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83-550: Numerous residential buildings appeared in the city of Belém during the " Rubber Cycle " in the Amazon. Wealthy merchants and politicians built properties, typically called "palaces" along with the name of the family: Bolonha, Faciola, Pinho, Montenegro, Virgilio Sampaio, and others. Many were demolished due to real estate speculation in the mid- and late-20th century. The mansions formed a nucleus of both political power and social life in Belém of

166-583: A French astronomer recalled how Amerindians used rubber to waterproof shoes and cloaks. He brought several samples of rubber back to France. Rubber was used as an eraser by the British scientist Joseph Priestley , with "rubber" entering English parlance as a substitute for the term "eraser". It was not until the 1800s that practical uses of rubber were developed and the demand for rubber began. A rubber factory that made rubber garters for women opened in Paris, France, in

249-426: A common, popular alternative to the girdle , especially among teens and young women. Amid concerns girdles might cause abdominal flabbiness, suspender belts offered a more practical and comfortable choice when used to hold up stockings . Then, by the early 1960s, the introduction of pantyhose offered a new alternative to garter belts and girdles. This change in fashion coincided with the female empowerment movement and

332-490: A form of pornography . Like jewelry, the purpose of garters and other lingerie in adult media is as a statement of excess and to draw attention to certain parts of the wearer's body. After the release of Bull Durham in June 1988, garter belt and stocking sales increased at Victoria's Secret and Frederick's of Hollywood stores. The lingerie retailers attributed the jump in sales to the black lace garter Susan Sarandon wore in

415-761: A history of thrush or cystitis to avoid tights; the trapped heat and moisture can exacerbate any infection present. While most commonly used for regular stockings, suspender belts can also be used for medical support hosiery worn due to varicose veins or poor circulation. Stockings are often considered to be sensual or erotic, both in person and in photographs, and some people enjoy dressing up for special occasions in attractive suspender belts or basques . Ice hockey players use suspenders for holding up hockey socks . As these socks are essentially woollen tubes, they need to be kept from rolling onto ankles. The socks can be held up by either hockey tape or hockey suspenders, which function like stocking suspenders. Garters in

498-496: A kind of predecessor of the modern hold ups . This was particularly common among servants and housemaids, particularly until the mid-1920s when the more modern suspender became readily available. During the world's first long-distance journey by automobile in 1888 Bertha Benz , the wife of automobile inventor Carl Benz , used a garter to insulate a broken wire of the Benz Patent-Motorwagen Nr. 3. In remembrance of

581-399: A legacy to this bright economic period, the recession caused by the end of the rubber boom left profound scars on the Amazon region. There was a massive loss of state tax income, high levels of unemployment, rural and urban emigration, and abandoned and unneeded housing. Those who remained in the region had few expectations for the future. Deprived of their income, the rubber workers remained in

664-475: A member of the family Euphorbiaceae . A white liquid called latex is extracted from the stem of the rubber tree, and contains rubber particles dispersed in an aqueous serum. The rubber, which constitutes about 35% of the latex, is chemically cis-1,4-polyisoprene ((C 5 H 8 ) n ). Latex is practically a neutral substance, with a pH of 7.0 to 7.2. However, when it is exposed to the air for 12 to 24 hours, its pH falls and it spontaneously coagulates to form

747-409: A mixture of nylon and spandex / lycra , being more readily available in retail stores. Variations of the suspender or garter belt include knickers with suspender attachments reminiscent of images of the 1960s and corsets or girdles with small loops inside the bottom edge for attaching suspenders. Knickers are normally worn on top of the suspender belt as this makes it easier to remove them to use

830-560: A navigation enterprise that linked the Mamoré and Madeira Rivers. Shortly afterwards, he realized the real difficulty of this undertaking. He changed the plans to construction of a railroad. Negotiations advanced and, by 1870, Church received permission from the Brazilian government to build a railroad along the rubber territories of the Madeira River. The Madeira–Mamoré Railroad became known as

913-539: A simple way to transport the rubber, the engineers José and Francisco Keller organized a large expedition. They explored the rubber region of the Madeira River to find the most productive region and the most effective course for the railroad. Although the idea of river navigation was complicated, in 1869, the North American engineer George Earl Church obtained from the Bolivian government a concession to create and explore

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996-567: A solid mass of rubber. Rubber produced in this fashion has disadvantages. For example, exposure to air causes it to mix with various materials, which is perceptible and can cause rot, as well as a temperature-dependent stickiness. Industrial treatment was developed to remove the impurities and vulcanize the rubber, a process that eliminated its undesirable qualities. This process gives it superior mechanical properties, and causes it to lose its sticky character, and become stable – resistant to solvents and variations in temperature. The rubber boom and

1079-505: Is almost certainly a later fiction. This fable appears to have originated in France and may have been invented to discredit the Order. It is thought more likely that as the garter was a small strap used as a device to attach pieces of armour , it was appropriate to use the garter as a symbol of binding together in common brotherhood, whilst the motto probably refers to the leading political topic of

1162-587: Is east of the historic center of Pará, and a short distance from the Praça da República, a broad public square. Bolonha arranged his mansion and the houses of his family along the narrow, sloping Passagem Bolonha with "Neoclassical symmetry". The Bolonha Mansion consists of three floors with a belvedere . The residence was decorated with a profusion of themes and materials: Art Nouveau tiles, Greek and Roman-themed reliefs, reproductions of Pompeiian mosaics , and multichromatic glass and tiled flooring. The gilded stucco work

1245-469: Is not normally used to support stockings. This practice is often interpreted as symbolic of deflowering , though some sources attribute its origin to a superstition that taking an article of the bride's clothing will bring good luck. In the Middle Ages, the groomsmen would rush at the new bride to take her garters as a prize. Today, the practice of removing the bride's garter is traditionally reserved for

1328-532: The Government of Colombia issued a formal apology to the indigenous communities of the Amazon basin for allowing the forced enslavement and systematic brutality they endured during the rubber booms of the 19th and 20th centuries which, in the Amazon region of Colombia , resulted in the death of about 60,000 indigenous people. Anthropologist Klaus Rummenhoeller describes widespread prosecution of Bolivian natives, as

1411-468: The "Devil's Railroad", on account of having caused the death of around six thousand workers (in legends said to be one dead worker per railroad tie attached to the rails), was constructed by the United States corporation of Percival Farquhar . The construction of the railroad began in 1907 during the government of Afonso Pena and was one of the most significant episodes in the history of the occupation of

1494-493: The 18th century could be elaborately decorated and were sometimes embroidered with names, dates, mottoes, or humorous phrases. Prior to the invention of elastic, they were fastened by buckles, or threaded with spiral springs to grip the wearer's leg. Some women wore stockings with a plain elastic garter or narrow material tied tightly, not suspenders, or by simply rolling the top of the stocking, because it seemed more practical or they could not afford classic corsetry, thus creating

1577-444: The 1960s and 1970s and often conferred on the date as a souvenir. If the date received the garter, it was typically hung from his rear-view mirror. At least since the mid-2000s, it has become common in US culture for young women attending a high school prom to wear a garter, usually designed to match the style and color of the young woman's dress. The prom garter may be worn throughout

1660-403: The 19th century, rubber began to exert a strong attraction to visionary entrepreneurs. The activity of latex extraction in the Amazon revealed its lucrative possibilities. Natural rubber soon achieved a place of distinction in the industries of Europe and North America, reaching a high price. This caused various people to travel to Brazil with the intention of learning more about the rubber tree and

1743-476: The Amazon, revealing the clear attempt to integrate it into the global marketplace via the commercialization of rubber. On April 30, 1912, the final stretch of the Madeira–Mamoré Railroad was belatedly completed. The occasion was commemorated by the arrival of the first train to the city of Guajará-Mirim, founded on that same day. First, the price of latex fell precipitously in the world market, making

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1826-565: The Beni region, a U.S. minister said they were harsh but the scarcity of labor in the region made it less so than in the Putumayo. Many indigenous groups in Bolivia interned themselves into the jungle, abandoning their land and agriculture in the hopes of escaping the slavers. Many natives from the Beni, Madeira, and Mamoré regions were enslaved, so that they could work collecting rubber, or transportation along

1909-522: The Garter, a blue 'garter' with the motto Honi Soit Qui Mal Y Pense , is not known, as the earliest records of the order were destroyed by fire; however, the story is that at a ball possibly held at Calais , Joan, Countess of Salisbury dropped her garter and King Edward, seeing her embarrassment, picked it up and bound it about his own leg saying in French, "Evil [or shamed] be he that thinks evil of it." This story

1992-715: The Indian people of the Amazon during the height of the rubber boom were like nothing that had been seen since the first days of the Spanish Conquest. During the first rubber boom in Colombia, natives from the Cofán , Siona , Oyo , Coreguaje , Macaguaje , Kichwa , Teteté , Huitoto , and other nations were indebted and exploited as a work force by various patrons. The Caqueta , Putumayo, Napo and Vaupés Rivers were active areas of rubber extraction during this time period. On 23 April 2024,

2075-570: The Peruvian selvas inherited the memory of a catastrophe proportional to the genocides of the Final Solution and the Armenian massacres ." Rubber had catastrophic effects in parts of Upper Amazonia, but its impact should not be exaggerated nor extrapolated to the whole region. The Putumayo genocide was a particularly horrific case. Many nearby rubber regions were not ruled by physical violence, but by

2158-596: The Peruvian government in 1903 and 1906: these crimes were witnessed and reported by Catholic missionaries as well as several men employed by the Peruvian government. While writing in 1907, Charles R. Enock claimed that the Peruvian Government had, for a long time, been aware of the brutal exploitation of indigenous people by rubber merchants and collectors. Several government reports and articles written on this subject, both by travelers and government officials, were published prior to 1908. Enock stated that since

2241-489: The Peruvian rubber patrons employed two labor systems, one of these systems was referred to as enganche [ por deudas ], or hooking by debt. Enganche was typically employed with Mestizo workers, Varese wrote that the debt was "an eternal debt that the worker would never be able to repay." The second system of labor was used against indigenous people and entailed "simply enslaving" a large number of young indigenous men and women and then relocating them from their homeland. One of

2324-496: The Putumayo region of Peru as a British consul from 1910 to 1911, documented the abuse, slavery, murder and use of stocks for torture against the natives: The crimes charged against many men now in the employ of the Peruvian Amazon Company are of the most atrocious kind, including murder, violation, and constant flogging. According to Wade Davis , author of One River : The horrendous atrocities that were unleashed on

2407-568: The Ucayali River and affected all of the indigenous groups in that area. The displacement and decimation of Conibo and Yine natives on the Ucayali and Urubamba River eventually led to the Asháninka demographic becoming the largest indigenous group in that region. Some native groups agreed to accept "advances" of supplies that rubber firms offered, in exchange these natives would extract rubber for

2490-468: The ambassador Joaquim Francisco de Assis Brasil , in part financed by the "rubber barons," led to negotiations with Bolivia and the signing of the Treaty of Petropolis , signed November 17, 1903, during the government of president Francisco de Paula Rodrigues Alves . While it halted conflict with Bolivia, the treaty guaranteed effective control by Brazil of the forests of Acre . Brazil was given possession of

2573-450: The architecture and culture; and the two cities enjoyed their greatest economies and influence in the 19th century. The Amazon Basin was the source in the era for nearly 40% of all Brazil's exports. The new riches of Manaus made the city the world capital in the sale of diamonds. Thanks to rubber, the per capita income of Manaus was twice as much as the coffee-producing region ( São Paulo , Rio de Janeiro and Espírito Santo ). As payment for

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2656-426: The associated need for a large workforce had a significant negative effect on the indigenous population across Brazil, Bolivia, Venezuela , Peru, Ecuador and Colombia. As rubber plantations grew, labor shortages increased. The owners of the plantations or rubber barons were rich, but those who collected the rubber made very little as a large amount of rubber was needed to be profitable. The rubber barons rounded up all

2739-672: The beginning of rubber exploitation in the Peruvian Amazon, authorities were aware of the sale of indigenous people in Iquitos and else where, as well as the constant trafficking of indigenous women. Hildebrando Fuentes , the prefect of Loreto between 1904-1906, described the practice of Correrias , or slave raids in a report to his government. Fuentes noted that many of the indigenous people in Peru were being killed during these correrias and in writing he referred to these raids as "the great crime of

2822-528: The belt from sliding down as it is pulled downward by the stockings. Some undergarments such as corselettes or girdles may come with suspender slings attached. By the late 20th century and into the 21st, pantyhose or tights were more widely worn than stockings. And some stockings, referred to as hold-ups , have a band of silicone rubber molded to the stocking top to keep them up without suspenders. But suspenders continue to be used by people who prefer stockings to tights, and doctors may advise patients with

2905-408: The end of the 19th century. The Brasilian Army, led by José Plácido de Castro , was sent into the area to protect Brasilian resources. The newly proclaimed Brazilian republic was drawing a considerable profit from the lucrative rubber trade, but the "Acre question" (as the border conflicts caused by rubber extraction became known) preoccupied it. Intervention by the diplomat Barão do Rio Branco and

2988-402: The evening and is sometimes given to the young woman's date as a souvenir. A young woman may also choose to keep the garter rather than give it away, as a token of her prom night. In some cases, young people may participate in a "garter and tie" dance (often hosted by the high school as part of the prom ), during or after which either the young woman herself or the young woman's date removes

3071-614: The export of rubber, the workers were paid in pounds sterling (£), the currency of the United Kingdom, which circulated in Manaus and Belém during this period. Developers in Bolivia in 1846 began to promote the idea of constructing a railroad along the Madeira and Mamoré Rivers, to reach ports on the Atlantic Ocean for its export products. It has never reached the coast. Rivers had long been

3154-402: The film. Other films that year, like Dangerous Liaisons and Working Girl , also fueled the intimate apparel industry. Suspender belts continue to be worn for their original purpose of holding up stockings. As of the 21st century, suspenders are available in a variety of styles, most commonly in white, 'fleshtone' beige-pink, or black with a satin finish. These are often now made from

3237-573: The firms, and in this way many natives became indebted to these firms. Natives along the Ucayali and Urubamba that did not agree to extract rubber were often targeted by slave raids. By 1891, most of the Piro natives along the Urubamba were indebted to patrons. The work force in the form of slaves had at this time been converted into a commodity as part of the economy of the region. The correrías after indigenous slaves were common in all parts and involved all of

3320-527: The first four and a half centuries following the discovery of the New World , the native populations of the Amazon Basin lived practically in isolation. The area was vast and impenetrable, no gold or precious stones had been found there, as neither colonial Brazil nor imperial Brazil was able to create incentives for development in the region. The regional economy was based on use of diverse natural resources in

3403-547: The full extent of the devastation caused by the rubber boom in this area may never be known. "Correrías" are rapid slave raids which became institutionalised during the rubber boom around the turn of the century, to obtain labourers for the rubber extraction. A patron would give a small group of slave hunters Winchester rifles, which were in great demand, in return for which Ashéninka settlements were attacked and all individuals potentially capable of working taken captive, that is, preferably children and young women, who were taken to

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3486-653: The garter and exchanges it for the date's tie. The giving or taking of the prom garter may or may not have the same sexual implications that are associated with wedding garters; however, the giving of the prom garter is often interpreted as publicly designating the pair as a romantic couple. Suspenders or suspender belts, also known as "garter belts" in American English, are an undergarment consisting of an elasticated material strip usually at least 2 to 3 inches (5.1 to 7.6 cm) in width; it can be wider. Two or three elastic suspender slings are attached on each side, where

3569-457: The groom, who will then toss the garter to the unmarried male guests. This is performed after the tossing of the bouquet, in which the bride tosses her bouquet over her shoulder to be caught by the unwed female guests. According to superstition, the lady who catches the bouquet and the man who catches the garter will be the next man and woman among those in attendance to be married (though not necessarily to each other). Prom garters were common in

3652-436: The growth of cities such as Manaus and Belém , capitals within the respective Brazilian states of Amazonas and Pará , among many other cities throughout the region like Itacoatiara , Rio Branco , Eirunepé , Marabá , Cruzeiro do Sul and Altamira ; as well as the expansion of Iquitos in Peru, Cobija in Bolivia and Leticia in Colombia. The first rubber boom and genocides occurred largely between 1879 and 1912. There

3735-426: The historic road trip, today's official German scenic byway Bertha Benz Memorial Route follows the tracks of Bertha Benz from Mannheim via Heidelberg to Pforzheim ( Black Forest ) and back. Stockings have also been used as an emergency replacement for a car's fanbelt. During World War II, Women's Auxiliary Air Force members were issued inexpensive suspenders. From the 1940s to the 1960s, suspenders became

3818-670: The indigenous groups of the Ucayali. With the booming economy of rubber extraction, in 1880 human exploitation and perversion reached new heights. Slave raids into the Peruvian side of the Madre de Dios River and its tributary the Manú River began around 1894. This was largely due to the development of the Isthmus of Fitzcarrald . Hundreds of natives from the Toyeri and Araseri ethnic groups were massacred around that time because they would either not allow

3901-476: The intentions of this forced relocation was to cultivate submission in the enslaved indigenous population. Elderly indigenous individuals were typically killed because they were unable to easily adapt to the new circumstances brought on by forced migrations and therefore they were viewed as disruptive elements. In certain areas of the Peruvian Amazon, correrías primarily captured women and children while men were eliminated. Beatriz Huertas Castillo wrote that this

3984-475: The key to navigation and travel through the Amazon Basin. An initial proposal was based on travel up the Mamoré in Bolivia and down the Madeira River in Brazil. However, the river course had substantial obstacles to industrial-level transport: twenty cataracts obstructed navigation. Constructing a railroad to bypass the problematic stretches of the rivers was the only solution. In 1867, in Brazil, also trying to develop

4067-416: The knee and crossed between), as worn by the character Malvolio , are an object of some derision. In male fashion for much of the 20th century a type of garter for holding up socks was used as a part of male dress; it is considered somewhat archaic now. There is a Western wedding tradition for a bride to wear a garter to her wedding, to be removed towards the end of the reception by the groom . This garter

4150-500: The knee, where the leg is most slender, to keep the stocking from slipping. The advent of elastic has made them less necessary from this functional standpoint, although they are still often worn for fashion . Garters have been widely worn by men and women, depending on fashion trends. In Elizabethan fashions, men wore garters with their hose , and colourful garters were an object of display. In Shakespeare 's Twelfth Night , "cross braced" garters (a long garter tied above and below

4233-527: The lavatory/bathroom. If worn underneath the belt, undressing may be rather complicated if using a public facility. The Order of the Garter, which is the oldest and highest British order of chivalry, was founded in 1348 by Edward III . The Order consists of the reigning monarch , who is Sovereign of the Order, the Prince of Wales , and 24 Knights Companions. The origin of the symbol of the Most Noble Order of

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4316-402: The material is shaped to the contours of the body. The suspenders are typically clipped to stockings with metal clips into which a rubber disc is inserted through the stocking material effectively 'locking' the stocking in place. These are normally attached to a length of elastic allowing for adjustment. Suspender (garter) belts are usually worn at the waist or just slightly below to prevent

4399-456: The mountain". These raids also managed to capture many indigenous people, which were then trafficked to Iquitos or nearby rubber camps. According to Fuentes, indigenous people were being sold at Iquitos for prices ranging between £30-£50 and the majority of the indigenous population in Iquitos consisted of people captured during the correrias. Anthropologist Søren Hvalkof stated that the correrias after native peoples were common in all areas of

4482-446: The municipal market, and the customs house , in the case of Manaus; and the fish market, the iron market, Teatro da Paz , corridors of mango trees, and various residential palaces in the case of Belém, constructed in large part by the intendant Antônio Lemos . These technologies and construction did not take place anywhere else in south and southeast Brazil of the time. The European influence later became notable in Manaus and Belém, in

4565-507: The natives and forced them to tap rubber out of the trees. One plantation started with 50,000 natives but, when discovered, only 8,000 were still alive. Slavery and systematic brutality were widespread, and in some areas, 90% of the native population was wiped out. These rubber plantations were part of the Brazilian rubber market, which declined as rubber plantations in Southeast Asia became more effective. For indigenous people throughout

4648-444: The patron as his personal property. Adult men were more difficult to control and thus they were preferably killed, to avoid witnesses and possible reprisals. These parties frequently consisted of Indians, who had long been subjugated by the patron through debt bondage. The Ashéninka, Yíne and Conibo were all active in these correrías. But colonists also participated as leaders of raiding parties. Anthropologist Stefano Varese noted that

4731-473: The peaceful resolution of this issue, the capital of Acre was named Rio Branco after the Brazilian diplomat. Two of the municipalities in the state were named Assis Brasil and Plácido de Castro , after the ambassador and another key figure. Belém , the capital of Pará state, as well as Manaus , the capital of Amazonas , were the most developed and prosperous cities in Brazil during the rubber boom. They were located in strategic sites, and prominent men in

4814-446: The period. They were used as a "stage" for the elites of Pará, hosting dinners, balls, and recitals. The Bolonha Mansion, while richly decorated, proved impractical. The house had little ventilation, and was vacated a few years after the death of Francisco Bolonha in 1939. The Bolonha Mansion was built in a prestigious location on Rua de São Jerônimo (now Avenida Governador José Malcher) at the intersection of Rua Dr. Moraes. The mansion

4897-410: The periphery of Manaus, searching for new work. Because of the lack of housing, in the 1920s they built the cidade flutuante ("floating city"), a type of residence that was consolidated in the 1960s. Garter A garter is an article of clothing comprising a narrow band of fabric fastened about the leg to keep up stockings . In the eighteenth to twentieth centuries, they were tied just below

4980-443: The process of latex extraction, from which they hoped to make their fortunes. Because of the growth of rubber extraction, industrial processing and related activities, numerous cities and towns swelled on waves of immigrants. In 1855, over 2,100 tons of rubber was exported from the Amazon; a figure which reached 10,000 tons by 1879. Belém and Manaus were transformed and urbanized. Manaus was the first Brazilian city to be urbanized and

5063-542: The railroad, but as of December 1, 2006, the work remains unstarted. The Madeira–Mamoré Railroad, finished in 1912, arrived too late. The train was no longer profitable after the price of rubber fell. The Amazon was already losing primacy in rubber production, as the British government had planted rubber trees in its colonies in Malaysia , Sri Lanka , and tropical Africa. These rubber trees were planted from seeds that Henry Wickham had smuggled out of Brazil in 1876. In 1899 it

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5146-515: The rails, leveled ground, and bridges, reclaiming a large part of the way that people had insisted on clearing to construct the railroad. The railroad was partially taken out of service in the 1930s and completely in 1972. That year the Trans-Amazonian highway (BR-230) opened. Today, from a total of 364 km of length of railway, about seven remain in active use, used for tourist purposes. The people of Rondonia have fought for revitalization of

5229-610: The region by Bolivia in exchange for territories in Mato Grosso , a payment of two million pounds sterling, and the compromise of constructing the railroad to connect to the Madeira River. This would enable Bolivia to transport its goods, primarily rubber, to the Brazilian ports of the Atlantic at the mouth of the Amazon River . Initially Belém in Pará was designated as the destination. Because of

5312-453: The region, but development was concentrated in coastal areas. The Industrial Revolution in Europe led to demand for uses that natural rubber could satisfy. At that time, it was exclusively found in the Amazon Basin. It was a desirable commodity, valued at a high price, and thought to create wealth and dividends for whoever would dare invest in the trade. From the beginning of the second half of

5395-469: The result of Nicolás Suarez 's company around 1902. The region was scoured for labor from multiple slave raids. The raids resulted in the destruction of homes, the capture of men, women, as well as the killing of children and the elderly. British minister Cecil Gosling stayed in the Suárez estates for five months, and referred to the labor system as "undisguised slavery." In response to the slavery allegations in

5478-541: The rivers. Some of the exploited groups include: Mojos , Tacana , Araona , Harakmbut , Mashcho-Piro , and Cashinahua . Pando is Bolivia's only department fully covered by the Amazon vegetation. The worst abuses against the indigenous populations of Venezuela during the rubber boom occurred under Tomás Funes starting in 1913. Over the next nine years, Tomás Funes and his armed gang destroyed dozens of Ye'kuana villages, and killed thousands of Ye'kuana natives. Other villages were either resettled, or fragmented. For

5561-456: The rubber "balls", before sending them downriver. Flight into the thicket was a successful survival strategy and, because natives were engaged in credit relations, it was a relatively common practice to vanish and work for other patrons, leaving debts unpaid. Reports of enslavement and barbaric crimes perpetrated by rubber merchants on the Ucayali and Marañón Rivers first came to the attention of

5644-411: The rubber industry built their numerous and wealthy residences in each. These citizens created the demand that led to both cities being electrified and given running water and sewers. Their apogee was reached between 1890 and 1920, when they acquired electric trams, avenues built on cleared gullies, as well as imposing and luxurious buildings, such as the polished Teatro Amazonas , the government palace,

5727-483: The rubber patrons to pass through their lands, or they would not agree to extract rubber for these patrons. Most of the Mashco-Piro demographic was slaughtered in 1894. Some of the surviving Mashco-Piro, Toyeri and Araseri natives were pressured into fleeing from their ancestral territory. An unknown number of their villages were destroyed, and this region was never subjected to a systematic inquiry or investigation so

5810-461: The second to be electrified (the first was Campos dos Goytacazes , in Rio de Janeiro). The increase in uncontrolled extraction of rubber was increasing tensions and close to provoking an international conflict. The Brazilian workers advanced further and further into the forests in the territory of Bolivia in search of new rubber trees for extraction, creating conflicts and skirmishes on the frontier towards

5893-422: The sexual revolution. Since the mid-20th century, men's adult magazines featuring images of women in underwear reached mass-market popularity. These magazines evolved from pin-up posters and often showcased models in suspenders and stockings, usually with slips , petticoats , corsets , or a bra and knickers or panties . Most images have an erotic element and are sometimes presented as fetish fashion and

5976-480: The staff of his Peruvian Amazon Company . These criminals gained total control over the Putumayo by 1908, maintaining around 40 plantations. The managers of these plantations imposed a quota onto the natives: and failing to meet quota could have resulted in flagellation, dismemberment, or execution on the spot. Even though 237 arrest warrants were issued for employees of the company, very few faced any justice for their crimes. Roger Casement , an Irishman traveling

6059-572: The trade of rubber from the Amazon unviable. Also, the transport of products that could have been transported by the Madeira–Mamoré Railroad were taken by two other railroads, one in Chile and the other in Argentina, and the Panama Canal , which became active on August 15, 1914. Added to this, the natural factor, the Amazon forest, with its high level of rainfall and rapid growth, destroyed entire stretches of

6142-503: The tropical world, white sails on the ocean's horizon have often presaged death. For the Indians in the Amazon's green 'ocean' in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, death was heralded by the arrival of steam launches or gunboats bearing armed men hungry for rubber. Technology had moved on from the time of the conquistadors, and killing and slave-driving had become more efficient. Reclusive tribesmen living today in remote corners of

6225-459: The voluntary compliance implicit in patron-peon relations . Some native peoples benefited financially from their dealings with the white merchants. Others chose not to participate in the rubber business and stayed away from the main rivers. Because tappers worked in near complete isolation, they were not burdened by overseers and timetables. In Brazil (and probably elsewhere) tappers could, and did, adulterate rubber cargoes, by adding sand and flour to

6308-404: The world market and demand for it fell. This rapidly resulted in the stagnation of the regional economy. There was a lack of entrepreneurial or governmental vision to find alternatives for development. The "rubber barons" and economic elite followed the money, leaving the region to seek their next fortunes elsewhere. Although the railroad and the cities of Porto Velho and Guajará-Mirim remained as

6391-440: The year 1803. However, the material still had disadvantages: at room temperature, it was sticky. At higher temperatures, the rubber became softer and stickier, while at lower temperatures it became hard and rigid. The South American natives first discovered rubber; sometime dating back to 1600  BCE . The indigenous people of the Amazon rainforest developed ways to extract rubber from the rubber tree ( Hevea brasiliensis ),

6474-475: Was a located near the border of Colombia and Peru. Between the Andoques , Boras , and Huitoto populations over 40,000+ natives were wiped out for rubber profits. Slave raids were a common practice where many were killed or captured. Many of the natives died from starvation, which was used as a punishment against them at times. The worst perpetrators of the genocide include the rubber baron Julio César Arana and

6557-571: Was an important part of the socioeconomic history of Brazil and Amazonian regions of neighboring countries, being related to the commercialization of rubber and the genocide of indigenous peoples. Centered in the Amazon Basin , the boom resulted in a large expansion of colonization in the area, attracting immigrant workers and causing cultural and social transformations. Crimes against humanity were committed against local indigenous societies, including slavery, rape, torture and genocide. It encouraged

6640-526: Was because: "they would never form as malleable a workforce as the children, who were more easily and fully assimilated". One of the most atrocious cases of abuses during the first rubber boom, culminated in the Putumayo genocide. From the 1870s until the mid-1910s Colombians and Peruvians enslaved and exploited the indigenous population of the Putumayo River . During the rubber boom, the Putumayo River

6723-514: Was estimated by John Ferguson that there were between 1,500 and 1,600 acres of land cultivated with various different types of rubber trees in Ceylon alone. These plantations were able to produce latex with greater efficiency and productivity . Consequently, with lower costs and a lower final price, the British Empire assumed control of the world rubber market . The Amazon's rubber was undercut in

6806-481: Was executed by Newton Sá . The Montenegro Mansion was listed as a historic structure by the Department of Historic, Artistic and Cultural Heritage of the state of Pará in 1982. Amazon rubber boom The Amazon rubber cycle or boom ( Portuguese : Ciclo da borracha , Brazilian Portuguese: [ˈsiklu da buˈʁaʃɐ] ; Spanish: Fiebre del caucho , pronounced [ˈfjeβɾe ðel ˈkawtʃo] )

6889-478: Was heightened rubber production and associated activities again from 1942 to 1945 during the Second World War . Natural rubber is an elastomer , also known as tree gum, India rubber, and caoutchouc , which comes from the rubber tree in tropical regions. Christopher Columbus was one of the first Europeans to bring news of this odd substance back to Europe, but he was not the only one to report it. Around 1736,

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