governments of the capitals of the viceroyalties and captaincies general elected representatives to the Junta, but none arrived in time to serve on it. Convinced by intelligence that
13534-730: The place where the souls of the dead gathered to follow the sun across the sea. Those unworthy of going to the Land of the Dead haunted Galicia as the Santa Compaña or Estadea . Santiago de Compostela is featured prominently in the 1988 historical fiction novel Sharpe's Rifles , by Bernard Cornwell , which takes place during the French Invasion of Galicia, January 1809, during the Napoleonic Wars. The music video for Una Cerveza , by Ráfaga ,
13668-638: The population. By January 1808, there were executions of persons who resisted the exactions of the French. The situation was dangerous, but it would need a trigger from outside to transform unrest into revolt. Between 9 and 12 February, the French divisions of the eastern and western Pyrenees crossed the border and occupied Navarre and Catalonia , including the citadels of Pamplona and Barcelona . The Spanish government demanded explanations from their French allies, but these did not satisfy and in response Godoy pulled Spanish troops out of Portugal. Since Spanish fortress commanders had not received instructions from
13802-628: The prevailing winds from Atlantic low-pressure systems . According to Richard Fletcher scholars now agree that the origin of the name Compostela comes from the Latin compositum tella , meaning a well-ordered burial ground, possibly referring to an ancient burial ground on the site of the Church of Santiago de Compostela that pre-dates the Christian building. Santiago is the local Galician evolution of Vulgar Latin Sanctus Iacobus "Saint James ". According to folk etymology Compostela derives from
13936-512: The proclamation. However, it was too late to avert Napoleon's suspicions. Napoleon planned from that moment to deal with his inconstant ally at some future time. In the meantime, the Emperor forced Godoy and Charles IV into providing a division of Spanish troops to serve in northern Europe. The Division of the North spent the winter of 1807–1808 in Swedish Pomerania , Mecklenburg , and towns of
14070-485: The provincial meetings that would be the bodies from which the members of the cortes would emerge. From 1 February 1810, the implementation of these decrees had been in the hands of the new regency council selected by the Junta Central. The viceroyalties and independent captaincies general of the overseas territories would each send one representative. This scheme was resented in America for providing unequal representation to
14204-481: The reason for alliance with France. Manuel Godoy, the favorite of King Charles IV of Spain , began to seek some form of escape. At the start of the War of the Fourth Coalition , which pitted the Kingdom of Prussia against Napoleon, Godoy issued a proclamation that was obviously aimed at France, even though it did not specify an enemy. After Napoleon's decisive victory at the Battle of Jena–Auerstedt , Godoy quickly withdrew
14338-555: The rebels at Évora on 29 July and massacred the town's population. The deteriorating strategic situation led France to increase its military commitments. By 1 June, over 65,000 troops were rushing into the country to control the crisis. The main French army of 80,000 held a narrow strip of central Spain from Pamplona and San Sebastián in the north to Madrid and Toledo in the centre. The French in Madrid sheltered behind an additional 30,000 troops under Marshal Bon-Adrien Jeannot de Moncey . Jean-Andoche Junot 's corps in Portugal
14472-538: The rest of Suebi Kingdom by Leovigild as the sixth province of the Visigothic Kingdom . Possibly raided from 711 to 739 by the Arabs , the bishopric of Iria was incorporated into the Kingdom of Asturias c. 750 . At some point between 818 and 842, during the reign of Alfonso II of Asturias , bishop Theodemar of Iria (d. 847) claimed to have found some remains which were attributed to Saint James
14606-482: The ropes were woven from hemp , or a type of grass called esparto , and made in Vigo , Spain . Since 2004, a rope made of synthetic material has been used. The censer is pushed initially to start its motion. Eight red-robed tiraboleiros pull the ropes, producing increasingly large oscillations of the censer. The thurible's swings almost reach the ceiling of the transept . The incensory can reach speeds of 68 km/h as it dispenses thick clouds of incense . At
14740-518: The royal family, both kings included, to Bayonne in France. There on 5 May, under French pressure, the two kings both abdicated their claims to Napoleon . Napoleon then had the Junta de Gobierno—the council of regency in Madrid—formally ask him to appoint his brother Joseph as King of Spain. The abdication of Ferdinand was only publicised on 20 May. On 2 May, the citizens of Madrid rebelled against
14874-406: The threat of French reinforcement in the spring led Wellington to retreat into Portugal. A Spanish attempt to capture Madrid after Talavera failed at Almonacid , where Sébastiani 's IV Corps inflicted 5,500 casualties on the Spanish, forcing them to retreat at the cost of 2,400 French losses. The Spanish Supreme Central and Governing Junta of the Kingdom was forced by popular pressure to set up
15008-509: The top of the swing, the Botafumeiro reaches heights of 21 meters. It swings in a 65-meter arc between the Azabachería and Praterias doorways at the ends of the transept. The maximum angle achieved is about 82°. The maximum can be reached after about 17 cycles, and requires about 80 seconds of swinging. Numerous sources report different weights of the Botafumeiro ranging from 50 kilograms to 160 kilograms. It costs about €450 to privately request
15142-631: The two successive Combats of El Bruc outside Barcelona , local Catalan militia, the Miquelets (also known as sometents ), defeated François Xavier de Schwarz 's 4,000 troops. Guillaume Philibert Duhesme 's Franco-Italian division of almost 6,000 troops failed to storm Girona and was forced to return to Barcelona. Six thousand French troops under Charles Lefebvre-Desnouettes attacked Zaragoza and were beaten off by José de Palafox y Melci 's militia. Moncey's push to take Valencia ended in failure, with 1,000 French recruits dying in an attempt to storm
15276-530: The uprising. Aréizaga's army was destroyed by Soult at the Battle of Ocaña on 19 November. The Spanish lost 19,000 men compared to French losses of 2,000. Albuquerque soon abandoned his efforts near Talavera. Del Parque moved on Salamanca again, hustling one of the VI Corps brigades out of Alba de Tormes and occupying Salamanca on 20 November. Hoping to get between Kellermann and Madrid, Del Parque advanced towards Medina del Campo . Kellermann counterattacked and
15410-531: The way for victory in the war in the Iberian Peninsula. Pursued by the armies of Britain, Spain and Portugal, Marshal Jean-de-Dieu Soult , no longer getting sufficient support from a depleted France, led the exhausted and demoralized French forces in a fighting withdrawal across the Pyrenees during the winter of 1813–1814. The years of fighting in Spain were a heavy burden on France's Grande Armée . While
15544-540: The world. The pilgrimage has been the subject of many books, television programmes, and films, notably Brian Sewell 's The Naked Pilgrim produced for the British television channel Channel 5 and the Martin Sheen / Emilio Estevez collaboration The Way . According to a tradition that can be traced back at least to the 12th century, when it was recorded in the Codex Calixtinus , Saint James decided to return to
15678-509: Was a Roman cemetery by the 4th century and was occupied by the Suebi in the early 5th century, when they settled in Galicia and Portugal during the initial collapse of the Roman Empire . The area was later attributed to the bishopric of Iria Flavia in the 6th century, in the partition usually known as Parochiale Suevorum, ordered by King Theodemar . In 585, the settlement was annexed along with
15812-423: Was also believed that incense smoke had a prophylactic effect at the time of plagues and epidemics . Incense burning is also an important part of the liturgy, being an "oration to God", or form of prayer . In the 13th century, the pulley mechanism was changed to incorporate a set of coaxial drums of different diameters. Without this innovation, the largest excursion of the Botafumeiro would be about 1.5 meters,
15946-507: Was appointed lieutenant of the emperor and commander of all French troops in Spain, which now numbered 60,000 –100,000. On 24 February, Napoleon declared that he no longer considered himself bound by the Treaty of Fontainebleau. In early March, Murat established his headquarters in Vitoria and received 6,000 reinforcements from the Imperial Guard . On 19 March 1808, Godoy fell from power in
16080-424: Was created by the gold and silversmith José Losada in 1851. It has a golden sheen. The Santiago de Compostela Botafumeiro is one of the largest censers in the world, weighing 80 kg and measuring 1.93 m in height. It is normally on display in the library of the cathedral, but for certain important religious occasions, like the Feast of Saint James , it is brought to the floor of the cathedral and attached to
16214-471: Was crowned King of Spain. On 10 June, five French ships of the line anchored at Cádiz were seized by the Spanish. Dupont was disturbed enough to curtail his march at Cordoba, and then on 16 June to fall back to Andújar . Cowed by the mass hostility of the Andalusians, he broke off his offensive and was then defeated at Bailén , where he surrendered his entire Army Corps to Castaños . The catastrophe
16348-707: Was cut off by 300 miles (480 km) of hostile territory, but within days of the outbreak of revolt, French columns in Old Castile, New Castile , Aragon and Catalonia were searching for the insurgent forces. To defeat the insurgency, Pierre Dupont de l'Étang led 24,430 men south toward Seville and Cádiz; Marshal Jean-Baptiste Bessières moved into Aragon and Old Castile with 25,000 men, aiming to capture Santander and Zaragoza. Moncey marched toward Valencia with 29,350 men, and Guillaume Philibert Duhesme marshalled 12,710 troops in Catalonia and moved against Girona . At
16482-516: Was forced to abandon Madrid in November 1808, and resided in the Alcázar of Seville from 16 December 1808 until 23 January 1810. Madrid surrendered on 1 December and Joseph Bonaparte was restored to his throne. In Catalonia , Laurent Gouvion Saint-Cyr 's 17,000-strong VII Corps besieged and captured Roses from an Anglo-Spanish garrison, destroyed part of Juan Miguel de Vives y Feliu 's Spanish army at Cardedeu near Barcelona on 16 December and routed
16616-531: Was much support for a potential French invasion. The term afrancesado ("turned French") was used to denote those who supported the Enlightenment , secular ideals , and the French Revolution . Napoleon relied on support from these afrancesados both in the conduct of the war and administration of the country. Napoleon removed all feudal and clerical privileges but most Spanish liberals soon came to oppose
16750-417: Was overrun at Mansilla on 30 December by Soult, who captured León the next day. Moore's retreat was marked by a breakdown of discipline in many regiments and punctuated by stubborn rearguard actions at Benavente and Cacabelos . The British troops escaped to the sea after fending off a strong French attack at Corunna , in which Moore was killed. Some 26,000 troops reached Britain, with 7,000 men lost over
16884-518: Was prepared to march on Lisbon. After he received the Portuguese answer, he ordered Junot's corps to cross the frontier into the Spanish Empire . While all this was going on, the secret Treaty of Fontainebleau had been signed between France and Spain. The document was drawn up by Napoleon's marshal of the palace Géraud Duroc and Eugenio Izquierdo, an agent for Manuel Godoy . The treaty proposed to carve up Portugal into three entities. Porto and
17018-483: Was reached in the 14th century, when the new prelate, the Frenchman Bérenger de Landore , treacherously executed the counselors of the city in his castle of A Rocha Forte ("the strong rock, castle"), after inviting them for talks. Santiago de Compostela was captured and sacked by the French during the Napoleonic Wars ; as a result, the remains attributed to the apostle were lost for near a century, hidden inside
17152-488: Was relieved of his command in September for deserting his troops. After Corunna, Soult turned his attention to the invasion of Portugal. Discounting garrisons and the sick, Soult's II Corps had 20,000 men for the operation. He stormed the Spanish naval base at Ferrol on 26 January 1809, capturing eight ships of the line, three frigates , several thousand prisoners and 20,000 Brown Bess muskets, which were used to re-equip
17286-483: Was replaced by François Étienne de Kellermann , who brought up reinforcements in the form of his own men as well as General of Brigade Nicolas Godinot 's force. Kellermann marched on Del Parque's position at Salamanca, who promptly abandoned it and retreated south. In the meantime, the guerrillas in the Province of León increased their activity. Kellermann left the VI Corps holding Salamanca and returned to León to stamp out
17420-549: Was repulsed at the Battle of Carpio on 23 November. The next day, Del Parque received news of the Ocaña disaster and fled south, intending to shelter in the mountains of central Spain. On the afternoon of 28 November, Kellermann attacked Del Parque at Alba de Tormes and routed him after inflicting losses of 3,000 men. Del Parque's army fled into the mountains, its strength greatly reduced through combat and non-combat causes by mid-January. Joseph contented himself with working within
17554-426: Was sequestered and a 100-million- franc indemnity imposed. The army formed into a Portuguese Legion , and went to northern Germany to perform garrison duty. Junot did his best to calm the situation by trying to keep his troops under control. While the Portuguese authorities were generally subservient toward their French occupiers, the ordinary Portuguese were angry, and the harsh taxes caused bitter resentment among
17688-415: Was so dismal, many Spanish politicians and publicists exaggerated the activities of the guerrillas. The French invaded Andalusia on 19 January 1810. 60,000 French troops—the corps of Victor, Mortier and Sebastiani together with other formations—advanced southwards to assault the Spanish positions. Overwhelmed at every point, Aréizaga 's men fled eastwards and southwards, leaving town after town to fall into
17822-482: Was the product of a century's worth of what the French perceived as backwardness in knowledge and social habits, Catholic obscurantism , superstition and counter-revolution. The guerrilla style of fighting was the Spanish military's single most effective tactic. Most organized attempts by regular Spanish forces to take on the French ended in defeat. Once a battle was lost and the soldiers reverted to their guerrilla roles, they tied down large numbers of French troops over
17956-401: Was total. With the loss of 24,000 troops, Napoleon's military machine in Spain collapsed. Stunned by the defeat, on 1 August Joseph evacuated the capital for Old Castile, while ordering Verdier to abandon the siege of Zaragoza and Bessières to retire from Leon; the entire French army sheltered behind the Ebro. By this time, Girona had resisted a Second Siege . Europe welcomed this first check to
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