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57-622: The Bologna Center, later renamed SAIS Europe in 2013, was founded in 1955 by American academic Charles Grove Haines. In 1961, the school moved to its current location on Via Beniamino Andreatta (formerly named Via Belmeloro), where it was inaugurated by the then university president, Milton S. Eisenhower . A major renovation of its facilities was completed in 2006. Notable alumni at SAIS have included foreign ministers, ambassadors, corporate board members, journalists, and deans at academic institutions. As of 2020, SAIS Europe has 8000+ alumni from 115 countries. In Foreign Policy (magazine) polls, SAIS

114-470: A country that had imprisoned them, and believed the question of allegiance was an implicit accusation that they had been disloyal to the United States. Although most answered in the affirmative to both, 15 percent of the total inmate population refused to fill out the questionnaire or answered "no" to one or both questions. Under pressure from War Department officials, Myer reluctantly converted Tule Lake into

171-513: A crowd of 5,000 to 10,000 and ended with several inmates being badly beaten. The entire camp was placed under martial law on November 14, 1943. Military control lasted for two months, and during this time 200 to 350 men were imprisoned in an overcrowded stockade (held under charges such as "general troublemaker" and "too well educated for his own good"), while the general population was subject to curfews, unannounced searches, and restrictions on work and recreational activities. Angry young men joined

228-499: A form of self-governance , with elected inmate leaders working under administration supervisors to help run the camps. This allowed inmates to keep busy and have some say in their day-to-day life; however, it also served the WRA mission of "Americanizing" the inmates so that they could be assimilated into white communities after the war. The "enemy alien" Issei were excluded from running for office, and inmates and community analysts argued that

285-520: A large deficit and slow the growth of the University's administration. His reputation for fairness helped greatly in that turbulent time, and, despite the budgetary problems, he was able to push forward with planning and design for a new student center. In January 1972, he was succeeded as president by Steven Muller , who (although hired by Lincoln Gordon) had served a ten-month "apprenticeship" under Eisenhower as vice president and provost. Eisenhower enjoyed

342-542: A maximum security segregation center for the "no-nos" who flunked the loyalty test, in July 1943. Approximately 12,000 were transferred to Tule Lake, but of the previous residents cleared as loyal, only 6,500 accepted the WRA offer to move to another camp. The resulting overpopulation (almost 19,000 in a camp designed for 15,000 by the end of 1944) fueled existing resentment and morale problems. Conditions worsened after another labor strike and an anti-WRA demonstration that attracted

399-589: A presidential adviser in the administrations of his brother Dwight D. Eisenhower (1953–1961), John F. Kennedy (1961–1963) and Lyndon B. Johnson (1963–1969). In 1968, he was appointed chairman of the National Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence by President Johnson. Following the Bay of Pigs in 1961, President Kennedy asked Eisenhower, Eleanor Roosevelt , and labor leader Walter Reuther to negotiate

456-515: A second active retirement until his death on May 2, 1985. In 1956 during the re-election campaign of his brother Dwight, Milton's influence over Latin American foreign policy became a campaign issue. Democrat nominee Adlai Stevenson II claimed that Milton exerted undue influence over Latin American policy with the State Department, a claim which was denied by John Foster Dulles . He served as

513-509: A security threat. Resentment over poor working conditions and low wages, inadequate housing, and rumors of guards stealing food from inmates exacerbated tensions and created pro- and anti-administration factions. Labor strikes occurred at Poston, Tule Lake and Jerome, and in two violent incidents at Poston and Manzanar in November and December 1942, individuals suspected of colluding with the WRA were beaten by other inmates. External opposition to

570-606: A son, Milton Stover Eisenhower, Jr. (1930–2002), and a daughter, Ruth Eakin Eisenhower (1938–1984). While attending college at Kansas State University, Eisenhower was a member of the fraternities Delta Sigma Pi , Phi Kappa Phi , Sigma Alpha Epsilon and Sigma Delta Chi . He was also the editor of the campus newspaper, the Collegian . Eisenhower died of cancer in Baltimore, Maryland, on May 2, 1985. The Milton S. Eisenhower Symposium

627-514: A threat to national security. Many people of Japanese ancestry were also suspected of espionage after the Pearl Harbor attack. Military Areas 1 and 2 were created soon after, encompassing all of California and parts of Washington , Oregon , and Arizona , and subsequent civilian exclusion orders informed Japanese Americans residing in these zones they would be scheduled for "evacuation." The executive order also applied to Alaska as well, bringing

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684-600: A typical year, students can choose from more than 70 course offerings. The rector of SAIS Europe is Renaud Dehousse, a Belgian lawyer, academic, and university administrator. Prior to assuming the rectorate of SAIS Europe in January 2024, Dehousse was president of the European University Institute (EUI) from 2016 to 2024. Dehousse was also a professor at the Paris Institute of Political Studies , where he chaired

741-516: Is an acclaimed, student-organized lecture series founded in 1967 at Johns Hopkins University. All events take place on the Homewood campus in Shriver Hall and are free and open to the public. War Relocation Authority The War Relocation Authority ( WRA ) was a United States government agency established to handle the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II . It also operated

798-553: Is consistently ranked as a top master's degree program for those pursuing a career in international relations. SAIS Europe has an enrollment of about 200 students from 40 countries with a student-faculty ratio of approximately 6 to 1. One of the distinguishing characteristics of the school is its resident faculty complemented by some 40 adjunct professors drawn from top universities, institutes, think tanks, international NGOs, consulting firms, and financial institutions in Europe and beyond. In

855-510: The Army-run camps that housed dissidents and other "troublemakers", it was estimated that it cost 38.19 cents per day ($ 7.00 in present-day terms ) to feed each person. The WRA spent slightly more, capping per-person costs to 50 cents a day ($ 9.00 in present-day terms ) (again, to counteract rumors of "coddling" the inmates), but most people were able to supplement their diets with food grown in camp. The WRA allowed Japanese Americans to establish

912-739: The Fort Ontario Emergency Refugee Shelter in Oswego, New York , which was the only refugee camp set up in the United States for refugees from Europe. The agency was created by Executive Order 9102 on March 18, 1942, by President Franklin D. Roosevelt , and was terminated June 26, 1946, by order of President Harry S. Truman . After the December 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor , President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9066 , authorizing military commanders to create zones from which certain persons could be excluded if they posed

969-722: The Hoshi-dan and its auxiliary, the Hokoku-dan , a militaristic nationalist group aimed at preparing its members for a new life in Japan. This pro-Japan faction ran military drills, demonstrated against the WRA, and made threats against inmates seen as administration sympathizers. When the Renunciation Act was passed in July 1944, 5,589 (over 97 percent of them Tule Lake inmates) expressed their resentment by giving up their U.S. citizenship and applying for "repatriation" to Japan. The West Coast

1026-798: The University of Bologna campus, the oldest university in Europe. The SAIS Europe campus has previously been featured in popular media: in 2012, HGTV House Hunters International (HHI!) Season 32 Episode 6 "Hitting the Books in Bologna, Italy" filmed MAGR candidate Kevin Rejent at the campus. Milton S. Eisenhower Milton Stover Eisenhower (September 15, 1899 – May 2, 1985) was an American academic administrator. He served as president of three major American universities: Kansas State University , Pennsylvania State University , and Johns Hopkins University . Eisenhower

1083-485: The refugees . He warned in December 1948 that "If aid is not given to these unfortunate people, thousands of them are going to be freezing to death and dying of hunger and malnutrition. They nearly all are Arabs." Eisenhower also sought to create more opportunity for African Americans at Kansas State, pushing for the racial integration of the Big Seven Conference (later Big Eight Conference ) in 1949. Eisenhower

1140-529: The (relatively few) reports produced by the CAS did not contradict the WRA's official stance that Japanese Americans remained, for the most part, happy behind the barbed wire. Morris Opler did, however, provide a prominent exception, writing two legal briefs challenging the exclusion for the Supreme Court cases of Gordon Hirabayashi and Fred Korematsu . Concerned that Japanese Americans would become more dependent on

1197-509: The 28 questions were hastily, and poorly, revised for their new purpose of assessing inmate loyalty. The form was largely devoted to determining whether the respondent was a "real" American — baseball or judo , Boy Scouts or Japanese school — but most of the ire was directed at two questions that asked inmates to volunteer for combat duty and forswear their allegiance to the Emperor of Japan. Many were offended at being asked to risk their lives for

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1254-772: The Army and was on the scene with removal and relocation even before Executive Order 9192. Beginning on March 11, for example, Rex L. Nicholson, the WPA's regional director, managed the first “Reception and Induction” centers. Another WPA veteran, Clayton E. Triggs, was the administrator the Manzanar Relocation Center, a facility which, according to one insider, was “manned just about 100% by the WPA.” Drawing on his background in New Deal road construction, Triggs installed such familiar concentration camp features as guard towers and spotlights. As

1311-630: The Board of Directors from 2013 to 2016. In 2022, SAIS Europe alumnus '81 James Anderson and his spouse, Morag Anderson, donated $ 100 million to further secure the European campus' role as a vibrant hub for scholarship, learning, and public policy at a critical juncture in global history. SAIS Europe is located next to the Brown in Bologna campus by the Brown University Department of Italian Studies, and

1368-432: The WPA wound down in late 1942 and early 1943, many of its employees moved over seamlessly to the WRA. Milton S. Eisenhower was the WRA's original director. Eisenhower was a proponent of Roosevelt's New Deal and disapproved of the idea of mass internment. Early on he had tried, unsuccessfully, to limit the internment to adult men, allowing women and children to remain free, and he pushed to keep WRA policy in line with

1425-492: The WRA came to a head following these events, in two congressional investigations by the House Un-American Activities Committee and another led by Senator Albert Chandler . The leave clearance registration process, dubbed the " loyalty questionnaire " by inmates, was another significant source of discontent among incarcerated Japanese Americans. Originally drafted as a War Department recruiting tool,

1482-560: The WRA he raised wages for interned Japanese Americans, worked with the Japanese American Citizens League to establish an internee advisory council, initiated a student leave program for college-age Nisei , and petitioned Congress to create programs for postwar rehabilitation. He also pushed Roosevelt to make a public statement in support of loyal Nisei and attempted to enlist the Federal Reserve Bank to protect

1539-759: The WRA pulled the strings on important issues, leaving only the most basic and inconsequential decisions to Nisei leaders. In February 1943, the WRA established the Community Analysis Section (under the umbrella of the Community Management Division) in order to collect information on the lives of incarcerated Japanese Americans in all ten camps. Employing over twenty cultural anthropologists and social scientists—including John Embree , Marvin and Morris Opler , Margaret Lantis , Edward Spicer , and Weston La Barre —the CAS produced reports on education, community-building and assimilation efforts in

1596-474: The camps, taking data from observations of and interviews with camp residents. While some community analysts viewed the Japanese American inmates merely as research subjects, others opposed the incarceration and some of the WRA's policies in their reports, although very few made these criticisms public. Restricted by federal censors and WRA lawyers from publishing their full research from the camps, most of

1653-493: The consequences of the "evacuation," establishing a Japanese American advisory council with Mike Masaoka , a work program that allowed some Japanese Americans to leave camp for employment on labor-starved farms, and a student leave program that allowed Nisei who had been enrolled in college to continue their education. He also tried to get the Federal Reserve Bank to protect the property that Japanese Americans were forced to leave behind, and to convince governors of states outside

1710-423: The decision and fought to remain in the United States, with the help of civil rights attorney Wayne M. Collins . The camp remained open until the 4,262 petitions were resolved.) Despite wide-scale protests from inmates who had nothing to return to and felt unprepared to relocate yet again, the WRA began to eliminate all but the most basic services until those remaining were forcibly removed from camp and sent back to

1767-499: The entire United States West Coast as off-limits to Japanese nationals and Americans of Japanese descent. On March 18, 1942, the WRA was formed via Executive Order 9102 . It was in many ways a direct successor to the Works Projects Administration (WPA) and the efforts of both overlapped and intermingled for quite some time. From March until November, the WPA spent more on internment than any other agency including

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1824-466: The exclusion zone to allow Japanese Americans to resettle there, but these efforts were largely unsuccessful. In the 1943 government propaganda film, Japanese Relocation he said, "This picture tells how the mass migration was accomplished. Neither the Army, nor the War Relocation Authority relish the idea of taking men, women and children from their homes, their shops and their farms. So,

1881-503: The family, it became embarrassing. Eisenhower attended public schools and graduated from Kansas State University in 1924 with a Bachelor of Science degree in industrial journalism. After graduating from undergrad at Kansas State, Eisenhower was assistant to the American consul in Dunfermline , Scotland from 1924 to 1926. Eisenhower served as Director of Information for the U.S. Department of Agriculture from 1928 to 1941, where he

1938-661: The first Chairman of the U.S. National Commission for UNESCO . In this role, Eisenhower sought to also establish a UNESCO commissions for each state. He personally organized the first such commission, in Kansas. As head of the U.S. delegation to UNESCO, Eisenhower appealed to the people of the United States to "send aid at once to the refugees of the Palestine war in the Middle East." He had seen "the sea of suffering humanity" and appealed to Americans to send clothing, food, and money to relieve

1995-881: The focus of their lives. However, the pay rate was deliberately set far lower than what inmates would have received outside camp, an administrative response to widespread rumors that Japanese Americans were receiving special treatment while the larger public suffered from wartime shortages. Non-skilled labor earned $ 14/month while doctors and dentists made a paltry $ 19/month. Many found consolation in religion, and both Christian and Buddhist services were held regularly. Others concentrated on hobbies or sought self-improvement by taking adult classes, ranging from Americanization and American history and government to vocational courses in secretarial skills and bookkeeping, and cultural courses in such things as ikebana , Japanese flower arrangement. The young people spent much of their time in recreational pursuits: news of sports, theatrics, and dances fills

2052-425: The general public to restrict who could exit the camps, led to a revision of the application process in 1943. Initially, applicants were required to find an outside sponsor, provide proof of employment or school enrollment, and pass an FBI background check. In the new system, inmates had only complete a registration form and pass a streamlined FBI check. (The "loyalty questionnaire," as the form came to be known after it

2109-554: The government the longer they remained in camp, Director Dillon Myer led the WRA in efforts to push inmates to leave camp and reintegrate into outside communities. Even before the establishment of the "relocation centers," agricultural laborers had been issued temporary work furloughs by the WCCA, and the National Japanese American Student Relocation Council had been placing Nisei in outside colleges since

2166-404: The ground up, and wartime shortages of labor and lumber combined with the vast scope of each construction project (several of the WRA camps were among the largest "cities" in the states that housed them) meant that many sites were unfinished when transfers began to arrive from the assembly centers. At Manzanar, for example, internees were recruited to help complete construction. Life in a WRA camp

2223-415: The meeting Eisenhower wrote to his former boss, Secretary of Agriculture Claude Wickard , and said, "when the war is over and we consider calmly this unprecedented migration of 120,000 people, we as Americans are going to regret the unavoidable injustices that we may have done". Disappointed, Eisenhower was director of the WRA for only ninety days, resigning June 18, 1942. However, during his tenure with

2280-488: The military and civilian agencies alike determined to do the job as a democracy should – with real consideration for the people involved." Eisenhower resigned after only ninety days, and from June 1942 to mid-1943 he was associate director of the Office of War Information . In May 1943, Eisenhower became President of Kansas State University (his alma mater), a position he held until 1950. During this time, he also served as

2337-558: The original idea of making the camps similar to subsistence homesteads in the rural interior of the country. This, along with proposals for helping Japanese Americans resettle in labor-starved farming communities outside the exclusion zone, was met with opposition from the governors of these interior states, who worried about security issues and claimed it was "politically infeasible," at a meeting in Salt Lake City in April 1942. Shortly before

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2394-573: The pages of the camp newspaper. Living space was minimal. Families lived in army-style barracks partitioned into "apartments" with walls that usually did not reach the ceiling. These "apartments" were, at the largest, twenty by twenty-four feet (6.1 by 7.3 m) and were expected to house a family of six. In April 1943, the Topaz camp averaged 114 square feet (10.6 m ) (roughly six by nineteen feet [1.8 by 5.8 m]) per person. Each inmate ate at one of several common mess halls, assigned by block. At

2451-559: The presidency of Johns Hopkins University, succeeding Lowell J. Reed . During Eisenhower's first term, University income tripled and the endowment doubled. More than $ 76 million in new buildings were constructed, including the Milton S. Eisenhower Library, completed in 1964 and named for Eisenhower in 1965. Respected and admired by faculty and students alike, Eisenhower was arguably the most popular Hopkins president since Daniel Coit Gilman . He kept office hours when any student could drop in, and he

2508-518: The propaganda they circulated in camp) steered resettlers toward cities that lacked large Japanese American populations and warned against sticking out by spending too much time among other Nikkei, speaking Japanese or otherwise clinging to cultural ties. By the end of 1944, close to 35,000 had left camp, mostly Nisei. The WRA's "Americanization" efforts were not limited to the Nisei resettlers. Dillon Myer and other high-level officials believed that accepting

2565-523: The property left behind by displaced Japanese Americans, but was unable to overcome opposition to these proposals. Eisenhower was replaced by Dillon S. Myer , who would run the WRA until its dissolution at the end of the war. Japanese Americans had already been removed from their West Coast homes and placed in temporary " assembly centers " (run by a separate military body, the Wartime Civilian Control Administration [WCCA]) over

2622-571: The release of captured Americans with Cuban leader Fidel Castro . In 1964 Milton Eisenhower was lightly considered and named by brother Dwight as a potential candidate for President of the United States , opposing the forces behind eventual nominee Barry Goldwater . In 1980, Eisenhower appeared on the ballot in Texas as the running mate of Representative John B. Anderson , Independent candidate for U.S. President. On October 12, 1927, Eisenhower married Helen Elsie Eakin (1904–1954), with whom he had

2679-419: The spring of 1942. The WRA had initiated its own "leave permit" system in July 1942, although few took the trouble to go through the bureaucratic and cumbersome application process until it was streamlined over the following months. (By the end of 1942, only 884 had volunteered for resettlement.) The need for a more easily navigable system, in addition to external pressure from pro-incarceration politicians and

2736-402: The spring of 1942; Myer's primary responsibility upon taking the position was to continue with the planning and construction of the more permanent replacements for the camps run by the WCCA. The WRA considered 300 potential sites before settling on a total of ten camp locations, mostly on tribal lands . Site selection was based upon multiple criteria, including: The camps had to be built from

2793-626: The values and customs of white Americans was the best way for Japanese Americans to succeed both in and out of camp. Administrators sponsored patriotic activities and clubs, organized English classes for the Issei, encouraged young men to volunteer for the U.S. Army, and touted inmate self-government as an example of American democracy. "Good" inmates who toed the WRA line were rewarded, while "troublemakers" who protested their confinement and Issei elders who had been leaders in their prewar communities but found themselves stripped of this sway in camp were treated as

2850-739: Was a spokesman for the New Deal under Henry A. Wallace . Previously he had been secretary to the Secretary of Agriculture William Marion Jardine , since September 1926 who had also been the college president while he was an undergraduate at Kansas State. He also was a key member of the Department of Agriculture's Employee Organization, the Organization of Professional Employees of the United States Department of Agriculture (OPEDA). Early in 1942, he

2907-577: Was also the head of the U.S. delegation to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO ). He was the youngest brother of, and advisor to, U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower . He was born as the seventh boy in Abilene, Kansas , to Ida Elizabeth Stover (1862–1946) and David Jacob Eisenhower (1863–1942); the family was poor. His mother had wanted a girl, and so she treated young Milton as female until, according to

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2964-558: Was appointed director of the War Relocation Authority , the U.S. government agency responsible for the relocation and internment of Japanese Americans during World War II . Eisenhower was opposed to the mass incarceration, and at initial meetings with pro-exclusion officials he suggested allowing women and children to remain on the West Coast, but the proposal was rejected. In his position as WRA director, he attempted to mitigate

3021-594: Was difficult. Those fortunate enough to find a job worked long hours, usually in agricultural jobs. Resistance to camp guards and escape attempts were a low priority for most of the Japanese Americans held in the camps. Residents were more often concerned with the problems of day-to-day life: improving their often shoddily-constructed living quarters, getting an education, and, in some cases, preparing for eventual release. Many of those who were employed, particularly those with responsible or absorbing jobs, made these jobs

3078-662: Was made mandatory for all adults regardless of their eligibility for resettlement, would later spark protests across all ten camps.) At this point, the WRA began to shift its focus from managing the camps to overseeing resettlement. Field offices were established in Chicago, Salt Lake City and other hubs that had attracted Japanese American resettlers. Administrators worked with housing, employment and education sponsors in addition to social service agencies to provide assistance. Following Myer's directive to "assimilate" Japanese Americans into mainstream society, this network of WRA officials (and

3135-457: Was often referred to as "Doctor." However, he did not hold an earned doctoral degree; instead, he had received an honorary doctorate of humane letters from the University of Nebraska in 1949. After leaving Kansas State University in 1950, Eisenhower served as president at two other universities: Pennsylvania State University from 1950 to 1956 and Johns Hopkins University from 1956 to 1967 and 1971 to 1972. In July 1956, Milton Eisenhower assumed

3192-489: Was reopened to Japanese Americans on January 2, 1945 (delayed against the wishes of Dillon Myer and others until after the November 1944 election, so as not to impede Roosevelt's reelection campaign). On July 13, 1945, Myer announced that all of the camps were to be closed between October 15 and December 15 of that year, except for Tule Lake, which held "renunciants" slated for deportation to Japan. (The vast majority of those who had renounced their U.S. citizenship later regretted

3249-483: Was welcome at students' off-campus parties. When Eisenhower retired in 1967, he was given the title president emeritus in recognition of his service. In March 1971, after Lincoln Gordon 's abrupt resignation, the trustees asked Eisenhower to return until a permanent successor could be found. He reluctantly agreed to return, making it clear that the search for a permanent successor must begin immediately. His second administration, lasting ten months, required him to reduce

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