Harold Jefferson Coolidge Jr. (January 15, 1904 – February 15, 1985 ) was an American zoologist and a founding director of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as well as of the World Wildlife Fund (WWF).
111-463: The bonobo ( / b ə ˈ n oʊ b oʊ , ˈ b ɒ n ə b oʊ / ; Pan paniscus ), also historically called the pygmy chimpanzee (less often the dwarf chimpanzee or gracile chimpanzee ), is an endangered great ape and one of the two species making up the genus Pan (the other being the common chimpanzee , Pan troglodytes ). While bonobos are, today, recognized as a distinct species in their own right, they were initially thought to be
222-504: A conflict, when they stand back-to-back and rub their scrotal sacs together, but such behavior also occurs outside agonistic contexts: Kitamura (1989) observed rump–rump contacts between adult males following sexual solicitation behaviors similar to those between female bonobos prior to GG-rubbing. Takayoshi Kano observed similar practices among bonobos in the natural habitat. Tongue kissing, oral sex, and genital massaging have also been recorded among male bonobos. Wild females give birth for
333-480: A diminution in value for their land after finding an endangered animal on it. They have allegedly opted to kill and bury the animals or destroy habitat silently. Thus removing the problem from their land, but at the same time further reducing the population of an endangered species. The effectiveness of the ESA– which coined the term "endangered species"– has been questioned by business advocacy groups and their publications but
444-694: A female bonobo from Leipzig Zoo was deposited with the International Nucleotide Sequence Database Collaboration (DDBJ/EMBL/GenBank) under the EMBL accession number AJFE01000000 after a previous analysis by the National Human Genome Research Institute confirmed that the bonobo genome is about 0.4% divergent from the chimpanzee genome. Relationships of bonobos to humans and other apes can be determined by comparing their genes or whole genomes . While
555-842: A female bonobo with several allies supporting her has extremely high success in monopolizing food sources. Different communities favour different prey. In some communities females exclusively hunt and have a preference for rodents, in others both sexes hunt, and will target monkeys. In captive settings, females exhibit extreme food-based aggression towards males, and forge coalitions against them to monopolize specific food items, often going as far as to mutilate any males who fail to heed their warning. In wild settings, however, female bonobos will quietly ask males for food if they had gotten it first, instead of forcibly confiscating it, suggesting sex-based hierarchy roles are less rigid than in captive colonies. Female bonobos are known to lead hunts on duikers and successfully defend their bounty from marauding males in
666-644: A female into mating with him, female bonobos enjoy greater sexual preferences and can rebuff undesirable males, an advantage of female-female bonding, and actively seek out higher-ranking males. Bonobo party size tends to vary because the groups exhibit a fission–fusion pattern . A community of approximately 100 will split into small groups during the day while looking for food, and then will come back together to sleep. They sleep in nests that they construct in trees. Female bonobos more often than not secure feeding privileges and feed before males do, although they are rarely successful in one-on-one confrontations with males,
777-435: A female nucleus of bonobo society. The bonding among females enables them to dominate most of the males. Adolescent females often leave their native community to join another community. This migration mixes the bonobo gene pools , providing genetic diversity . Sexual bonding with other females establishes these new females as members of the group. Bonobo clitorises are larger and more externalized than in most mammals; while
888-485: A group of bonobos in Salonga National Park , which seemed to reflect deliberate cooperative hunting. On three occasions, the hunt was successful, and infant monkeys were captured and eaten. There is one inferred intraspecies killing in the wild, and a confirmed lethal attack in captivity. In both cases, the attackers were female and the victims were male. The bonobo is an omnivorous frugivore ; 57% of its diet
999-474: A high rank and act as coalitionary partners to the alpha female, often taking initiative in coordinating the groups movements. These males may outrank not only the other males in the group, but also many females. Certain males alert the group to any possible threats, protecting the group from predators such as pythons and leopards. Aggressive encounters between males and females are rare, and males are tolerant of infants and juveniles. A male derives his status from
1110-412: A juvenile chimpanzee ( Pan troglodytes ). Schwarz published his findings in 1929, classifying the bonobo as a subspecies of chimpanzee, Pan satyrus paniscus . In 1933, American anatomist Harold Coolidge elevated it to species status. Major behavioural differences between bonobos and chimpanzees were first discussed in detail by Tratz and Heck in the early 1950s. Unaware of any taxonomic distinction with
1221-509: A large extent in the future. Endangered species are addressed through Canada's Species at Risk Act . A species is deemed threatened or endangered when it is on the verge of extinction or extirpation . Once a species is deemed threatened or endangered, the Act requires that a recovery plan to be developed that indicates how to stop or reverse the species' population decline. As of 2021, the Committee on
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#17329417320631332-606: A larger range of tool use behaviours than males, a pattern previously described for chimpanzees but not for other great apes". This finding was affirmed by the results of another 2010 study which also found that "bonobos were more skilled at solving tasks related to theory of mind or an understanding of social causality, while chimpanzees were more skilled at tasks requiring the use of tools and an understanding of physical causality". Bonobos have been found to be more risk-averse compared to chimpanzees, preferring immediate rather than delayed rewards when it comes to foraging. Bonobos also have
1443-527: A last resort effort. SSP Programs regularly participate in species recovery, veterinary care for wildlife disease outbreaks, and some other wildlife conservation efforts. The AZA's Species Survival Plan also has breeding and transfer programs, both within and outside of AZA – certified zoos and aquariums. Some animals that are part of SSP programs are giant pandas , lowland gorillas, and California condors . Whereas poaching substantially reduces endangered animal populations, legal, for-profit, private farming does
1554-433: A lethal degree than male bonobos which are more likely to engage in more frequent, yet less intense squabbling. There is also more female to male aggression with bonobos than there is with chimpanzees. Female bonobos are also more aggressive than female chimpanzees, in general. Both bonobos and chimpanzees exhibit physical aggression more than 100 times as often as humans do. Although referred to as peaceful, bonobo aggression
1665-503: A living example of our distant human ancestors. According to Australian anthropologists Gary Clark and Maciej Henneberg , human ancestors went through a bonobo-like phase featuring reduced aggression and associated anatomical changes, exemplified in Ardipithecus ramidus . The first official publication of the sequencing and assembly of the bonobo genome was released in June 2012. The genome of
1776-465: A male bonobo and two female chimpanzees. The two initial pregnancies were aborted because of environmental stressors. The following three pregnancies however led to the birth of three hybrid offspring. A bonobo and chimpanzee hybrid called Tiby was also featured in the 2017 Swedish film The Square . The bonobo is commonly considered to be more gracile than the common chimpanzee. Although large male chimpanzees can exceed any bonobo in bulk and weight,
1887-549: A male threatens the high ranking females and is injured by them, as the larger male is swarmed and outnumbered by a female mob. Because of the promiscuous mating behavior of female bonobos, a male cannot be sure which offspring are his. As a result, the entirety of parental care in bonobos is assumed by the mothers. However, bonobos are not as promiscuous as chimpanzees and slightly polygamous tendencies occur, with high-ranking males enjoying greater reproductive success than low-ranking males. Unlike chimpanzees, where any male can coerce
1998-609: A new and separate generic term for pygmy chimpanzees. The name is thought to derive from a misspelling on a shipping crate from the town of Bolobo on the Congo River near the location from which the first bonobo specimens were collected in the 1920s. The bonobo was first recognised as a distinct taxon in 1928 by German anatomist Ernst Schwarz , based on a skull in the Tervuren Museum in Belgium which had previously been classified as
2109-408: A profit. So many owners are keeping them secure. The private sector has been key to helping our work." Conservation experts view the effect of China's turtle farming on the wild turtle populations of China and South-Eastern Asia – many of which are endangered– as "poorly understood". Although they commend the gradual replacement of turtles caught wild with farm-raised turtles in the marketplace–
2220-488: A propensity to carry out infanticide. The highly sexual nature of bonobo society and the fact that there is little competition over mates means that many males and females are mating with each other, in contrast to the one dominant male chimpanzee that fathers most of the offspring in a group. The strategy of bonobo females mating with many males may be a counterstrategy to infanticide because it confuses paternity. If male bonobos cannot distinguish their own offspring from others,
2331-592: A reduced gene pool and reduce resistance . In 1981, the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) created a Species Survival Plan (SSP) to help preserve specific endangered and threatened species through captive breeding. With over 450 SSP Plans, some endangered species are covered by the AZA with plans to cover population management goals and recommendations for breeding for a diverse and healthy population, created by Taxon Advisory Groups. These programs are commonly created as
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#17329417320632442-759: A reduction in whaling and increase population sizes. The actions include prohibiting all whaling in United States waters, the formation of the CITES treaty which protects all whales, along with the formation of the International Whaling Commission (IWC). But even though all of these movements have been put in place, countries such as Japan continue to hunt and harvest whales under the claim of "scientific purposes". Over-hunting, climatic change and habitat loss leads in landing species in endangered species list. It could mean that extinction rates could increase to
2553-580: A role in aiding their sons, and the hierarchy among males is largely reflected by their mother's social status, some motherless males will still successfully dominate some males who do have mothers. Female bonobos have also been observed fostering infants from outside their established community. Bonobos are not known to kill each other, and are generally less violent than chimpanzees, yet aggression still manifests itself in this species. Although female bonobos dominate males and selectively mate with males who do not exhibit aggression toward them, competition between
2664-546: A similar level of aggressiveness. Bonobos live in a male philopatric society where the females immigrate to new communities while males remain in their natal troop. However, it is not entirely unheard of for males to occasionally transfer into new groups. Additionally, females with powerful mothers may remain in their natal clan. Alliances between males are poorly developed in most bonobo communities, while females will form alliances with each other and alliances between males and females occur, including multisex hunting parties. There
2775-470: A species more desirable for collectors and poachers. This effect is potentially reducible, such as in China where commercially farmed turtles may be reducing some of the pressure to poach endangered species. Another problem with the listing species is its effect of inciting the use of the "shoot, shovel, and shut-up" method of clearing endangered species from an area of land. Some landowners currently may perceive
2886-435: A species on the endangered species list and rules for removing a species from the list once its population has recovered. Whether restrictions on land development constitute a "taking" of land by the government; the related question of whether private landowners should be compensated for the loss of uses of their areas; and obtaining reasonable exceptions to protection laws. Also lobbying from hunters and various industries like
2997-490: A subspecies of Pan troglodytes , because of the physical similarities between the two species. Taxonomically, members of the chimpanzee/bonobo subtribe Panina—composed entirely by the genus Pan —are collectively termed panins . Bonobos are distinguished from common chimpanzees by relatively long limbs, pinker lips, a darker face, a tail-tuft through adulthood, and parted, longer hair on their heads. Some individuals have sparser, thin hair over parts of their bodies. The bonobo
3108-501: A weaker spatial memory compared to chimpanzees, with adult bonobos performing comparably to juvenile chimpanzees. Endangered An endangered species is a species that is very likely to become extinct in the near future, either worldwide or in a particular political jurisdiction. Endangered species may be at risk due to factors such as habitat loss , poaching , invasive species , and climate change . The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List lists
3219-446: A wide range of behaviors, including aggressive behavior and more cyclic sexual behavior similar to chimpanzees, even though bonobos show more sexual behavior in a greater variety of relationships. An analysis of female bonding among wild bonobos by Takeshi Furuichi stresses female sexuality and shows how female bonobos spend much more time in estrus than female chimpanzees. Some primatologists have argued that de Waal's data reflect only
3330-851: A year of giving birth, though the female is probably not fertile at this point. Female bonobos carry and nurse their young for four years and give birth on average every 4.6 years. Compared to common chimpanzees, bonobo females resume the genital swelling cycle much sooner after giving birth, enabling them to rejoin the sexual activities of their society. Also, bonobo females which are sterile or too young to reproduce still engage in sexual activity. Mothers will help their sons get more matings from females in oestrus. Adult male bonobos have sex with infants, although without penetration. Adult females also have sex with infants, but less frequently. Infants are not passive participants. They quite often initiate contacts with both adult males and females, as well as with peers. They have also been shown to be sexually active even in
3441-436: Is a confirmed case of a grown male bonobo adopting his orphaned infant brother. A mother bonobo will also support her grown son in conflicts with other males and help him secure better ties with other females, enhancing her chance of gaining grandchildren from him. She will even take measures such as physical intervention to prevent other males from breeding with certain females she wants her son to mate with. Although mothers play
Bonobo - Misplaced Pages Continue
3552-537: Is a critical habitat for many endangered and watched species, as well as many migratory birds. Due to environmental shifts from climate change and the addition of agriculture in the surrounding plains, the system has become almost irreparably damaged. The warming temperatures has caused mass evaporation, leaving the Sea much more saline and with much more exposed playa. This not only damages air quality but also has caused fish kills to accumulate as shown pictured below. This has made
3663-452: Is a documented incident in captivity involving a dominant female abducting an infant from a lower-ranking female, treating the infant roughly and denying it the chance to suckle. During the kidnapping, the infant's mother was clearly distressed and tried to retrieve her infant. Had the zookeepers not intervened, the infant almost certainly would have died from dehydration. This suggests female bonobos can have hostile rivalries with each other and
3774-438: Is a significant cause in causing some species to become endangered. The conservation status of a species indicates the likelihood that it will become extinct . Multiple factors are considered when assessing the status of a species; e.g., such statistics as the number remaining, the overall increase or decrease in the population over time, breeding success rates, or known threats. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
3885-570: Is an example of an endangered subspecies protected under the ESA. The US Fish and Wildlife Service , as well as the National Marine Fisheries Service are held responsible for classifying and protecting endangered species. They are also responsible for adding a particular species to the list, which can be a long, controversial process. Some endangered species laws are controversial. Typical areas of controversy include criteria for placing
3996-519: Is asserted to be one of the leading causes of animal endangerment. According to the US National Park Service : If we can sufficiently reduce greenhouse gas emissions, many of them will still have a chance to survive and recover. NASA scientist James Hanson has warned that in order to maintain a climate similar to that under which human civilization developed and similar to that which so many organisms are adapted, we need to quickly reduce
4107-517: Is at risk of extinction due to climate change if no action is taken. The phenomenon of species shifting their ranges in response to changing climates, finding new or shrinking habitats, illustrates the direct impact of global warming on biodiversity. Another major concern is rising ocean acidity caused from excess CO 2 in the atmosphere. This creates acidic conditions in the ocean which creates an inhospitable environment for fish, plants, and other keystone species such as coral reefs For example
4218-478: Is believed that genetic admixture has occurred at least two times within the past 550,000 years. In modern times hybridization between bonobos and chimpanzees in the wild is prevented as populations are allopatric and kept isolated on different sides of the Congo river. Within captivity, hybrids between bonobos and chimpanzees have been recorded. Between 1990 and 1992, five pregnancies were conceived and studied between
4329-732: Is data from the United States that shows a correlation between human populations and threatened and endangered species. Using species data from the Database on the Economics and Management of Endangered Species database and the period that the Endangered Species Act (ESA) has been in existence, 1970 to 1997, a table was created that suggests a positive relationship between human activity and species endangerment. Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere
4440-626: Is dominated by females, and severing the lifelong alliance between mothers and their male offspring may make them vulnerable to female aggression. De Waal has warned of the danger of romanticizing bonobos: "All animals are competitive by nature and cooperative only under specific circumstances" and that "when first writing about their behaviour, I spoke of 'sex for peace' precisely because bonobos had plenty of conflicts. There would obviously be no need for peacemaking if they lived in perfect harmony." Surbeck and Hohmann showed in 2008 that bonobos sometimes do hunt monkey species. Five incidents were observed in
4551-575: Is found in a 500,000 km (190,000 sq mi) area within the Congo Basin of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Central Africa. It is predominantly frugivorous , compared to the often highly omnivorous diets and hunting of small monkeys , duiker and other antelope exhibited by common chimpanzees. Bonobos inhabit primary and secondary forest , including seasonally inundated swamp forest . Because of political instability in
Bonobo - Misplaced Pages Continue
4662-473: Is fruit, but this is supplemented with leaves, honey, eggs, meat from small vertebrates such as anomalures , flying squirrels and duikers , and invertebrates . The truffle species Hysterangium bonobo is eaten by bonobos. In some instances, bonobos have been shown to consume lower-order primates . Some claim bonobos have also been known to practise cannibalism in captivity, a claim disputed by others. However, at least one confirmed report of cannibalism in
4773-405: Is nevertheless widely recognized by wildlife scientists who work with the species as an effective recovery tool. Nineteen species have been delisted and recovered and 93% of listed species in the northeastern United States have a recovering or stable population. Currently, 1,556 endangered species are under protection by government law. This approximation, however, does not take into consideration
4884-650: Is not restricted to each other, and humans have also been attacked by bonobos, and suffered serious, albeit non-fatal, injuries. Bonobos are far less violent than chimpanzees, though, as lethal aggression is essentially nonexistent among bonobos while being not infrequent among chimpanzees. It has been hypothesized that bonobos are able to live a more peaceful lifestyle in part because of an abundance of nutritious vegetation in their natural habitat, allowing them to travel and forage in large parties. Recent studies show that there are significant brain differences between bonobos and chimpanzees. Bonobos have more grey matter volume in
4995-584: Is one of the biggest endangerment drivers in Brazil, has become a challenge. Brazil has a broad legal system meant to protect the environment, including its Constitution , as well as several federal, state and local government agencies tasked with protecting the fauna and flora , fining individuals or companies linked to environmental crimes and confiscating illegally taken wildlife. Though such agencies can collect their data, each system operates relatively on its own when it comes to wildlife trafficking. However, both
5106-449: Is provided. These physical characteristics and its posture give the bonobo an appearance more closely resembling that of humans than the common chimpanzee does. The bonobo also has highly individuated facial features, as humans do, so that one individual may look significantly different from another, a characteristic adapted for visual facial recognition in social interaction. Multivariate analysis has shown bonobos are more neotenized than
5217-462: Is relatively smaller than that of the common chimpanzee with less prominent brow ridges above the eyes. It has a black face with pink lips, small ears, wide nostrils, and long hair on its head that forms a parting. Females have slightly more prominent breasts , in contrast to the flat breasts of other female apes, although not so prominent as those of humans. The bonobo also has a slim upper body, narrow shoulders, thin neck, and long legs when compared to
5328-526: Is similar to that of a heterosexual mounting: one of the males sits "passively on his back [with] the other male thrusting on him", with the penises rubbing together because of both males' erections. In another, rarer form of genital rubbing, two bonobo males hang from a tree limb face-to-face while penis fencing . This also may occur when two males rub their penises together while in face-to-face position. Another form of genital interaction (rump rubbing) often occurs to express reconciliation between two males after
5439-608: Is the best-known worldwide conservation status listing and ranking system. Over 50% of the world's species are estimated to be at risk of extinction, but the frontier between categories such as 'endangered', 'rare', or 'locally extinct' species is often difficult to draw given the general paucity of data on most of these species. This is notably the case in the world Ocean where endangered species not seen for decades may go extinct unnoticed. Internationally, 195 countries have signed an accord to create Biodiversity Action Plans that will protect endangered and other threatened species. In
5550-586: Is unknown, but it is almost certainly much shorter. Formerly the bonobo was known as the "pygmy chimpanzee", despite the bonobo having a similar body size to the common chimpanzee. The name "pygmy" was given by the German zoologist Ernst Schwarz in 1929, who classified the species on the basis of a previously mislabeled bonobo cranium, noting its diminutive size compared to chimpanzee skulls. The name "bonobo" first appeared in 1954, when Austrian zoologist Eduard Paul Tratz and German biologist Heinz Heck proposed it as
5661-743: The Belgian Congo , from where he brought back a large gorilla that is still on display at the Museum of Comparative Zoology. In 1929 he published "A revision of the genus Gorilla", which forms the basis of the modern taxonomy of the genus Gorilla. Coolidge participated in the Kelley-Roosevelt Expedition to Asia in 1928/29 , and in 1937, he organized and led the Asiatic Primate Expedition through northwest Tonkin and northern Laos to study gibbons . Coolidge also studied at
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#17329417320635772-627: The Emperor Penguins , which rely on Antarctic sea ice for breeding, shelter, and food. The melting of ice sheets poses a direct threat to their survival. Similarly, the Mount Rainier white-tailed ptarmigan , adapted to alpine mountaintops, faces habitat loss due to climate changes in snowfall patterns and rising temperatures. Another example is in the case of the Salton Sea in California. This area
5883-602: The International Union for Conservation of Nature was founded, and was elected its first vice-president. From 1966 to 1972, he served as IUCN president. In 1961, he was also one of the founding directors of the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), and a WWF International Board member from 1971 to 1978. In 1980, Coolidge was awarded the J. Paul Getty Wildlife Conservation Prize for his work in nature conservation, one of many awards he got throughout his career. He died at
5994-706: The OSS , where he developed, amongst other things, a chemical shark repellent, overseeing Julia Child , who worked as his executive assistant on the project. He was awarded the Legion of Merit in 1945. After the war, he became director of the Pacific Science Board of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , a post he held until 1970. He was also a member of the U.S. delegation at the conference in Fontainebleau in France where
6105-536: The University of Arizona before entering Harvard . Originally, he had wanted to become a diplomat, like his uncle Archibald Cary Coolidge, but he soon turned to biology, specializing in primatology . After getting a B.S. from Harvard in 1927, he worked as curator at Harvard's Museum of Comparative Zoology . Coolidge participated in the Harvard Medical Expedition to Africa in 1926/27 to Liberia and
6216-572: The University of Cambridge , England. In 1933, he published the first detailed account of bonobos , elevating them to species rank ( Pan paniscus ). Ernst Schwarz had already published in 1929 a brief paper on them and had classified them as the subspecies Pan satyrus paniscus , based on a skull from the Belgian Congo discovered at a museum at Tervuren, Belgium. In 1982, twenty years after Schwarz's death, Coolidge claimed to have discovered that skull first and to have been "taxonomically scooped" by Schwarz. During World War II , Coolidge served in
6327-457: The common chimpanzee , the bonobo is the closest extant relative to humans . As the two species are not proficient swimmers, the natural formation of the Congo River (around 1.5–2 million years ago) possibly led to the isolation and speciation of the bonobo. Bonobos live south of the river, and thereby were separated from the ancestors of the common chimpanzee, which live north of the river. There are no concrete figures regarding population, but
6438-487: The petroleum industry , construction industry, and logging , has been an obstacle in establishing endangered species laws. The Bush administration lifted a policy that required federal officials to consult a wildlife expert before taking actions that could damage endangered species. Under the Obama administration , this policy was reinstated. Being listed as an endangered species can have negative effect since it could make
6549-567: The IUCN Red List listed 3,079 animal and 2,655 plant species as endangered (EN) worldwide. Brazil is one of the most biodiverse countries in the world, if not the most. It houses not only the Amazon forest but the Atlantic forest , the savanna-like Cerrado among other biomes . Due to the high density of some of its well-preserved rainforests, wildlife trafficking , which along with deforestation
6660-1014: The Status of Endangered Wildlife In Canada has assessed 369 species as being endangered in Canada. The World Wide Fund-India raises concern in the longevity of the following animal species: the Red Panda , the Bengal Tiger , the Ganges River Dolphin , the Asian Elephant . India signed the Wildlife Protection Act and the also joined the Convention on the International Trade in 1976, to prevent poaching from harming its wildlife. The introduction of non-indigenous species to an area can disrupt
6771-559: The United States' known animals, fungi and plants are near extinction. This total is substantially more than the number of species protected in the United States under the Endangered Species Act. Ever since humankind began hunting to preserve itself, over-hunting and fishing have been a large and dangerous problem. Of all the species who became extinct due to interference from humankind, the dodo , passenger pigeon , great auk , Tasmanian tiger and Steller's sea cow are some of
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#17329417320636882-549: The United States, such plans are usually called Species Recovery Plans . Though labeled a list, the IUCN Red List is a system of assessing the global conservation status of species that includes "Data Deficient" (DD) species – species for which more data and assessment is required before their situation may be determined – as well species comprehensively assessed by the IUCN's species assessment process. The species under
6993-419: The absence of any stimulation or learning from adults. Infanticide, while well documented in chimpanzees , is apparently absent in bonobo society. Although infanticide has not been directly observed, there have been documented cases of both female and male bonobos kidnapping infants, sometimes resulting in infants dying from dehydration. Although male bonobos have not yet been seen to practice infanticide, there
7104-630: The agencies and the NGO 's working in Brazil agree that the birds account for about 80% of trafficked species in the country. The relation between wildlife smuggling, other environment crimes under the Brazilian law such as deforestation , and endangered species is particularly intricate and troubling since the rarer the animal or plant gets the most targeted and valuable they become in the black market , which leads to more endangered species in its turn. Additionally, some environment experts and scientists point to
7215-520: The behavior of captive bonobos, suggesting that wild bonobos show levels of aggression closer to what is found among chimpanzees. De Waal has responded that the contrast in temperament between bonobos and chimpanzees observed in captivity is meaningful, because it controls for the influence of environment. The two species behave quite differently even if kept under identical conditions. A 2014 study also found bonobos to be less aggressive than chimpanzees, particularly eastern chimpanzees. The authors argued that
7326-403: The carbon dioxide in our atmosphere to 350 parts per million (ppm). Before the industrial revolution, atmospheric carbon dioxide levels rarely rose above 280 ppm; during the 2014 calendar year, carbon dioxide levels fluctuated between 395 and 402 ppm. Under the Endangered Species Act of 1973 in the United States, species may be listed as "endangered" or "threatened". "The Salt Creek tiger beetle"
7437-447: The common chimpanzee, American psychologist and primatologist Robert Yerkes had already noticed an unexpected major behavioural difference in the 1920s. Bonobos and chimpanzees are the two species which make up the genus Pan , and are the closest living relatives to humans ( Homo sapiens ). According to studies published in 2017 by researchers at The George Washington University , bonobos, along with common chimpanzees, split from
7548-417: The common chimpanzee, taking into account such features as the proportionately long torso length of the bonobo. Other researchers challenged this conclusion. Primatologist Frans de Waal states bonobos are capable of altruism , compassion , empathy , kindness, patience, and sensitivity , and described "bonobo society" as a " gynecocracy ". Primatologists who have studied bonobos in the wild have documented
7659-497: The common chimpanzee. Bonobos are both terrestrial and arboreal. Most ground locomotion is characterized by quadrupedal knuckle-walking . Bipedal walking has been recorded as less than 1% of terrestrial locomotion in the wild, a figure that decreased with habituation , while in captivity there is a wide variation. Bipedal walking in captivity, as a percentage of bipedal plus quadrupedal locomotion bouts, has been observed from 3.9% for spontaneous bouts to nearly 19% when abundant food
7770-592: The community. Parties of males 'patrol' for the neighboring males that might be traveling alone, and attack those single males, often killing them. This does not appear to be the behavior of bonobo males or females, which seem to prefer sexual contact over violent confrontation with outsiders. While bonobos are more peaceful than chimpanzees, it is not true that they are unaggressive. In the wild, among males, bonobos are more aggressive than chimpanzees, having higher rates of aggressive acts, about three times as much. Although, male chimpanzees are more likely to be aggressive to
7881-410: The current condition of species, their genetic variation, and how changes in their environment may affect their survival. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) reports that the approximately 1°C rise in mean global temperature due to human activities is causing serious impacts on species, including changes in abundance, genetic composition, behavior, and survival. The IUCN stresses
7992-412: The decision-maker and leader of the group. Female bonobos typically earn their rank through experience, age, and ability to forge alliances with other females in their group, rather than physical intimidation, and top-ranking females will protect immigrant females from male harassment. While bonobos are often called matriarchal, and while every community is dominated by a female, some males will still obtain
8103-422: The disbanding of environment agencies and the repeal of laws in Brazil under the presidency of Jair Bolsonaro as one of the reasons behind a surge in the number of endangered species. In one occasion during his presidency some fines totaling US$ 3.1 billion on environment criminals were revoked and at least one fine (related to illegal fishing ) imposed on Bolsonaro himself was cancelled and the agent who fined him
8214-401: The ecosystem to such an extent that native species become endangered. Such introductions may be termed alien or invasive species. In some cases, the invasive species compete with the native species for food or prey on the natives. In other cases, a stable ecological balance may be upset by predation or other causes leading to unexpected species decline. New species may also carry diseases to which
8325-401: The estimate is between 29,500 and 50,000 individuals. The species is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List and is most threatened by habitat destruction , human population growth and movement (as well as ongoing civil unrest and political infighting), with commercial poaching being, by far, the most prominent threat. Bonobos typically live 40 years in captivity; their lifespan in the wild
8436-473: The first bonobo genome was published in 2012, a high-quality reference genome became available only in 2021. The overall nucleotide divergence between chimpanzee and bonobo based on the latter is 0.421 ± 0.086% for autosomes and 0.311 ± 0.060% for the X chromosome. The reference genome predicts 22,366 full-length protein-coding genes and 9,066 noncoding genes, although cDNA sequencing confirmed only 20,478 protein-coding and 36,880 noncoding bonobo genes, similar to
8547-440: The first time at 13 or 14 years of age. Bonobo reproductive rates are no higher than those of the common chimpanzee. However, female bonobo oestrus periods are longer. During oestrus , females undergo a swelling of the perineal tissue lasting 10 to 20 days. The gestation period is on average 240 days. Postpartum amenorrhea (absence of menstruation) lasts less than one year and a female may resume external signs of oestrus within
8658-439: The global conservation status of many species, and various other agencies assess the status of species within particular areas. Many nations have laws that protect conservation-reliant species which, for example, forbid hunting , restrict land development , or create protected areas . Some endangered species are the target of extensive conservation efforts such as captive breeding and habitat restoration . Human activity
8769-412: The group. Although a male bonobo is dominant to a female in a dyadic interaction, depending on the community, socially-bonded females may be co-dominant with males or dominant over them, even to the extent that females can coerce reluctant males into mating with them. At the top of the hierarchy is a coalition of high-ranking females and males typically headed by an old, experienced matriarch who acts as
8880-430: The groups. Contrary to expectations, these interactions resembled those within a single group. During these encounters, the bonobos engaged in behaviors such as grooming, food sharing, and collective defense against threats like snakes. Notably, the two groups, while displaying cooperative tendencies, maintained distinct identities, and there was no evidence of interbreeding or a blending of cultures. The cooperation observed
8991-600: The human line about 8 million years ago; moreover, bonobos split from the common chimpanzee line about 2 million years ago. Nonetheless, the exact timing of the Pan – Homo last common ancestor is contentious, but DNA comparison suggests continual interbreeding between ancestral Pan and Homo groups, post-divergence, until about 4 million years ago. DNA evidence suggests the bonobo and common chimpanzee species diverged approximately 890,000–860,000 years ago following separation of these two populations possibly because of acidification and
9102-535: The immediate female bonobo community and sometimes outside of it. Ethologist Jonathan Balcombe stated that female bonobos rub their clitorises together rapidly for ten to twenty seconds, and this behavior, "which may be repeated in rapid succession, is usually accompanied by grinding, shrieking, and clitoral engorgement"; he added that it is estimated that they engage in this practice "about once every two hours" on average. As bonobos occasionally copulate face-to-face, "evolutionary biologist Marlene Zuk has suggested that
9213-531: The importance of environmental policies aimed at reducing CO 2 emissions to lessen the impact of climate change on species. Tools like the IUCN Red List and guidelines for assessing species' vulnerability to climate change are vital for conservation efforts. In addition, climate change can lead to species decreasing in areas where they once thrived, by being forced to migrate or even going extinct from inhospitable conditions, invasive species, and fragmentation. A study cited by WWF found that one in six species
9324-468: The incentive for infanticide essentially disappears. This is a reproductive strategy that seems specific to bonobos; infanticide is observed in all other great apes except orangutans . Bonobos engage in sexual activity numerous times a day. It is unknown how the bonobo avoids simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) and its effects. Observations in the wild indicate that the males among the related common chimpanzee communities are hostile to males from outside
9435-574: The index include: mammals, birds, amphibians, cycads, and corals. Those species of " Near Threatened " (NT) and " Least Concern " (LC) status have been assessed and found to have relatively robust and healthy populations, though these may be in decline. Unlike their more general use elsewhere, the List uses the terms "endangered species" and "threatened species" with particular meanings: "Endangered" (EN) species lie between " Vulnerable " (VU) and " Critically Endangered " (CR) species. In 2012,
9546-512: The male and female hierarchies leads some to refer to them as gender-balanced in their power structure). Bonobos do not have a defined territory and communities will travel over a wide range. Because of the nomadic nature of the females and evenly distributed food in their environment, males do not gain any obvious advantages by forming alliances with other males, or by defending a home range, as chimpanzees do. Female bonobos possess sharper canines than female chimpanzees, further fueling their status in
9657-500: The males themselves is intense and high-ranking males secure more matings than low-ranking ones. Indeed, the size difference between males and females is more pronounced in bonobos than it is in chimpanzees, as male bonobos do not form alliances and therefore have little incentive to hold back when fighting for access to females. Male bonobos are known to attack each other and inflict serious injuries such as missing digits, damaged eyes and torn ears. Some of these injuries may also occur when
9768-403: The more well known examples; with the bald eagle , grizzly bear , American bison , Eastern timber wolf and sea turtle having been poached to near-extinction. Many began as food sources seen as necessary for survival but became the target of sport. However, due to major efforts to prevent extinction, the bald eagle, or Haliaeetus leucocephalus is now under the category of Least Concern on
9879-525: The native species have no exposure or resistance. The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) emphasizes that our planet is warming at a rate faster than any time in the past 10,000 years, necessitating species to adapt to new climate patterns, such as variations in rainfall and longer, warmer summers. For example, the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service highlighted efforts to understand and mitigate the impact of climate change on species through scientific research, modeling, and conservation actions. This includes evaluating
9990-513: The number of genes annotated in the human genome . Overall, 206 and 1,576 protein-coding genes are part of gene families that contracted or expanded in the bonobo genome compared to the human genome, respectively, that is, these genes were lost or gained in the bonobo genome compared to humans. Researchers have found that both central ( Pan troglodytes troglodytes ) and eastern chimpanzees ( Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii ) share more genetic material with bonobos than other chimpanzee subspecies. It
10101-468: The oldest known such instances of captive mating being attributed to menageries of European and Asian rulers, an example being the Père David's deer . However, captive breeding techniques are usually difficult to implement for such highly mobile species as some migratory birds (e.g. cranes) and fishes (e.g. hilsa ). Additionally, if the captive breeding population is too small, then inbreeding may occur due to
10212-427: The only non-human animal to have been observed engaging in tongue kissing . Bonobos and humans are the only primates to typically engage in face-to-face genital sex, although a pair of western gorillas has also been photographed in this position. Bonobos do not form permanent monogamous sexual relationships with individual partners. They also do not seem to discriminate in their sexual behavior by sex or age, with
10323-528: The opposite. It has substantially increased the populations of the southern black rhinoceros and southern white rhinoceros . Richard Emslie, a scientific officer at the IUCN, said of such programs, "Effective law enforcement has become much easier now that the animals are largely privately owned... We have been able to bring local communities into conservation programs. There are increasingly strong economic incentives attached to looking after rhinos rather than simply poaching: from Eco-tourism or selling them on for
10434-622: The percentage of farm-raised individuals in the "visible" trade grew from around 30% in 2000 to around 70% in 2007 – they worry that many wild animals are caught to provide farmers with breeding stock. The conservation expert Peter Paul van Dijk noted that turtle farmers often believe that animals caught wild are superior breeding stock. Turtle farmers may, therefore, seek and catch the last remaining wild specimens of some endangered turtle species. In 2015, researchers in Australia managed to coax southern bluefin tuna to breed in landlocked tanks, raising
10545-422: The position of the clitoris in bonobos and some other primates has evolved to maximize stimulation during sexual intercourse". The position of the clitoris may alternatively permit GG-rubbings, which has been hypothesized to function as a means for female bonobos to evaluate their intrasocial relationships. Bonobo males engage in various forms of male–male genital behavior. The most common form of male–male mounting
10656-519: The possibility that fish farming may be able to save the species from overfishing . Harold Jefferson Coolidge, Jr. Coolidge was born in Boston, Massachusetts ; his father Harold Jefferson Coolidge Sr. (1870–1934) was the brother of Archibald Cary Coolidge and Julian Coolidge . Coolidge was also a direct descendant of Thomas Jefferson , through Jefferson's daughter Martha Jefferson Randolph . Coolidge studied at Milton Academy and at
10767-434: The possible exception of abstaining from sexual activity between mothers and their adult sons. When bonobos come upon a new food source or feeding ground, the increased excitement will usually lead to communal sexual activity, presumably decreasing tension and encouraging peaceful feeding. More often than the males, female bonobos engage in mutual genital-rubbing behavior, possibly to bond socially with each other, thus forming
10878-472: The red list. A present-day example of the over-hunting of a species can be seen in the oceans as populations of certain whales have been greatly reduced. Large whales like the blue whale , bowhead whale , finback whale , gray whale , sperm whale , and humpback whale are some of the eight whales which are currently still included on the Endangered Species List. Actions have been taken to attempt
10989-420: The region, and the general timidity of bonobos, there has been relatively little field work done observing the species in its natural habitat. According to studies published in 2017 by researchers at The George Washington University , the ancestors of the genus Pan split from the human line about 8 million years ago; moreover, bonobos split from the common chimpanzee line about 2 million years ago. Along with
11100-404: The relative peacefulness of western chimpanzees and bonobos was primarily due to ecological factors. Bonobos warn each other of danger less efficiently than chimpanzees in the same situation. Nonetheless, on 12 April 2024, biologists reported that bonobos behave more aggressively than thought earlier. Bonobos are unusual among apes for their matriarchal social structure (extensive overlap between
11211-536: The right anterior insula, right dorsal amygdala, hypothalamus, and right dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, all of which are regions assumed to be vital for feeling empathy, sensing distress in others and feeling anxiety. They also have a thick connection between the amygdala , an important area that can spark aggression, and the ventral anterior cingulate cortex, which has been shown to help control impulses in humans. This thicker connection may make them better at regulating their emotional impulses and behavior. Bonobo society
11322-409: The species threatened with endangerment that are not included under the protection of laws like the Endangered Species Act. According to NatureServe's global conservation status , approximately thirteen percent of vertebrates (excluding marine fish), seventeen percent of vascular plants, and six to eighteen percent of fungi are considered imperiled. Thus, in total, between seven and eighteen percent of
11433-695: The spread of savannas at this time. Currently, these two species are separated by the Congo River, which had existed well before the divergence date, though ancestral Pan may have dispersed across the river using corridors which no longer exist. The first Pan fossils were reported in 2005 from the Middle Pleistocene (after the bonobo–chimpanzee split) of Kenya, alongside early Homo fossils. According to A. Zihlman, bonobo body proportions closely resemble those of Australopithecus , leading evolutionary biologist Jeremy Griffith to suggest that bonobos may be
11544-1134: The status of his mother. The mother–son bond often stays strong and continues throughout life. While social hierarchies do exist, and although the son of a high ranking female may outrank a lower female, rank plays a less prominent role than in other primate societies. Relationships between different communities are often positive and affiliative, and bonobos are not a territorial species. Bonobos will also share food with others, even unrelated strangers. Bonobos exhibit paedomorphism (retaining infantile physical characteristics and behaviours), which greatly inhibits aggression and enables unfamiliar bonobos to freely mingle and cooperate with each other. Males engage in lengthy friendships with females and, in turn, female bonobos prefer to associate with and mate with males who are respectful and easygoing around them. Because female bonobos can use alliances to rebuff coercive and domineering males and select males at their own leisure, they show preference for males who are not aggressive towards them. Aging bonobos lose their playful streak and become noticeably more irritable in old age. Both sexes have
11655-486: The system inhospitable to the birds and endangered species relying upon it Captive breeding is the process of breeding rare or endangered species in human controlled environments with restricted settings, such as wildlife reserves, zoos, and other conservation facilities. Captive breeding is meant to save species from extinction and so stabilise the population of the species that it will not disappear. This technique has worked for many species for some time, with probably
11766-542: The two species broadly overlap in body size. Adult female bonobos are somewhat smaller than adult males. Body mass ranges from 34 to 60 kg (75 to 132 lb) with an average weight of 45 kilograms (99 lb) in males against an average of 33 kg (73 lb) in females. The total length of bonobos (from the nose to the rump while on all fours) is 70 to 83 cm (28 to 33 in). Male bonobos average 119 cm (3.90 ft) when standing upright, compared to 111 centimetres (3.64 ft) in females. The bonobo's head
11877-399: The weight of a young adolescent female bonobo "is maybe half" that of a human teenager, she has a clitoris that is "three times bigger than the human equivalent, and visible enough to waggle unmistakably as she walks". In scientific literature, the female–female behavior of bonobos pressing vulvas together is often referred to as genito-genital (GG) rubbing . This sexual activity happens within
11988-488: The wild of a dead infant was described in 2008. A 2016 paper reported two more instances of infant cannibalism, although it was not confirmed if infanticide was involved. In 2020, the first whole-genome comparison between chimpanzees and bonobos was published and showed genomic aspects that may underlie or have resulted from their divergence and behavioral differences , including selection for genes related to diet and hormones. A 2010 study found that "female bonobos displayed
12099-631: The wild. They are more tolerant of younger males pestering them yet exhibit heightened aggression towards older males. In a study published in November 2023, scientists reported, for the first time, evidence that groups of primates , particularly bonobos, are capable of cooperating with each other. Researchers observed unprecedented cooperation between two distinct bonobo groups in the Congo's Kokolopori Bonobo Reserve , Ekalakala and Kokoalongo, challenging traditional notions of ape societies. Over two years of observation, researchers witnessed 95 encounters between
12210-410: Was demoted . In the past, Brazil has successfully saved the endemic golden lion tamarin from extinction . Massive campaigns to raise awareness among people by NGO's and governments, which included printing depictions of the golden lion tamarin in the 20 reais Brazilian banknotes (still in circulation), are credited with getting the species out of the critically endangered animals list. There
12321-457: Was not arbitrary but evolved through individual bonds formed by exchanging favors and gifts. Some bonobos even formed alliances to target a third individual, demonstrating a nuanced social dynamic within the groups. Sexual activity generally plays a major role in bonobo society, being used as what some scientists perceive as a greeting , a means of forming social bonds, a means of conflict resolution , and postconflict reconciliation . Bonobos are
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